KIG 1009
Statics
Truss Bridge Lab Report
Group 34
NO. NAME MATRIC NO.
1 D.DESMAAN 22004679/1
2 VIJAYPRASSAD A/L SELVAM 22006560/1
3 THIROSHAN A/L THILLAINATHAN 22004553/1
4 THEEBAN A/L SUGUMARAN 22004578/1
5 ALFRED JOACHIYM A/L THOMAS 22004623/1
1. INTRODUCTION
A truss consists of linear (straight) axial members arranged in triangles and connected at
pin joints. In theory, the pin joints provide no rotational resistance and behave as hinges.
The benefit of a truss is that the members are predominantly axially loaded. This means
they are either in compression, in tension or have no force, so-called zero-force members.
This makes trusses a particularly efficient structural form. The pin joint acts like a hinge
and transfers only axial loads to and from connected members. A truss is designed to
carry only loads applied at its joints and to transmit those loads to other structural
elements such as walls, columns, or foundations as part of the overall structural system.
Trusses are typically lighter and more cost-effective than alternative structural support
systems and are used in various structures including vehicle frames, mechanical
equipment, buildings, bridges, and towers. There are many types of truss bridges. The
most common are the Warren truss, Howe truss, Baltimore truss, and K -truss.
1.1 Warren Truss
The Warren truss design uses equilateral triangles in the framework to spread out the load
on the bridge. These triangles limit the force of the load to compression and tension of
the bridge parts. In the image given above, the upper and lower horizontal parts are in
tension, along with the diagonals in the center, while the outer diagonals are compressed.
The design of the Warren truss bridge is such that no tie, strut, or beam bends under the
straining forces of a moving vehicle. The forces applied by any vehicle, such as a car or
train, will be focused on one point directly below the vehicle. The top and bottom cords
of the bridge undertake bigger forces when the load is at the center of the bridge.
1.2 Howe Truss
The Howe Truss is a type of bridge design that was introduced by the American architect
William Howe created four years before the Pratt truss. It utilizes a similar design such as
the Pratt truss, but with a strong difference. Here the diagonal structural beams slope
toward the bridge center, while the Pratt truss utilizes diagonal beams that slope outward
from the center of the bridge. This approach makes diagonal members of the Howe truss
bridge in compression, while vertical web members are in tension.
1.3 K-Truss
The K Truss design was a variant of the Parker truss design. The idea of the K truss is to
break up the vertical members into smaller sections. This is because the vertical
members are in compression. The shorter a member is, the more it can resist buckling
from compression. A K-Truss is usually used for reinforcing members with high axial
compression, not so much for bending; this is because the diagonals take almost nothing
of the axial force. Since the diagonals usually have a lower bending stiffness than the
chords, they give in more easily. That results in less secondary tensions in the truss.
These kinds of trusses are therefore used in industrial scaffolding.
1.4 Baltimore Truss
The Baltimore truss is a modified version of the Pratt truss. A Baltimore truss has
additional bracing in the lower section of the truss to prevent buckling in the compression
members and to control deflection compared to Pratt trusses It is mainly used for train
bridges, boasting a simple and very strong design.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
A truss is a rigid structure made up of straight members such as beams. It is a
triangular-shaped frame that helps spread the compression and tension forces. The reason
why it has a triangular structure is due to its method of transferring loads and due to its
geometric properties as it provides a stable structure.
In recent years, several experimental studies on truss bridges have been conducted to
investigate the behavior of truss bridges under various loading conditions. These studies
focused on the analysis of truss stresses and strains and the overall behavior of bridges.
A hybrid truss bridge (HTB) is a bridge constructed by replacing the concrete webs of a
pre-stressed box girder bridge with steel truss webs. With its open web section, HTB
offers the advantages of high structural efficiency and excellent aesthetic appearance.
Cha et al. experimentally and numerically evaluated the behavior of a simple span truss
bridge when the lower chord is fractured. The studied bridge is composed of built-up
sections which also provide internal member redundancy. The bridge was initially loaded
to two-thirds of the design live load. The lower chord member at midspan was then
partially damaged, and later the same member was completely fractured. The free
vibration of the structure was recorded. Results from the experimental tests and finite
element (FE) analysis (assuming nonlinear geometry and nonlinear material properties)
showed that the force in the fractured lower chord was distributed to the adjacent
diagonal members as well as to the lower chord in the opposite truss plane thus, allowing
the bridge to continue to carry load even when the lower chord member was completely
severed.
Yan et al.investigated the resistance of planar trusses to collapse in the case of a damaged
member through numerical and analytical approaches. Nonlinear dynamic models,
including material nonlinearity, were used to analyze the truss when a member is
suddenly removed. Two resisting mechanisms were established: catenary action if an
upper chord member is damaged and arch action if a lower chord member is damaged. If
a diagonal member is fractured, the response was found to be a combination of both
collapse-resistant mechanisms.
Overall, the literature suggests that truss bridges are reliable and efficient bridges that can
withstand a wide variety of loading conditions. Studies also show that the use of
advanced materials and construction methods can further improve the performance of
truss bridges.
3. OBJECTIVES
a) To explore methods used for strengthening and reinforcing structures from
observations of how these structures fail
b) To understand the need for an experimental design that includes a fair test.
c) To apply our knowledge of trusses by carrying out a simple design and making a task.
d) To work as a team.
4. METHODOLOGY
The following steps should be followed to carry out the truss bridge experiment.
1) The K'NEX Warren Truss bridge's first stage is built in accordance with the
building instructions book.
2) The basic beam bridge's ability to support weight is evaluated by adding weights
to it.
3) The highest load the bridge can support before collapsing is recorded, and any
weak places in the structure is taken note.
4) Any necessary fixes are made and the Warren Truss bridge design is finished by
following step 2 and 3 in the building instructions.
5) The completed Warren Truss bridge is put to the test again using the same
experimental design.
6) The results should be noted and explained using labelled drawings, along with
information about the potential weight that the bridge could support and the
implications of using triangles in the bridge's design.
7) The Howe and Baltimore Truss bridges should also be constructed and tested in
groups of four to five students, and the results should be recorded in a table beside
the Warren Truss bridge's findings.
8) K-Truss bridge is constructed and the result of the testing should be recorded.
9) Finally the best designed is determined based on the obtained result.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table of Result
Bridge Design Maximum Load (Weight), N Number of Triangles in structure
Bridge without truss 1 0
Warren Truss 60 10
Howe Truss 80 20
Baltimore Truss 100 28
METHOD OF JOINTS
Warren Truss
Assume all beams in tension
Joint A
Joint B
Joint C (By symmetry)
Joint D and thereafter
● Truss and Loading are symmetrical about the vertical line intersecting point D
● All forces form one side are equal to their counterpart image on the other side
Howe Truss
(BB’ and CC’ are zero force members)
Symmetry of truss loading:
Assume all beams in tension
Joint A
Joint B
Joint C (By symmetry)
Joint D and thereafter
● Truss and Loading are symmetrical at DD’
● All forces form one side are equal to their counterpart image on the other side
Baltimore Truss
(BI, CI’ AND EI’ are zero force members)
Symmetry of truss loading:
Assume all beams in tension
Joint A
Joint B
Joint C
Joint C’
Joint D’ and thereafter
● Truss and Loading are symmetrical at DD’
● All forces form one side are equal to their counterpart image on the other side
Truss Bridges:
6. Discussion
The center of the bridge is the weakest point of the bridge. The use of triangles is to evenly
distribute weight without changing their proportions, because it is impossible to collapse a
triangle without breaking one of its sides. The K-Truss bridge was not included as it is not the
same length as the other bridge in the K-NEX building instruction, thus it is unfair to compare it
to the other truss. Problem we had with the structure is the structure being too small for the
weights that are being used, thus a weight hanger is used to allow weight to be loaded easily. The
bridge design and strength could be improved by adding more triangles to the structure so that
load could be distributed evenly among more members. Force between members can easily be
calculated using the method of truss. The Baltimore Truss can handle the most weight while the
bridge without truss is the weakest. Just by looking at the number of triangles in the structure,
performance of the bridge could be predicted. The higher the number of triangles in the structure,
the more load could be handled. Through calculation, we could determine which beams are in
tension and which are in compression. We could also determine the force in each individual
beam and the zero-force members.
7. CONCLUSION
One of the main advantages of a Warren Truss is its ability to spread the load evenly
across a number of different members; this is however generally for cases when the structure is
undergoing a spanned load (a distributed load). Its main advantage is also the cause of its
disadvantage – the truss structure will undergo concentrated force under a point load. Under
these concentrated load scenarios, the structure is not as good at distributing the load evenly
across its members. Therefore the Warren truss type is more advantageous for spanned loads, but
not suitable where the load is concentrated at a single point or node. The K Truss is a slightly
more complicated version of the Pratt Truss. It does, however, have similar pros and cons to the
Pratt Truss and although it is not widely used, it is a strong design. One of its main disadvantages
is that the members don’t always behave as expected. A member may be in compression under
one load scenario and in tension under another. This can mean the structure may not be able to be
optimally designed. Howe trusses are essentially the opposite of Pratt trusses in terms of
geometry. In fact, looking at a Pratt truss upside-down will visualize a Howe truss of sorts. The
entire structure is still relatively the same, but the diagonal braces are now occupying the
opposite or the unoccupied joints. This switch in position of the diagonal members has a very
important effect structurally. The Baltimore truss is a subclass of the Pratt truss. A Baltimore
truss has additional bracing in the lower section of the truss to prevent buckling in the
compression members and to control deflection. It is mainly used for rail bridges, showing off a
simple and very strong design. In the Pratt truss the intersection of the verticals and the lower
horizontal tension members are used to anchor the supports for the short-span girders under the
tracks. From our group result, it is proven that Baltimore truss is the strongest. This is because
this truss held the most weight compared to other trusses.
8. REFERENCES
Mirela D.Tumbevaa, Ashley P.Thralla, Theodore P.Zolib. (2022). Investigating the redundancy of
steel truss bridges composed of modular joints.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0143974X21005204#bib0085
Frank Griggs Jr. (2015). Historic Structures.
https://www.structuremag.org/?p=8715
Catherine S. (2021). Truss Types and Applications
https://study.com/academy/lesson/truss-definition-design-types.html
