ME6225

Failure Analysis and Design

Session 12
Introduction to Fatigue

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 s

Fatigue
ASTM Definition for Fatigue

The process of progressive localized

permanent structural change occurring in a
material subjected to conditions that produce
fluctuating stresses and strains at some point
or points and that may culminate in cracks and
complete fracture after a sufficient
number of fluctuations.

 Non recoverable

 Dynamic loads

 Crack initiation
 Progressive in nature

 With time / cylces

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History of Fatigue Research
 First in 1829 by WAS Albert on iron chains

 Earlier Fatigue studies concentrated mostly on

rail coaches

 1852-1870 Wohler conducted systematic fatigue

studies in railway engineering and he is
called as the Father of Fatigue
Basquin, 1910
Griffith, 1920
Palmgren, 1924
Miner, 1945

 Development of servo hydraulic fatigue test machines has led

to extensive research on fatigue and fracture mechanics

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Early Contributors …

 August Wöhler (1819-1914).

 John Goodman (1862-1935).
 Johann Bauschinger (1833-1893).
 Herbert J. Gough (1890-1965).
 Herbert F. Moore (1875-1960).
 Jesse B. Kommers (1884-1966).
 Alan A. Griffith (1893-1963).
 Bernard P. Haigh (1884-1941).
 John Otto Almen (1886-1973).
 Heinz Neuber (1906-1989).  S. S. Manson (1919).
 Rudolph E. Peterson (1901-1982).  Louis F. Coffin Jr. (1917).
 George R. lrwin (1907-1998).  Timothy H. Topper (1936).
 Waloddi Weibull (1887-1979).  JoDean Morrow (1929).
 Paul C. Paris (1930)..
 Wolf Elber (1941).
 Keith J. Miller (1932).

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 19th Century …

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 20th Century …

1980s
1990s FEA

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 New Trends…

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 Fatigue Loading

• Rare static loading conditions occur in service.

• Fatigue failure occurs with less or no warning

(like brittle fracture)

• Initial fatigue loading and static loading after this

also causes a significant reduction in life due to
already induced cracks.

• Calculation of life is less accurate and

less dependent on strength

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 Fatigue Loading…

Full scale prototype testing is usually

necessary for acceptable service life

 Materials and design should lead to

slow crack propagation

 Scatter is much and requires statistical

interpretation

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Fatigue Cracks in the Failed Comet Airplanes (1953)

”Cracks had developed in the

fuselages, around doors and
window apertures as the aircraft
were subject to repeated
pressurisation cycles

Improved construction
techniques, the fitting of rounded
rather than square windows
(these, too, caused cracks) and
other improvements ensured that
later”
https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20140414-
crashes-that-changed-plane-design

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 Full Scale Simulated Road Test of an Automobile

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 Fatigue Design
Design Computational Experimental
Methods Methods Techniques

 Static Data  Stress  Life

 Fatigue Data  Strain Verification
 Operating Data  Service
 Critical Simulated
regions Refined Tests
 Life Design
Estimation

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 Load Enviro- Design Material Processing
Geometry
History nment Criteria Properties Effects

Select Configuration, Material and Processes

Stress Analysis

Full Product Fatigue Life Model

Modify
Testing
Cumulative Life Model

Verify Life Prediction Modify

Accept and Manufacture

Fatigue Design Field Reports Modify

Flow Chart
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Fatigue Design Criteria

Infinite Life Design Un limited safety; not economical:

(Engine valves, shafts, etc.,)

Safe Life Design (1950) Reverse gear, wiper parts etc.,

(Finite Life)

Fail Safe Design (1960) Air craft engines, alternate brake lines,
design multiple load path structures,
crack stoppers;

Damage Tolerant Aircraft and Nuclear Reactor Parts

Design (1970) Fracture mechanics based
(Leak before break)

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Fatigue Life Model

The Nominal Stress-Life Model (S-N) 1850-1870

The Local Strain-Life Model (e-N) 1960

The Fatigue Crack Growth Model (da/dn Vs K) 1960

The Two Stage Model –

Combination of Earlier Two Models

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Knowledge required for Fatigue Design

 Effect of reversed alternating stresses on properties of materials

 Effect of cyclic stress with nonzero mean

 Effect of alternative stress in a multi axial state of stress

 Effect of stress gradients/residual stresses due to shot peening, etc.,
 Effect of stress raisers, notches/shoulder/joints, holes
 Effect of finish plating coating
 Effect of temperature

 Effect of size
 Effect of accumulating cycles / permenace effect
 Effect of variation of fatigue properties
 Effect of humidity / corrosive media
 Effect of interrelation between fatigue and other failure modes

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 ME6225
Failure Analysis and Design

Stress Life Approach

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Nomenclature for Constant Amplitude Loading
+
Range = S=Smax -Smin

Sa
Stress

Smax

Cycle Sm
2 reversals Smin
0-
Time
S S max  S min
Sa  
2 2
S  S min
S m  max
2
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 Stress Ratio, R

0
0
R= -1; Smin = - Smax R = 0 ; Smin = 0
Fully Reversed Pulsating Tension 1 R
A
1 R
S min
R Stress Ratio
0 S max
Sa
A Amplitude Ratio
Sm
Tensile to Tensile Load 0  R  1;
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Fatigue Test Types

Motor
Rotating Beam Cantilever

Motor
Rotating Beam
Bending

Cantilever Bending Torsion Push Pull

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 Fatigue Test Samples
Rotating bending

Axial Uniform Axial Hourglass

Axial or bending with Circumferential groove

Cantilever
flat Tubular combined
sheet/plate

Axial Part through

cracked Or Surface
Sheet Crack
plate

Compact Tension Axial Uniform

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 Fatigue Test Duration

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 S-N Curves

S
Rotating Bending Tests
Axial Push Pull Tests

Only vicinity of the test Uniform stress

specimen experiences the stresses distribution

Rotating Bending Tests Axial Push Pull Tests

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 Stress Life Curves
Less Data due to significant
Plastic deformation
Linear
Coordinates

Semi Log
Coordinates
More
Scatter

Log Log
Coordinates

With Knee – Low C and Medium C Steel

Without Knee – other materials &
The transformation is best all materials under corrosive
identified in a log log plot environment
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Laboratory Fatigue Testing & Design Data
 Rotating beam bending testing

 Smooth unnotched mirror polished specimens

 Stress ratio R = 1 (completely reversed)

 Up to 106 to 5 x 108 cycles

 Frequency of about 10 Hz

 Specimen diameter 10 mm

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Fatigue Strength SNf

SNf

Se or Sf

Nf N
Fatigue Life (Nf) Cycles of stress or strain to failure

Fatigue Strength Hypothetical value of stress

(SNf) at failure for some cycles

Fatigue Limit Limit value for fatigue

(Sf) strength as Nf becomes larger

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Sf / SU Ratio

Sf
Steel
CI

Su Fatigue Ratio
0.35 ~ 0.60

Al
Cu

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Sf /SU Ratio Steel Rare
1000 MPa

Fatigue
50% Ratio
Ratio
0.05 ~ 0.70
Normal Polished
Specimens

Sf

Severely Notched

150 MPa
Corroding
300 MPa 2000 MPa Su
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Fatigue Limit (Strength) (Sf)
For Low and Medium Strength Steels

Sf  0.5 Su for Su  1400 MPa

Sf  700 MPa for Su  1400 MPa

where Su  3.45 HB
(10 to 20 % error)

The limiting stresses are applicable for

the practical conditions near to the laboratory
test conditions prescribed before for
Material, Manufacturing and Loading conditions

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Stress-Life (SN ) Curve)

SNf = A (Nf)B
A, (Sa or sf)
Log Sa or log SNf

B
Sf

1 102 104 106 108

Cycles to failure,
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Basquin Equation (1910)
S
A
SNf = A (Nf )B B

N
1 1x106

where A Coefficient which represents the

value of Sa at one cycle
 True fracture strength OR from SN curve
or (Sut+345 MPa)

B Exponent or slope of log S - log N curve

depends on many factors
varies from ~ - 0.05 to - 0.2
generally considered as - 0.1

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 Laboratory Fatigue Testing & Design Data
 Rotating beam bending testing Other types of loading

 Smooth unnotched mirror polished Rarely used

specimens mirror polished

Mostly have
 Stress ratio R = 1 (completely reversed)
some ‘mean loads’

 Up to 106 to 5 x 108 cycles Expected / Design life vary

 Specimen diameter 10 mm Part dimension vary

other geometries are also used

The fatigue properties used in design stage are

estimated based on the above test conditions.
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 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors

Material Composition, Failure Mechanism,

Variability, Properties, Defects Present,….

Manufacturing Method, Process Conditions,

Heat Treatment, Surface Condition, ….

Environment Corrosion, Temperature,…

Design Size, Shape, Life, Stress State,

Stress Concentration, Speed, …..
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 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors

Sf = ka•kb•kc•kd•ke•S’f

S’f - Endurance Limit Stress obtained

Rotating Beam Bending Specimens

Sf - Endurance Limit Stress for the ‘current situation’

ka - Surface Condition Modification Factor

kb- Size Modification Factor

kc- Load Modification Factor

kd- Temperature Modification Factor

ke- Miscellaneous Effects Modification Factor

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Surface Condition Modification Factor (ka)

ka  a  S b
u

Surface finish a (MPa) b ka for Mild Steel

(Su = 500 MPa)
Ground 1.58 -0.086 0.93

Machined / Cold rolled 4.45 -0.266 0.85

Hot rolled 56.10 -0.719 0.68

As forged 271.00 -0.995 0.56

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Size Modification Factor (kb)

 For bending and torsion

0.107
 d 
kb     1.24d 0.107 for 2.79  d  51mm
 7.62 

kb  0.859  0.000837d ...... for..51  d  254mm

(for 10 mm diameter, kb is 1)

 For axial loading, there is no size effect kb=1

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 Loading Factor (kc)

(kc) bending = 1.0

(kc) axial = 1.43 Su-0.0778

(kc) torsion = 0.258 Su-0.125

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 Temperature Factor (kd)

Kd = [0.9877 + 0.6507 (10-3) tc - 0.3414 (10-5) tc2 +

0.5621 (10-8) tc3 - 6.246 (10-12) tc4]

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Miscellaneous Effects Factor (Ke)
 Residual Stresses

 Directional Characteristics –
direction of rolling etc.,
and orientation of structure, loading etc.,.

 Variable Amplitude Loading

 Cyclic Frequency

 Combined effects - fatigue + corrosion/fretting/…

 Other New Materials & Composites

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 ME6225
Failure Analysis and Design

Micromechanisms of Fatigue

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 Fatigue Vs Static Failures

Tensile Fracture
Fatigue
Fracture
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 Major Types of Stress Induced Fatigue Damage

Contact Fatigue

Fatigue

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Fatigue Fracture Process

• Crack initiation

• Crack Propagation

• Unstable Fracture

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Fatigue Failures in Fasteners

Unstable
fracture
(~25%)

growth

initiation Unstable (More than

fracture 50%)

Threaded Member Bolt

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Cross Sectional View of Crack Initiation and Propagation

Loading

Stage I Stage II
(Crack Growth)

Free Surface
Stage I Loading
Just a few tens
of microns

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 Fatigue Life (N)
N = Ni + Ng + Nff
Crack Initiation Life (Ni) •Up to a visible (by 10X or 20X) Fast
crack length which is about 0.25 mm Fracture

•This dimension is of the order of

product dimensions Crack
Crack Growth
Initiation
• Crack Initiation Life can vary
from 1% to 99% of part life

Crack Growth Life (Ng) •Useful in fracture mechanics design

• Final crack length depends on

fracture toughness of the material

Fast Fracture Life (Nff) •Limited to one or a few cycles and is

a fraction of overall product life
• static fracture features dominate
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 S-N curve – Ni & Ng

S N = N i + Ng +
Nff

Crack Initiation
Life

Crack Growth Life Total Life

100 101 102 103 104 105 106 N

At high loads, Ng is more

At light loads, Ni is more
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 Crack Initiation
Before
Interaction of moving dislocations leads to dislocation loading
loops and causes crack initiation

Before loading

Initiate from slip bands, at the surface

that are of the order of 10-4 to 10-5 cm in height (slip bands,
in general, are fine compared to static loading case)

Slip bands give rise to surface grooves and act

as stress concentrated regions.

Surface irregularities may also act as

crack initiation sites

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 Slip vs Twinning

Formation of fatigue microcracks at the

Bright-field TEM images of the intersection between impinging
dislocations
persistent slip band (PSB) and a twin
Twinning in Ni base SMA
boundary (TB) in a Cu alloy

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Crack Initiation & Progression
~ 0.1 µm

Metal
Metal ~ 0.1 µm
Surface
Surface

Slip due to Static Loads Slip due to Cyclic Loads

Ridge and groove Slip band extrusion

Undulations

Fatigue Progression
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 Crack Initiation

Cracks

Increasing number of cycles Slip and Crack initiation

Inclusions
GB

Crack initiation
in other locations

Microcracks
Pore
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 Crack Initiation in a Bearing Race

Fatigue Failures in a bearing due to slag inclusion

Typical non-metallic inclusion

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 Fatigue Failure of a Torsion Shaft

Plane of maximum
tensile stress

In SOME cases crack can also grow

in plane of maximum shear stress

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Fatigue Failure of Drive Shaft of a Scooter

 Spiral Crack due to cyclic torsion

 No macro plastic deformation

Arrow indicates the starting point of fatigue

crack at a surface pit

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 Fatigue Failure in a Bolt

Fatigue failure

Sharp corner

Rough
machining

Crack nucleation in a sharp corner edge

Arrows indicate crack nucleation at both

ends due to plane bending loading
experienced
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Schematic Representation of Fatigue Process
Cyclic Crack Micro crack Macro Crack Final
Slip Nucleation growth growth Fracture
Ni Ng

S Visible growth and

connection of cracks
Fracture
unstable crack
Cracks Visible Fine Cracks
with dye penetrants visible with naked eye

Fine Cracks Visible No Fracture

at high magnification
Slip
Non Propagating Cracks
N
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 Crack initiation and Crack Growth Life Infuencers

Crack Micro crack Macro Crack Final

Nucleation growth growth Fracture

Crack Initiation  Surface effects  Surface roughness

 Surface damage
scratches, dents, fretting, etc.,
 Surface treatments
 Soft Layers
cladding, decarburizing, etc.,

 Environ. Effects (e. g, pitting)

Crack Growth  Material Bulk Properties

 Environment

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Fatigue Life in Engg Parts
Finite life
1m Infinite life
Non propagating
Cracks
Macrocracks

100 mm
Starting from defect
10 mm

1 mm Starting from
Crack Length

Second phase
100µm
Microcracks

10 µm

1µm
Starting from
100 nm polished surface
10 nm
Nucleation

No crack nucleation
1 nm
Atomic distance
0.1 nm
% of Fatigue Life
20 40 60 80 100
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