Of the Just Shaping of Letters

Albrecht Durer

. D7 3 3
c. 2
OF THE JUST SHAPING OF LETTERS
BY ALBRECHT DURER
TRANSLATED
BY
R. T.NICHOL
FROM THE LATIN TEXT OF
THE EDITION OF
MDXXXV
*
 Published in Canada by General Publishing Com¬
pany, Ltd., 30 Lesmill Road, Don Mills, Toronto,
Ontario.
Published in the United Kingdom by Constable
and Company, Ltd., 10 Orange Street, London,
W.C. 2.

This Dover edition, first published in 1965, is an

unabridged and unaltered republication of the
work first published by the Grolier Club in 1917.

International Standard Book Number: 0-486-21306-4

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 64-18848

Manufactured in the United States of America

Dover Publications, Inc.

180 Varick Street
New York 14, N. Y.
ALBRECHT DURER TO WILIBALD PIRCKHEIMER

HIS PATRON AND VERY GOOD FRIEND

GREETING:

I N our Germany, most excellent Wilibald, are to be found at the

present day many young men of a happy talent for the Art Pic/
torial, who without any artistic training whatever, but taught only
by their daily exercise of it, have run riot like an unpruned tree, so that
unhesitatingly and without compunction they turn out their works,
purely according to their own judgment. But when great and ingen/
ious artists behold their so inept performances, not undeservedly do
they ridicule the blindness of such men; since sane judgment abhors
nothing so much as a picture perpetrated with no technical knowledge,
although with plenty of care and diligence. Now the sole reason why
2 DEDICATION

painters of this sort are not aware of their own error is that they have
not learnt Geometry, without which no one can either be or become
an absolute artist; but the blame for this should be laid upon their
masters, who themselves are ignorant of this art. Since this is in very
truth the foundation of the whole graphic art, it seems to me a good
thing to set down for studious beginners a few rudiments, in which I
might, as it were, furnish them with a handle for using the compass
and the rule, and thence, by seeing Truth itself before their eyes, they
might become not only zealous of the arts, but even arrive at a great
and true understanding of them.
Now, although in our own time, and amongst ourselves, the Art
Pictorial is in ill repute with some, as being held to minister incite/
ment to idolatry, yet a Christian man is no more enticed to superstition
by pictures or images, than is an honest man girt with a sword to high/
way robbery. Certes he would be a witless creature who would willingly
adore either pictures or images of wood or stone. On the contrary, a
picture is the rather edifying and agreeable to Christian religion and
duty, if only it be fairly, artificially, and correctly painted.
In what honour and dignity this art was anciently held amongst
the Greeks and Romans, the old authors sufficiently testify; though
afterwards all but lost, while it lay hid for more than a thousand years.
It has now at length, only within the last two hundred years, by some
Italians been brought again to light. For it is the easiest thing in the
world for the Arts to be lost and perish; but only with difficulty, and
after long time & pains are they resuscitated. Wherefore I hope that
no wise man will defame this laborious task of mine, since with good
intent & in behoof of all who love the Liberal Arts have I undertaken
it: nor for painters alone, but for goldsmiths too, & for sculptors, and
stonecutters, and woodcarvers, and for all, in short, who use compass,
and rule, and measuring line—that it may serve to their utility.
Nor is anyone compelled whether or no to spend gainful hours on
these exercises of mine; although I am not ignorant that whoever is
well exercised in them will thence acquire not only the principles of
his own art, but by daily practice, an exactitude of judgment, with which
he will proceed to higher investigations & discover many more things
than I have here pointed out.
But since, illustrious Sir, it is clearer than light that you are yourself,
 DEDICATION 3
so to speak, an asylum of all the noble Arts, it has been my pleasure, out
of a singular love I bear towards you, to dedicate to you this book; not
because I desire to appear therein as rendering you any great service,
but because thereby you may understand how engaged my mind
is to you; and since by my work I can confer on you but
little favour, at least by the exhibition of a ready
mind I may repay the benefits
you shower upon
me.

Farewell.
DASW
COTES
BLEIBT

EWIGLICH
DIS WO RT
1ST' CRLSTVS

ALLER-CRiST
GLAVBIGEN
HER
OF THE JUST SHAPING OF
LETTERS
FROM THE APPLIED GEOMETRY

OF ALBRECHT DURER

BOOK III.

OW, since architects, painters & others at

times are wont to set an inscription on lofty
walls, it will make for the merit of the work
that they form the letters correctly. Accord/
ingly I am minded here to treat briefly of
this. And first I will give rules for a Latin
Alphabet, and then for one of our common
Text: since it is of these two sorts of letters
we customarily make use in such work; and
first, for the Roman letters: Draw for each a square of uniform size,
in which the letter is to be contained. But when you draw in it the
heavier limb of the letter, make this of the width of a tenth part of
the square, and the lighter a third as wide as the heavier: and follow
this rule for all letters of the Alphabet.
First, make an A after this fashion: Indicate the angles of the square
by the letters a. b.c. d. (and so do for all the rest of the letters): then
divide the square by two lines bisecting one another at right angles —
the vertical e. f. the horizontal g. h.: then, in the lower line, take two
points, i. and k., distant respectively one/tenth of the space c. d. from
the points c. and d.: then, from the point i. draw upwards to the top
of the square the lighter limb; & thence downwards the heavier limb,
so that the outer edges of both may touch, respectively, the points i.
and k.: then let a triangle be left between the limbs, and a point e. be
fixed at top in the middle of the letter, and next join both limbs be/
neath the horizontal line, and let this limb be a third as broad as the
heavier limb.
Now let the arc of a circle, applied to the top of the outside edge of
the heavier limb, project beyond the square. Then cut off the top of
6 OF LETTERS
the letter with a serpentine or curving line, so that the concavity de'
cline towards the lighter limb, and prolong acutely either limb of the
letter at the bottom to either side, so as to meet the angles of the square
at c. and d.: this you shall make with the arc of a circle, whose semi/
diameter is one/seventh of the side of the square; but the two lower
curves, mutually opposite, permit to extend so that each is a third of
the heavier limb, and this you shall obtain by the arc of a circle whose
diameter is equal to the breadth of the heavier limb.
Moreover, this same letter A you may cut off at top with the side
of the square, and then produce to a fine point in either direction, as
you did the feet below, yet so that the longer production shall be to
the fore/side (namely, the left); but in this case it will be necessary to
draw in the limb k. a little closer.
Likewise the same Ayou may draw inyet another manner—that is,
pointed at top. In that case let the limbs slope towards one another yet
more closely; then lower the transverse a little and double its width.
You may also cut off the limb at top bluntly, or sharpen it on the fore/
side. You ought to make yourself familiar with these three forms, or
whichever of them pleases you best.
And note likewise that in exactly the same fashion in which this
letter is acutely prolonged at top & bottom, are the other letters to be
so prolonged which are drawn with oblique lines, as V, X, Y, although
a few changes may be necessary, as you shall hear below.
I have here subjoined an engraving of this letter.
 OF LETTERS 7

OF THE LETTER B.

And now you shall draw B in its square thus: First divide the square
horizontally by the line e. £; then bisect the lines a. e. and b. £ by the
line g. h. Next, you must first set properly the broad vertical limb of
the letter, distant its own breadth from the side a. c. of the square a. b.
c. d. Then erect the line i. k. on the inner side of the limb already drawn,
and distant from it one/tenth of a side of the square, and let it cut the
line g. h. in the point 1.
Next, draw strips narrower and horizontal (to be produced here/
after into the convex limbs) from the vertical band to meet the vertical
line i. k.—namely, at top, below the line a. b.; next, above the line e. f;
and at bottom, above the line c. d.
Now set a leg of the compass on the point 1. and describe a semi/
circle to the right of the transverse strips, so that the extremities of the
circumference, in the vertical line i. k., below the side a. b., and above
the line e. f. may coincide with those short transverse lines. Then bisect
the narrow transverse strip which is above the line e. f. in the line i. k. by
the point m.; and indicate the breadth of the letter, to the right of the
semicircle, by the point n. in the line g. h.; and afterwards draw from
the point m. above the line e. f. in the direction of f. a short horizontal
line as great as need be: then describe a semicircle which shall include
this line, and the point n., and, at the top, the side a. b.; and through n.
let pass a vertical line. These all combine to form, below, the concave
of the curved limb, and above, its convex.
Next, produce the transverse strip above c. d., in the direction of d.,
8 0>> *
» • ,
OF LETTERS
*'l>» ;

as far as required, and mark this q. Then bisect the line m. q. by the
line o. p., cutting the line n. in the point r.; and next describe a semi/
circle touching the horizontal line e. fi, the point r., and the position
q. Then indicate the breadth of this limb of the letter by the point s.
to the right of the point r. in the line o. p. and describe a semicircle,
touching the line m., the point s., and the side of the square c. d. There
will then remain in the letter three right angles to be eliminated: the
interior and lower one may be shaped into a curve by a circle whose
semi/diameter is two/thirds of the breadth of the broad limb of the
letter, and the exterior ones you shall fine to a point by circular lines
whose semi/diameter is equal to the breadth of that limb.

Another method.

Or you may make your B in this fashion: Let the side a. c. of the
square be divided into nine equal parts, and cut off the four superior
parts by the horizontal line e. f. Then erect your vertical limb as de/
scribed above; and the superior curved limb you shall make between
a. b. and e. f.; the inferior between e. f. and c. d.
Now divide a. b. into nine equal parts, and cut off four parts towards
b. in the point g.; then divide c. d. into five equal parts, and the last,
towards d. mark off in the point h. and join g. and h. by the line g. h.
which should touch on their exterior edges the superior and inferior
limbs of theletter.Now these limbs must be drawn ofaparticular form;
and the compass, in drawing the circular lines, must be moved up and
down their diagonals: and these two diagonals you shall determine in
this wise.
Divide a. e. into four parts; the lowest, above e., call i. e.; the lowest of
the five remaining, above c., call c. k. Then join the points i. and b. and
k. and f. respectively, by the lines i. b. and k. f. Upon these lines move
and turn your compass, & in this way you shall describe both curved
limbs: and they must both be broader towards the top than towards
the bottom, as follows naturally with the stroke of a pen, and, more/
over, while approximately round, they are not to be circular; therefore
you will have to move your compass at need along the diagonals, and
withal to assist it also with the hand, as I have done in the picture on
the following page.
 OF LETTERS 9

OF THE LETTER C.

Next you shall make the letter C in its own square thus: Bisect the
square a. b. c. d. by the horizontal line e. f. and in it let i. be the middle
point. From this point as the centre, & i. £ or i. e. as the radius, describe
a circle touching interiorly all four sides of the square. Now move the
leg of the compass, but without varying its span, to a point k. a little to
the right of i. in the line e. £, letting the space i. k. denote the greatest
breadth of the letter you desire; & from the centre k. describe another
circle which shall cut twice the line b. d., and whose circumference to
the left will mark the required breadth of the letter. Next, draw the
vertical line g. h., parallel to b. d., distant from b. a tenth part of the line
a. b. This will cut off for you at top and bottom the letter C as the an'
cients were accustomed to use it. But I would have you cut off the lower
limb in the middle point between g. h. and b. d.: then make the limbs
somewhat finer and rounder on the inside towards top and bottom
from the point where the circles intersect; and for its greater perfection
 OF LETTERS

round out the letter, above and below, to touch the sides of the square
a. b. and c. d. Next, low down, where the letter with one foot crosses
the line g. h, there, under the circular line make the form a little more
incurved,yet so that with the tip of its end it shall again touch the cir/
cular line. Similarly, but higher up, make the foot more hollow on the
inside than the circle left it: and thus two circular lines will give you
very nearly the whole form of the letter.
Another method.
Or, secondly, you may make the letter C thus: Draw in the square
a diagonal c. b.; set the leg of your compass on its middle point i. and
with the other leg describe the exterior circle as before, terminating it
above at the diagonal c. b.; but below, make your circle pass a little be✓
yond the former sweep. Then set the leg of your compass, but without
changing its gauge, as far above i. in the diagonal as the letter’s greatest
width, and describe your inner circle; and, as though made with a pen,
let the descending stroke be heavier than the ascending. The rest you
may elaborate with your hand; & let the trimming of the ends of the
letter, above, slope upwards, & below, downwards, exactly as I have here
drawn the shapes.
 THE LETTER D.

The letter D you shall make thus: Divide its square by the perpen/
dicular or vertical line g. h. and by the horizontal line e. £ into four
small squares, and call their point of intersection i.: then draw the
broader limb of the letter from the side a. b. downwards, to meet the
side c. d. and at the distance of its own width from a. c.; and produce
the limb at top and bottom to a sharp point at the angles a. and c. as
was shown above in B; using the same method in all straight limbs in
the remaining letters. Next you are to produce from this limb two
narrower tracts horizontally, and from these are to be described the
circular arcs of the letter between the line a. b. at top and the line c. d.
at bottom, and extending as far as the perpendicular g. h.; next, with
your compass join g. f. h. Then, in the line e. f. lay off a portion equal
in breadth to the widest limb of the letter, at the point k.; next, set one
foot of your compass on k. and let the other cut the said line e. f. in 1.;
let this be the immovable leg of your compass, and with the other, be/
ginning from k., describe internally, to the narrower transverse limbs,
an arc which shall touch both, completing your acute angle above, but
rounding out the lower one by a circular arc of the same diameter as
the one by which you sharpened your exterior subtending angle.
Another method.
You may make the round limb of the same D in another fashion;
namely, as a pen naturally would, broader above than below. For this,
draw the diagonal c. b. and describe your exterior arc as before; but to
describe the interior, in the line c. b. take a point m. lower down than
i. and distant from it the width of the broader limb, and without alter/
ing your compass describe an interior line; but where the limb must
needs be narrower, there you are to accommodate it with your hand,
both below and above, as in the following cut.
12 * 4 -
OF LETTERS

THE LETTER E.

The letter E you shall form in its square thus: Draw a transverse
line e. £ bisecting a. b. and c. d. in e. and f.; then draw the great ver/
tical limb of the letter, to the left, as you did for D. Next draw also
an upper transverse limb of narrower dimensions, parallel to a. b. and
in length six/tenths minus one/third of one/tenth of the length of a. b.;
and the end of this bend downwards one/tenth of the length of a. b.
and use this as the diameter of the circle with which you round out
the inner angle of this extremity: then draw your narrow middle limb
parallel to the median line e. f. and above it, so that it may be shorter
than the upper limb by one/tenth of the length of a. b., but at its ter/
minus double as wide; & you are to round it out (in either direction)
by the arc of a circle whose diameter is one/sixth the length of e. f.
Now construct your lowest limb upon the line c. d., so that at its ulti/
mate angle it may exceed in length the upper limb by one/tenth of
c. d.; the cusp, however, you are to prolong beyond this part by two/
thirds of one/tenth part, and erect above it to one/sixth of the length
of c. d, and round out the same by a circle whose semi/diameter is also
a sixth of c. d. In like manner the final angle of the letter you shall
round out by an arc of the same circle by which you rounded out the
middle transverse limb: the other angles you are to leave acute, as in
the following cut.
 OF LETTERS 13

THE LETTER F.

The letter F you are to form in the same manner as E; except that
you shall omit the lower limb altogether, and, in its place, round out
the letter on both sides below, as you did E on one side only, as I have
shown you below.

THE LETTER G.

Likewise the letter G you are to make as you did C, before described;
this, however, excepted: that in front (that is, to the left) of the line g. h.
is to be erected the broad limb of the letter, upwards from the curve
to the line e. f., and above it is to be rounded to a point, on either side,
as before was said; but below, both angles are to remain.
Or, you shall form G in the following fashion in the said square,
divided as before: Draw the diagonal c. b. and set your compass with
one leg on the point i. and with the other describe an arc from e. to the
middle point c. d. and mark this point 1.; in like manner also, describe
 OF LETTERS

an arc upwards to the line a. b. so as to meet the perpendicular line

g. h. & mark that point z. Then, in the line g. h., take a point m. so that
the part m. h. shall be one/tenth of the line g. h.; then, with a sweep of
your hand join 1. & m. with the curved line 1. m. Next,you are to draw
from z. a line upwards, as broad as the standard of the letter, but oblique
and in direction midway between your circular line & the perpendicm
lar g. h. and from the extremity of this line you must draw a curved
line to meet a. b. at the point where your circular line touches it. Next,
cut off from the bottom of g. h. a part one/third of its length, & indb
cate this by the point n., & to this height, from the level of m. upwards,
produce the broad limb of the letter, and let its extremities above be
finished in either direction, of the same size. After this set the leg of
your compass on the diagonal c. b. the breadth of the standard of the
letter above i. & at the distance e. i. describe an arc, which above shall
touch the exterior boundary a. b. but below shall stop short above 1.;
& from this point you must with your hand draw a line to the vertical.
limb at the height of m.
And the same you shall do above in drawing the narrower limb of
the letter, as seen in the following diagram.
 THE LETTER H. 15
The letter H is to be formed of two broad, great, & vertical limbs of
the height of the square, in such fashion that their extremities, being
produced exteriorly, shall touch the four angles of the square, a. c. and
b. d. respectively. Now in what fashion the projections of the broader
limbs of letters are to be rounded out at top and bottom and on either
side, you have been instructed; for in any letter you please, any broad
and vertical limb is to be depicted at top and bottom thrice as broad as
at its middle: provided always it is not joined to a narrower limb. So
when this has been accomplished, then drawyour narrower transverse
limb upon the line e. f. as is shown below.

THE LETTER I.

The letter I you are to make of a single broad vertical tract in the
midst of its square, touching the latter top and bottom; and of this, at
both ends, and on either side, you are to round out the productions or
projections as below is shown.
i6 OF LETTERS

THE LETTER K.

Now for K: You are to make the first tract vertical, in the same man/
ner as you formerly did for H; then draw another narrower limb from
the broader and erect one, so that it may, at its lower end, impinge
obliquely on the transverse line e. f. and above may ascend to the right
till it meet the line a. b., taking care to make it parallel to the diagonal
c. b.; and this, at the top, you are to produce in both directions so that
each production may represent a tenth part of the line a. b. The hither/
ward projection you are to round out with a circle of which the dia/
meter must not exceed the breadth of the lesser limb; but of the other
arc, by means of which you round out the farther projection,you shall
make the diameter double as great as the diameter of the arcs by which
you have customarily hollowed out the preceding extensions of the
broad and vertical limbs. Next, from the narrow limb so constructed
draw in a downward direction another broad limb, so that it too may
be parallel to a diagonal of the square; & of this the beginning is to be
taken from the acute angle which the narrower limb makes with the
broad vertical limb, and let it be drawn with its projection to the angle
d. ,yet in this fashion: take two points this side of d. after this manner,
so that the first point may be distant from d. the tenth part of the line
c. d. & the second as far again from the first; then let the said tract be
drawn within the space which is between the two points, but in blind
and invisible lines. Afterwards you shall add the extension, which you
shall make this way: take before f. in the line e. fi, a point g. no farther
distant from f. than the breadth of the narrower limb; on this point
set one leg of your compass, & let the other be extended to the angle d.,
from which let it be guided back along the broad but invisible blind
limb: thence will result the lower convexity of the tail you seek; but
its upper concavity look for in this way: divide f. d. in its middle point
h.; on this set one leg of your compass, and with the other describe an
arc passing through d. to meet the broad limb.
Or you may make K in this manner: First, let your broader vertical
limb, and your upper narrow one remain as they have been described,
except that the interior angle which the narrower limb forms with a. b.
shall remain acute, but the exterior one shall be rounded out, as has
 OF LETTERS i7
been said. Then let there be drawn the lower broad limb, obliquely
from the angle which is included between e. £ and the vertical limb,
and let it descend to meet the side c. d. so that between d. and the limb
the width of the limb be left vacant; and the hither angle is to be left,
but the farther, towards d., shall be rounded out a little, as shown below.

THE LETTER L.

As for the letter L, you shall make it by a combination of parts of

two of the preceding letters: namely, you shall make the first vertical
broad limb, as you did a while back in I; and to this join a foot as you
did at the bottom of E, when you made it. Such is L depicted below.

THE LETTER M.

The letter M you shall form in two ways within its square. In the
first, draw the narrower limb of the letter vertical, to the right of a. c.,
distant from a. one/tenth of the distance a. b.: draw the other, & broader
limb, on the near side of b. d., also a tenth part of the whole distant
i8 OF LETTERS
from b. & in such fashion that both limbs touch the square at top and
bottom; then, between the two, bisect the line c. d. in the point e. and
draw a broad limb from the inner angle of the narrow limb, downwards
to the point e., & next a narrow one upwards from e. to the inner angle
of the broader vertical limb; and the inner angles at top you must not
round out, but leave acute; the exterior angles, however, at the top, and
both exterior and interior at bottom of both vertical limbs, you are to
adorn with the customary projections, as you have done in the precede
ing letters. You are to know, too, that when these letters are drawn with
a pen, they are to be described with a single stroke. But for your guids
ance is this letter, in the manner in which I have instructed you, de/
picted below.
Another method.
Another way is thus: Divide the side a. b. of the square into six equal
parts & mark off the two extreme parts, one at either end, by the points
f. and g.; then draw the inner and broader limb, with its point at e. as
above; and to this, in an upward direction, a narrower one, so that be^
tween f. g. be left a vacant space, and so more readily the letter slope
forward. Then you are to draw the two lateral and vertical limbs—the
near and slender, and the farther broad one—at the top, indeed, as in
the first sketch, but at the bottom produce them to the two angles c.
and d. and finally add projecting cusps, as you were instructed in the
first M; but the projection below will pass beyond the square at the
points c. and d. Or you shall make M at top with acute angles, in which
case the lateral limbs will slope the more; or shear them off obtusely,
and in this fashion (whichever pleases you best) make them as you see
them depicted in the following diagrams.
 OF LETTERS J9

THE LETTER N.

Likewise the letter N you shall make in its square thus: First you
are to draw two standards vertical and slender, so that at top & bottom
they may touch the square, & that being produced, the nigh one at the
bottom, and the farther at the top, they may touch the angles at c. and
b. Now join these two by a broad oblique limb, running from the angle
a. to the point e., by which is denoted the remote side of the farther
limb, where you shall allow the acute angle to remain; but at the top,
this limb, produced beyond the angle a., you are to round out to a fifth
part of the length of a. b. This prolongation should incurve below, a
fifteenth part of the distance a. b. projected on two arcs, the upper one
the greater, the lower the less. For the lesser arc, therefore, you shall
take as diameter of its circle, a line the fifth part of the distance a. b.
and its centre is to be taken outside the square, so that the foot of the
compass may touch the tip of the extension and the angle a.; then ex'
tend a little the feet of the compass, and shift its centre until the arc
touch both the tip of the part produced, & the broad oblique limb, in
the middle point between the side a. c. & the nearer of the two slender
vertical limbs.
Or you may make the letter N in such fashion that its upper nigh
extension shall remain within the square; or you may make from it an
acute angle as shown overleaf.
20 OF LETTERS

THE LETTER O.

Now O you shall make this way in its square. Set in the square the
diameter c. b. and bisect it in the point e., so that e. may form a middle
point between the two points £ and g. which are to be your two cem
tres; and from each let a circle be described touching two sides of the
square; & where the circles cut one another, there with your hand you
must shape the slender outline of the letter to a juster proportion, as
below is shown.
 OF LETTERS 21

THE LETTER P.

P you shall make in its square in this wise. Divide the square a. b.
c. d. by the median horizontal line e. £; then divide a. e. & b. £ equally
by the line g. h. Next draw, first the broad vertical limb for this letter
P, as you did a short while ago for K, and afterwards erect the line i. k.
the distance of its own breadth to the right of your vertical limb; (here
you must ever observe that in a lettered square we speak of the angle a.
as the “ hither” angle, that is, to the left; & the angle b. as the “farther”
angle, that is, to the right). Then where the line i. k. cuts g. h. call the
point 1., and next draw two slender horizontal limbs, the upper below
a. b., the lower above e. £, from the broad vertical limb as far as the line
i. k. Set one leg of the compass on the point 1., extending the other to
the lower side of the lower horizontal limb near k.; then describe an
arc through the line g. h. as far as the other slender horizontal limb of
this same P, & where it cuts the line g. h. set the point m. Next, on the
far side of m. measure the width of the large limb of the letter, along
the line g. h. to the point n. and let your compass be stretched so that
with one foot it may touch the line a. b. and with the other the point
n.; then set one foot of the compass on n. & the other on the line g. h.
to the right, in the point o., in which this foot is to be left standing im./
movable, and with the other is to be described an arc, passing through
the point n. and touching the lines a. b. and e. £
Or you may form the loop of this letter in the following manner.
Set a leg of the compass under the transverse g. h. in the line i. k., in a
place median between the line e. £ & the lower part of the upper trans/
verse of the slender limb, in the point p. and describe an arc as before,
passing through m. so that the loop will be acute at the bottom, and
its tip will end in the middle space between the line i. k. and the broad
vertical limb of the letter.
Or make this same P with a circular sweep, by shifting the compass
upon the diameter, so that that sweep may be broader at the top (as
though made with a pen) as will be shown in the diagram on the fob
lowing page.
 THE LETTER

Make your Qjin its square in the self/same manner as was pre/
scribed for O; but add to it its tail thus: Draw a diameter of the square,
the line a. d., about which, starting from the curved outline, begin to
draw a long tail, producing it through the angle d. in such fashion that
d. may be in the middle of the thickest part of the tail; but where the
tail begins let it be a little narrower than in the angle d., where it should
attain its real thickness. Then let it be drawn out, beyond the angle d.
to the length of the entire diameter, and in a downward direction,yet
so that it curves while it slopes, & that its tip shall not fall lower than
a third of the side below the lowest side of the square, and shall tend,
as it nears the point, to grow sharper little by little, and at length end
in a very fine point indeed.
Or you shall give Q_a shorter tail in this fashion, to wit: set your
compasses to the length of the side c. d. and draw a tail from the bulge
of the same letter, describing through the point d. its inner arc of the
same length as c. d., taking care that the tail bend upwards until it again
reach c. d. produced, in the point h.; then shift your compasses, & with
the other leg again describe from the bulge of the letter an arc below
d. & continue it until again it reach h., but in such fashion that the tail
shall find its greatest thickness at the start, as in the following figure
is doubly depicted.
 OF LETTERS V>

THE LETTER R.
Moreover R you must make in its square just as was directed for P;
but then erect a right line q. r. through the middle point of the square,
& let it cut the exterior arc of the rounded limb in s., from which point,
downwards towards the angle d., let there be drawn a broad tract, almost
equal to that which you made above for the letter K., but this is to be
somewhat bent in, and so shaped by your hand that its tip, well formed,
may arrive directly on the angle d.
Or make R in such fashion that its rounded sweep, as though made
with a pen, shall be above broader, & narrower below. To accomplish
this, you must shift your compasses on the diameter q. e. & not allow
the rounded limb to touch the vertical one, as was described m P. Be'
sides, the oblique limb is to be deduced from the rounded one with a
little more of a curve; just as I have drawn overleaf.
24 OF LETTERS

THE LETTER S.

Next, the letter S you shall make as follows in its square, a. b. c. d.

First draw the horizontal line e. £ and the median & vertical one g. h.
and let them bisect one another in the point m. Then choose the main
thickness of the letter, and set it in the line g. h. so that the point m.
may divide it, having one/third of the thickness below it; next, set the
lesser thickness, at the top beneath g., indicating it by the point i., and
at bottom, above h. in the point k.; and the thickness of the letter in/
dicate above by n. and below by 1.
Next, set a leg of your compasses on the line g. h. in the mid/point
between i. and n., and with the other describe a circle passing through
i. and n.; in like manner, upon the line g. h. set your compasses upon
the mid/point of g. 1. and describe a circle passing through g. & 1. Then
once more set your compass on the same line g. h. in the mid/point of
n. h. and describe a circle through n. & h.; and lastly, in the mid/point
of 1. k. you must set one leg, & with the other is a circle to be described
through these same points 1. & k.; afterwards cut off by vertical section
the upper portion of this letter, so that the part thus cut off may con/
tain in its extremity the maximum thickness of the letter and a third
part besides, & also that its tip may project downwards so far as to stand
midway between the centre of the circle i. n. and the side b. d.; in other
words, let the tip be distant on the right, from the circle i. n. the first
third of the interval between the greater and lesser circles.
Next cut the lower limb of the letter to the left, by a vertical line
through the mid/point between the two circles, & in such fashion that
 OF LETTERS 25

the part so cut off may be a fourth part wider & higher than the upper,
and that its tip may rise to the height of the centre of the circle n. h.
Another method.
Yet another way may you make the letter S. In the square a. b. c. d.
bisect the horizontal line e. f. in the point m.; then set one leg of your
compass upon the mid/point between g. and m. & with the other de/
scribe a segment of a circle in the direction of a. e. passing through the
points m. and g.; next, set your compass upon the mid/point between
m. and h. and describe a segment of a circle through m. and h. in the
direction of f. d. The two arcs will touch above, in front, and below, in
the rear, the exterior curvatures of this same letter S.
Next, draw through m. the diameter c. b. and at its middle indicate
the maximum thickness of the letter by the two points p. and q. from
which let there be drawn two right lines, one up, & one down, to those
two arcs; & next, from the two points p. & q. draw two curved parallels
to the same arcs, regulating the distance between them, their elevation
& depression from the centres of the same circles. Next, indicate below
g. and above h. the minimum thickness of the letter; and from these
points you will with your hand fashion the inner shape of the letter,
both above and below, & produce the limb of S, above towards b. Cut
it off so that its lower tip may touch the segment, & that the part cut
off upwards may contain a tenth part of a. b. and that the segment may
still exceed the part cut off. Then construct a vertical line r. s. to the
right of e. c. and distant from it a fifth part of c. d.; let it cut the dia/
gonal c. b. in t. and to the angle just formed produce the extremity of
the letter, making the part so cut off a third broader than the upper por/
tion. Lastly, you will have to produce the tip ever so little beyond t.; as
I have briefly indicated.
26 OF LETTERS

THE LETTER T.

Set the broad limb of T in the midst of its square erect, produced &
drawn to a point on either side below, just as you did before in the letter
I; then take two points e. and f., distant respectively one/tenth of the
whole space from a. and b., and let the transverse limb of the letter be
drawn below e. f. and of an equal length with it; but the projecting ex/
tremities of this line are to be cut obliquely, and the tips of these pro/
jections shall so far extend above the line a. b. to the right as below they
depend to the left. The oblique lines of these projections are to be each
a fifth part of the length of a. b.; & the angles of these projections you
shall round out by means of circles of diverse radius—namely, for the
lesser angle you are to use a diameter only two/thirds of the width of
the broader limb; but for the greater angle you shall take a diameter
equal to the side of a square contained between the broad and vertical
limb and the intercepted portion of the line a. b.

Another method.

Or you make T thus in its square: Take your point e. as before, to

the right of a., and cut your transverse limb diagonally, as before, yet
so that the projection be dimidiated to the right, and at top the angle
remain as it falls; and so at the other extremity, only the point f. must
be moved as near again to b., the cutting line to be a little more erect,
& the projection formed a trifle broader than at the hither end; other/
wise shall everything remain as before; as I have delineated for you on
the opposite page.
 OF LETTERS 27

THE LETTER V.
Vyou shall thus make in its square: Bisect c. d. in the point e.; then
set the point £ one/tenth of the whole line a. b. beyond a., and in like
fashion g. to the hither side of b. Then draw the broad limb of your
letter downwards from f. to e. and sharpen it; & thence draw upwards
your slender limb to g.; and at the top produce it in either direction,
as you did before at the bottom of A; just as you see it shown below.

%
THE LETTER X.

X you shall form thus: Draw two vertical lines e. f. and g. h. distant
respectively one/tenth part of the line a. b. from the sides a. c. and b. d.
Then draw the two limbs intersecting one another in the form of a
cross—the broad one so that at top, & with its hither side it shall touch
e.,& at the bottom, and with its farther side h.; but the narrow limb so
that at top, and with its farther side it may touch g., & at bottom, with
its hither side f. Then add its projections, touching, at top and bottom,
the four angles a. b. c. d., & choose a semi/diameter of the larger circle
28 ... OF LETTERS

of the length of a fifth part of a. b.; & with that you shall round out the
four greater angles; but for the lesser circle you shall take a diameter
as long as two/thirds the width of the broader limb.
Or you may vary X thus: Let everything be left as before except the
narrower limb, which at top you shall make more erect by one/half the
breadth of the wider limb; and so the upper part of the letter shall be
less and narrower than the lower, and shall have a different aspect, as
is shown below.

THE LETTER Y.

Y you shall achieve in the midst of its square, as far as its lower half
is concerned, after the instructions before given for I; but its upper part
you shall divide so that its hither limb shall contain two/thirds, and its
farther one^third of the broad standard; and let them slope to either
side so that produced they may touch the two angles a. and b.; and the
greater circles, by which you are to round out their obtuse or greater
angles, make of a diameter as great as a containing side of the square
enclosed between the standard and the sides of the great square, as in
T was shown; but the diameters of the circles which you apply to the
lesser angles, make double the width of the broad standard, as below.
 THE LETTER Z. 29
Zyou shall make thus: Set upon either side,both beneath & beyond
the angle a., two points e. & f.,each at a distance of the tenth part of a. b.;
so also, set two other points g. and h. both before and above the angle d.
and with right lines join e. f. and g. h.; then draw your narrower trans/
verse limb, beneath a. b. backwards as far as the angle b.; from thence
draw your broad limb diagonally to c.; and then again a narrower one
from c. to g.; and with your hand round out the two tips e. and h.
Or make Z thus: Divide the square a. b.c. d. by the vertical line e. f.
and in this reduced space construct the letter as before; but so that the
two transverse limbs be cut short, above on the nigh side, and below on
the far, by the vertical lines a. c. and e. £ respectively as below.

So likewise, in other fashion, can we make all the letters already

drawn, on a scale of ninths, just as we have now drawn them on a scale
of tenths; in just the same manner, according to the due proportion of
each, in its own square, a. b. c. d., dividing them into nine, as just now
into ten parts; & that this may be the better understood, I have chosen
to append here letters of such fashion. Also these letters are to be made
five parts high when written small & rapidly, by hand. In such writing
the versals are made of the same proportion and form, but one/third
larger than the ordinary letters of the writing.
 DIRECTIONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF

THE TEXT OR QUADRATE

LETTERS

T HE letters which are usually called “text,” or quadrate, it was for/

merly customary so to write, although they are now imitated by
the new art,as presently I shall show below. Although the alpha/
bet begins with the writing of A, yet shall I (not needlessly) in the first
place undertake to draw an I; because almost all the other letters are
formed after this letter, although always something has to be added to
it or taken away.
First make your I of equal squares, of which three are properly set
one over the other; and the top of the top one, and the bottom of the
bottom one, divide in two points, that is to say, into three equal parts:
then set a square equal to the others in an oblique manner, so that its
diagonal be vertical, and its angle on the first point of the top square. In
this way, this oblique square shall extend with its angles more to the left
than the right. Then produce upwards on either side, after the width
of the superposed squares, right lines to meet the sides of the oblique
set square. Next do below precisely as you did above, except that you
must set the angle of the oblique square on the second point, that is, the
one farthest to the right in the bottom of the lowest square; and let fall
your lines on either side upon the transposed square: so will I be per/
feet; only above it draw with a fine pen a tiny in/crescent.
So shall you make N from two standards of this same I, set so that
their angles at top and bottom touch; and in this manner the space be/
tween the two shall be narrower than the breadth of either: also, you
shall no longer put little crescents above them; you must make of the
same length all the short letters throughout the alphabet.
In like manner make M of three standards, just as you made N of
two.
R make as I, except only that at top you must set an equal square
diagonally,to the right, so that angle touch angle. Ryou may make also
in this fashion: below leave its foot as before, but above add two dia/
gonal squares, which shall touch each other with their angles in the
36 OF LETTERS
middle point of the vertical limb, and then produce upwards both sides
of the latter to meet the diagonal square.
V is made in three ways. First let it be made simply, as N; only that
in the farther limb, you shall omit at the top the diagonal square; and
instead shall draw an oblique line, so that it may make two angles in
this limb (produced) of which the farther shall be of the same height
as that of the topmost angle of the diagonal square, & the nigher angle
of the same height as the angle nearest to it in the said square.
The second V, which we use at the beginning of a sentence, make
thus: Draw the first limb as before for I; only, at the bottom, push the
diagonal square a little further to the right, so that its hither angle does
not project beyond the side of the vertical limb, but falls in the line of
its descent. Then set the second limb to the right of this, and cut it off
below by an oblique line, drawn from the lowest angle upwards to the
right, as far as the middle point of the lowest of the three superposed
squares.
Next makeW (i.e., double V) just as you made V/simplex; only you
shall set before it the standard limb of I.
B make as the second VAimplex; but in the first upright omit the
diagonal square at the top, and set upon the three original squares three
others similar, but the seventh one you shall cut off diagonally from its
lower hither angle.
Likewise when your B so made is turned upside down, then it will be
a Q_1
X you shall construct from I. Append from top angle to the right a
diagonally set square, as you did before in R; and at the bottom draw
an acute tail to the left from the diagonal, and at the middle of the ver/
tical limb describe a transverse, in such way that the former is cut before
and aft by the latter’s diagonal; let the hither and lower angle be termb
nated as far in front of the upright as would measure one/half of the
cutting diagonal, which at top shall just touch the upright; but to the
right let the transverse at top project to a point just below the angle of
the oblique square; from thence downwards let it be cut off by an ob/
lique line parallel to the anterior diagonal.
Cyou shall construct from I after this fashion: Remove the top dia/
gonal square, & let lines be produced on either side to the proper height
of the letter, and cut off the hither angle by a diagonal; then draw at
 OF LETTERS 37

top a broad transverse, projecting beyond the vertical to the right the
width of the latter, and cut this off by a diagonal in such a way that it
project below only half as far as above.
The vertical standard of E you shall make as for C; but from above
let there descend to the right a broad limb from the diagonal bisecting
the right angles of one square, and one/third again as long as broad; and
let there be drawn from its lower angle a small diagonal line to the vers
tical limb.
T shall be made like C, except that at top something is added to its
diagonal, so that its tip converges to a fine point, and the like to the left
on the hither side of the broad standard, just as at the top: and because
of this is T at top more elegant than C, and has not the same incurved
appearance.
Lyou are to make below like I; only six squares are to be set on end;
then cut off the hither side of the seventh by a diagonal, and so the apex
of the letter shall remain to the right.
The letter S you shall make as L; except that at top to the right must
be drawn a broad limb of the length of the diagonal, which afterwards
you are to cut off by a line parallel to the diagonal.
F you shall make as S, just adding to it a transverse limb at the height
of the shorter letters and double as long as broad, so that the point on
the hither side & below shall project as far as half the limb’s breadth, so
that the two diagonal abscissions may be equidistant from one another.
The near limb of the letter H make like L, and to it join by its top, in
the proper place, the farther made like I; but below, for the diagonal
square, substitute a fourth square in line with the others, and the fifth
and lowest cut off on the far side by its diagonal.
Of K make the near limb like L; and to the right of it append a dia/
gonal square, from the lowest angle of which let a line be obliquely
produced to meet the said vertical limb; and next from this line let a
broad limb be obliquely drawn, and this, at the bottom, you are to cut
off by a diagonal, in such fashion that the space below, between the two
tips shall not be more than the diagonal of a single square.
D in its lower half make like B; but at top let the anterior limb
ascend upwards to the maximum height of the letters, and then cut off
the hither angle by its diagonal; next superpose to the same height half
a square upon the other three squares of the farther limb, & once more
38 OF LETTERS
do here as you did below, and let this broken limb rest on the angle of
the near limb, and let it extend beyond it as far as the end of the up/
right near limb; and so will it all but contain three conjunct squares;
for when it meets the near vertical limb, that fraction is to be cut off
at right angles.
O you are to make below as D, and also the same at the top as the
bottom, only, as it were, turning it upside down.
The anterior limb of P make like L inverted; but the posterior like
the standard of I: at bottom, however, you are not to add an oblique
square, but amputate the limb diagonally, & draw at the bottom a broad
transverse limb, which likewise is to be cut off diagonally, so that the
lower point shall project to the left, a distance of half the breadth of
the limb.
Likewise A in the lower half you are to make like N; but of its an/
terior vertical limb, you are to cut off the hither angle of the middle
square by its diagonal; of the posterior, however, allow three squares to
remain superposed, and incline the top part (the fourth square) rather
to the left, so that if at this side is joined to it the half of a square, then
it shall attain the height of the letter; and cut off the square obliquely,
yet so that the lower point shall project farther than the upper; then
describe to the left a circle, sweeping downwards, so that its contents
shall embrace the farthest limit of the anterior limb.
Z is made in threefold fashion. First set a diagonal square which
shall touch the height of the letter; then add another like it, on the
right, joining their sides, & let these form a quadrangle sloping down/
wards on the right: next set a diagonal square in straight line under the
top square, and distant from the lower one the length of its diameter:
then draw a diagonal line between the near angles of these two squares,
or make a rounded limb to reach the lower square; but from the said
lowest square of all you shall draw downwards and to the right, by the
aid of divers circles, a round extension, whose bottom shall mark the
length of the letter; and let its tip, sharp and tenuous, verge to the left.
Or construct Z of three oblique limbs, one above the other, & to con/
nect them draw the diagonal, which shall slope upwards to the right.
Another Z you may make in this way: Let three diagonal squares
be set atop of one another; and let the lowest have a rounded extension,
as in the first Z.
 OF LETTERS 39

The first limb of G make below like hand add at the bottom another
diagonal square joining the two by their angles; but at top produce the
farther tip of this limb upwards to the height of the letter, & from this
point draw a diagonal downward to the left, as far as the hither angle of
the first right square of the three set one on other. Next draw the farther
vertical standard entire, of the same length as the hither standard, and
at the bottom draw a diagonal from the angle of the lowest oblique
square to touch the tip of the angle of the farther limb, & on the inner
side produce downwards the side of the limb, to meet the tip of the said
diagonal; to this also, by one line, join the lowest of the hither squares.
Now draw at top a transverse limb of the customary breadth, from the
back of the nearer vertical limb, passing through the farther one, and
reaching as far beyond this as its breadth; & this limb, finally,you shall
cut off by an oblique line parallel to that of the near limb.
Y you shall make as N, only at bottom must be omitted the farther
diagonal square, & in its place is to be set a right square under the other
three superposed squares; then split the fifth square by a diagonafso
that the tip shall be in front; from which let there be produced a dia/
gonal line, equal in length to a single side of the square.
Curved, or short S, you shall make on this wise. At the middle height
of the letter, let there be set, close to one another, their angles touching,
two oblique squares; from the near square draw a broad vertical limb
to the height of the letter; and in the same fashion, from the farther
square let one fall downwards—just as you constructed I top & bottom.
Next cut off both these limbs, one at top and one at bottom, by dia/
gonals, in such fashion that the sharp tips of both may be on the side
near the middle. Then let there be drawn two broad limbs—namely,
from the upper, to the right, and downwards; and in like manner, from
the lower, upwards, and to the left; of the breadth of the limb, above
and below, but let them be produced no further than the breadth of
the distance between the limbs: then draw a diagonal downwards, from
right to left, which shall cut off both oblique limbs. To it also you must
produce the sides of the squares set in the midst.
So, accordingly, have I set them down—in skeleton in rotation, and
in proper order in black. This (as I said above) is the antique form of
the letters; but in these days there is used a more elegant text, and a
diagonal square is substituted in the middle place for a right square, so
40 It » *
OF LETTERS
that the lines of the letters are not so much curved; and there are made
certain limbs adjoined and cleft; and there are set one on another three
squares & a half; and spaces are left between two limbs as great as their
width. Letters of this sort also have I set forth on the third page follow/
ing; as also capital letters, which are called “versals,” because
they are customarily set at the beginning of a verse;
and these ought to be made one/third
higher than the remaining
shorter letters in
writing.

*
Here ends this little Book.
 SUNY COLLEGE AT BROCKPORT

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 I*
f

Of the Just Shaping of Letters

Albrecht DLirer
This volume was first published as part of Diirer’s theoretical treatise on applied
geometry, “Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt” (1525),
usually known in English as “The Art of Measurement.” Diirer’s interest in the art (or
better—science) of lettering was a natural outgrowth of his own practical and
theoretical preoccupations and of the growing interest throughout Western Europe in
writing and instructional copy-books (stimulated by the introduction of the printing
press, the consequent wider dissemination of books, and the expanding Renaissance
spirit).

“Of the Just Shaping of Letters” is principally concerned with setting out precise rules
for the geometric construction of Roman capitals (majuscules)—these classical letters
seen in stone inscriptions. Diirer constructs each letter by inscribing it in a square of
specific size, “building” the character out of elements of the square, arcs of circles
drawn from particular points, and so forth. In each case, the book gives a construction
diagram with accompanying explanatory text and at least one finished example of the
letter. For most letters, alternative designs are shown.

The remainder of the book provides directions and examples for the forming of
“textur” or quadrate minuscules (Gothic lower case) and Gothic capitals. The section
begins by showing the reader how to make the letter “i”—the letter around which
almost every other Gothic minuscule is formed. Diirer’s famous set of Gothic capitals
foreshadows the much-admired Fraktur style of lettering.

With this remarkable volume, Diirer made an important contribution to lettering

craftsmanship, and he is accorded a prominent place in its development, alongside
such 16th-century designers as Pacioli, Arrighi, and Geoffroy Tory. Diirer was not a
professional writing-master, but he is regarded as a great designer of letters. His
constructions are well-formed and he did not distort his letters to make them conform
to some prearranged system. All the directions are workable and are of considerable
practical interest to the contemporary illustrator, artist, and designer.

This English translation was issued in 1917 in a limited edition of less than 300 copies.
As a result, individual copies have been extremely rare and valuable. A major volume
in the history of lettering and a highly interesting facet of the work of a master eloquent
in various spheres of art, this book is now made available to a wide public for the first
time.

Unabridged, unaltered republication of 1917 Grolier edition. Translated from the

Latin text of the edition of 1535 by R. T. Nichol. Numerous letterform designs,
construction diagrams, illustrations, iv + 43pp. 7% * 10/4. Paperbound.

A DOVER EDITION DESIGNED FOR YEARS OF USE!

We have made every effort to make this the best book possible. Our paper is opaque,
with minimal show-through; it will not discolor or become brittle with age. Pages are 4
bound in signatures, in the method traditionally used for the best books, and will not
drop out. Books open flat for easy reference. The binding will not crack or split. This is
a permanent book.

ISBN 0-Mflb-E 0=
OS

$3-^5 INUSA