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Key Concepts in Computer Science

Key Concepts in Computer Science

Edited by:
Adele Kuzmiakova

www.arclerpress.com
Key Concepts in Computer Science
Adele Kuzmiakova

Arcler Press
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ABOUT THE EDITOR

Adele Kuzmiakova is a computational engineer focusing on solving problems

in machine learning, deep learning, and computer vision. Adele attended
Cornell University in New York, United States for her undergraduate studies.
She studied engineering with a focus on applied math. While at Cornell, she
developed close relationships with professors, which enabled her to get involved
in academic research to get hands-on experience with solving computational
problems. She was also selected to be Accel Roundtable on Entrepreneurship
Education (REE) Fellow at Stanford University and spent 3 months working
on entrepreneurship projects to get a taste of entrepreneurship and high-growth
ventures in engineering and life sciences. The program culminated in giving
a presentation on the startup technology and was judged by Stanford faculty
and entrepreneurship experts in Silicon Valley. After graduating from Cornell,
Adele worked as a data scientist at Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in
Lausanne, Switzerland where she focused on developing algorithms and
graphical models to analyze chemical pathways in the atmosphere. Adele also
pursued graduate studies at Stanford University in the United States where
she entered as a recipient of American Association of University Women
International Fellowship. The Fellowship enabled her to focus on tackling
important research problems in machine learning and computer vision. Some
research problems she worked on at Stanford include detecting air pollution
from outdoor public webcam images. Specifically, she modified and set up a
variety of pre-trained architectures, such as DehazeNet, VGG, and ResNet, on
public webcam images to evaluate their ability to predict air quality based on
the degree of haze on pictures. Other deep learning problems Adele worked on
include investigating the promise of second-order optimizers in deep learning
and using neural networks to predict sequences of data in energy consumption.
Adele also places an emphasis on continual education and served as a Student
Leader in PyTorch scholarship challenge organized by Udacity. Her roles as the
Student Leader were helping students debug their code to train neural networks
with PyTorch and providing mentorship on technical and career aspects. Her
hobbies include skiing, playing tennis, cooking, and meeting new people.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures ........................................................................................................ix

List of Abbreviations ...........................................................................................xiii
Preface........................................................................ .................................. ....xvii

A ............................................................................................................... 1

B.............................................................................................................. 21

C ............................................................................................................. 48

D ............................................................................................................. 85

E .............................................................................................................. 99

F ............................................................................................................ 108

G ........................................................................................................... 120

H ........................................................................................................... 127

I............................................................................................................. 137

J............................................................................................................. 148

K............................................................................................................ 151

L ............................................................................................................ 155

M........................................................................................................... 162

N ........................................................................................................... 175

O ........................................................................................................... 180

P ............................................................................................................ 188

Q ........................................................................................................... 197

R............................................................................................................ 199

S ............................................................................................................ 204
T ............................................................................................................ 209

U ........................................................................................................... 212

V ........................................................................................................... 215

W .......................................................................................................... 219

X............................................................................................................ 222

Z............................................................................................................ 224

Bibliography .......................................................................................... 225

Index ..................................................................................................... 231

viii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Ad Hoc network

Figure 2. Adware
Figure 3. Audio interchange file format
Figure 4. Algorithm
Figure 5. Android
Figure 6. Antivirus
Figure 7. Application program interface
Figure 8. Base station
Figure 9. Baseband
Figure 10. Batch file
Figure 11. Representation of binary
Figure 12. Biometrics
Figure 13. BitTorrent
Figure 14. Blog
Figure 15. Blu-ray
Figure 16. Symbol of Bluetooth
Figure 17. Bookmark symbol
Figure 18. Boolean
Figure 19. Bot
Figure 20. Botnet
Figure 21. Broadband
Figure 22. Buffering symbol
Figure 23. Cable modem
Figure 24. Cache
Figure 25. Computer-aided design
Figure 26. Captcha is used for security purpose
Figure 27. Card reader

ix
Figure 28. Compact disc recordable
Figure 29. SSL certificate
Figure 30. Chipset
Figure 31. Cloud computing
Figure 32. CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor)
Figure 33. Command Prompt
Figure 34. Compact Flash
Figure 35. Compiler
Figure 36. Configuration
Figure 37. Controller Card
Figure 38. Copyright symbol
Figure 39. Crossplatform
Figure 40. Cathode ray tube
Figure 41. Cyberbullying
Figure 42. Cybercrime has crossed international borders
Figure 43. Dashboard
Figure 44. Data management is the fundamental task in computer science
Figure 45. Database
Figure 46. Database management system
Figure 47. Debug
Figure 48. Dynamic host configuration protocol
Figure 49. E-commerce: business on internet
Figure 50. Emoji
Figure 51. Encryption: A process of encoding information
Figure 52. Ethernet is used in local, metropolitan, and wide area networks
Figure 53. Excel Icon
Figure 54. External hard drive
Figure 55. Extranet: a controlled private network
Figure 56. Facebook icon
Figure 57. Fiber optic cable
Figure 58. File extensions
Figure 59. Firewall
Figure 60. Firmware
Figure 61. Global positioning system

x
Figure 62. Hacker: exploits a computer network or system
Figure 63. Inbox
Figure 64. Java: the most demanded language in IT sector
Figure 65. Kernel
Figure 66. Media Access Control Address
Figure 67. Types of malware
Figure 68. Monitor or a computer screen
Figure 69. Star topology: a type of network topology
Figure 70. Operating system placement
Figure 71. Passwords are used for the security purpose
Figure 72. Python: a highly demanded programming language
Figure 73. A wireless router
Figure 74. Web page

xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AACs Advanced Audio Coding

Abend Abnormal End
ACL Access Control List
ACPA Anti-Cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act
ADC Analog to Digital Converter
ADF Automatic Document Feeder
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
AGP Accelerated Graphics Port
AIFF Audio Interchange File Format
AIX Advance Interactive Executive
ANSI American National Standards Institute
API Application Program Interface
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASP Active Server Pages
ATA Advanced Technology Attachment
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AV Anti-virus
BASIC Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
BCC Blind carbon copy
BIOS Basic Input/Output System
Blob Binary Large Object
BMP Bitmap
BPS Bits Per Second
CCD Charge-Coupled Device
CLOB Character Large Object
CMD Command
CMYK Cyan Magenta Yellow Black
COM Component Object Model
CRT Cathode Ray Tubes
CSS File Cascading Style Sheets File
Ctrl Control
DAC Digital to Analog Converter
DBMS Database Management Systems
DIMM Double In-Line Memory Module
DMG Data Management Group
DNS Domain Name System
DRAM Dynamic RAM
DTD Document Type Definition
DVI Digital Visual Interface
EEPROM electronically erasable programmable read-only memory
EPP Enhanced Parallel Port
FTP File Transfer Protocol
GHz Gigahertz
GIF Graphics Interchange Format
GPT GUID Partition Table
GUI Graphic User Interface
HTML Hypertext Markup Language
IDE Integrated Drive Electronics
IP Internet Protocol
ISP Internet Service Providers
JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group
Kbps Kilobytes per-second
LAN Local Area Network
MANET Mobile Ad Hoc Network
Mbps Megabytes Per-Second
MBR Master Boot Record
MCA Micro Channel Architecture
MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface
MOODLE Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment
MPEG Moving Picture Experts Group

xiv
MySQL My Sequel
NTFS New Technology File System
ODBC Open Database Connectivity
OLAP Online Analytical Processing
OLE Object Linking and Embedding
OMG Object Management Group
OOP Object-Oriented Programming
OpenGL Open Graphics Library
OS Operating System
OSD On Screen Display
OSPF Open Shortest Path First
P2P Peer-to-Peer
PATA Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment
PCI Peripheral Component Interconnect
PDF Portable Document Format
Perl Practical Extraction and Report Language
PHP Hypertext Pre-processor
PNG Portable Network Graphics
PSD Photoshop Document
QBE Query by Example
RAM Random Access Memory
RFID Radio-Frequency Identification
RGB Red Green Blue
ROM Read-Only Memory
SATA Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
SGML Standard Generalized Markup Language
SIMM Single In-Line Memory Module
SLA Software License Agreement
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SQL Structured Query Language
SRAM Static Random-Access Memory
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TDMA Time-division multiple access
TIFF Tagged Image File Format

xv
UDP User Datagram Protocol
UML Unified Modeling Language
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
URL Uniform Resource Locator
USB Universal Serial Bus
VANET Vehicular Ad Hoc Network
VCI Virtual Channel Identifier
VGA Video Graphics Array
VHS Tape Video Home System Tape
VoIP Voice Over Internet Protocol
VPI Virtual Path Indicator
VRAM Video Random Access Memory
WAN Wide Area Network
WMV Windows Media Video
XHTML Extensible Hypertext Markup Language
XML Extensible Markup Language

xvi
PREFACE

Computer science deals with the study of algorithmic processes, computers, and
computational systems. As a discipline, computer science spans a wide range of
concepts from theoretical studies of algorithms, computation, and information to the
practical issues of executing computational systems inside the software and hardware.
Currently, computer science is one of the fastest growing and highest paying career paths
in the world. It is considered as a key part of a family of five interrelated disciplines:
computer engineering, computer science, information technology, information systems,
and software engineering.
Theoretical and practical disciplines are the two major fields of computer science. For
instance, the theory of computation deals with abstract models of computation along
with general classes of problems that can be resolved using them, while, on the other
hand computer graphics or computational geometry highlight more specific applications.
Data structures and algorithms have been called the heart of computer science.
Computer science developed as an independent discipline during the early 1960s.
However, the electronic digital computer, which is the object of its study, was developed
20 years prior to that. The roots of computer science lie mainly in the related fields of
electrical engineering, physics, mathematics, and management information systems.
Programming language theory considers different kinds of approaches to computational
processes. Computer programming, on the other hand, involves applying these
processes to develop complex systems. Computer architecture defines construction of
computer components as well as computer-operated equipment. Artificial intelligence
aims to synthesize goal-orientated processes, such as problem-solving, environmental
adaptation, decision-making, planning, and learning to predict new data or trends.
The ultimate concern of computer science is determining what can and what cannot be
automated. Computer scientists generally emphasize academic research. The key aspect
of computer science is problem solving, which is an essential skill for life. People study
design, development, and analysis of software as well as hardware that further used to
solve problems in a variety of business, social and scientific contexts. As computers
solve problems to serve people, there is a substantial human side to computer science
as well.
Computer science deals with the process of solving problems. It is also regarded as a
field that offers numerous career opportunities. Computer science helps the society by
improving healthcare, advancing education sector, or building digital skills.
In the modern world, computer science can predict and avoid disasters. Every tool
used to monitor weather through satellites uses radar, which is built using technology.
Using those tools, computer science allows to forecast hurricanes, tornadoes, or
even the outbreak of a fatal disease Computer science solves problems that can help
people everywhere in the world. According to a U.S. News & World Report, earning a
graduate degree in computer science can eventually lead to positions in some of the top
companies in the world.
This book will introduce the readers to the field of computer science and the fundamentals
of computer programming. It is precisely designed for readers or students with no prior
programming experience, and touches upon a diversity of fundamental topics. By the
end of the book, readers will understand the basics of computer science and the key
concepts involved.

xviii
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 1

A
Abend
The term abend is abbreviated as “abnormal end.” An abend occurs when
a process comes to an unexpected or abnormal end. When it comes to
computer software, the term abend usually refers to a software crash, which
occurs when a program unexpectedly shuts down. A bug in a program’s code
could possibly cause it to freeze or crash when running a command. As a
result, the program comes to an abrupt (and frequently inconvenient) finish.
Initially the term “ABEND” was used as an error message by IBM OS/360
systems. In the modern world, it is commonly used by Novell Netware
systems and is also used as a general programming term.

Access
Microsoft Access is a popular database application for Windows that
is sometimes shortened as “MS Access.” Users can use Access to create
databases that store data in a logical order. A visual interface is also provided
for designing custom forms, tables, and SQL queries. Visual forms or a
rudimentary spreadsheet interface can be used to enter data into an Access
database. Other programs, including Web services, can browse, search, and
access the information stored in an Access database.
While Access is a proprietary database management system (DBMS),
it supports Open Database Connectivity, making it interoperable with other
database systems (ODBC). Data can be transported to and from other
database programs, such as MS SQL, FoxPro, Filemaker Pro, and Oracle
databases, using this method. Because of this interoperability, Access can
also be used as the back end for a database-driven website. In fact, Access
databases are supported by Microsoft FrontPage and Expression Web,
as well as ASP.NET. As a result, access databases are frequently used to
generate dynamic content on websites based on Microsoft Windows servers.

Access Point
An access point is known as a device that allows users to connect to a
network wirelessly. Access point-connected devices can communicate
with other network devices. If the access point is connected to an Internet
connection, as is usually the case, they can connect to the Internet as well.
2 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Wi-Fi access points are also known as base stations. For example: “The
coffee shop provides an access point for customers with Wi-Fi devices.”

ACL
ACL is the abbreviation for “Access Control List.” For a file, folder, or
other object, an ACL is a list of user permissions. It specifies which users
and groups are permitted to access the item and what operations they are
permitted to do. Read, write, and execute are common examples of these
operations. For instance, if an ACL grants read-only access to a file to a
certain user, that user will be able to open the file but not write to it or run it.
 
 


   


simple. Most operating systems, including Windows, Mac, and Unix, make
use of them. ACLs are usually hidden from the user, although they can easily
be changed via a graphical interface. In Mac OS X 10.5, for example, ACL
   

 

The access control settings can be changed under the window’s “Sharing
and Permissions” section. The chmod() command on Unix systems can be
used to change ACLs.

Active-Matrix
High-quality flat-panel displays, such as laptop screens and thin computer
monitors, use active-matrix technology. Diodes, or miniature semiconductors,
are laid over a grid of ultra-fine wires to form the images on active matrix
panels. When current runs through the diodes, it causes them to light up in
various colors, depending on the current’s strength. The image on the screen
is formed by thousands of these diodes placed next to each other.
Active-matrix displays employ transistors to keep the diodes on or off,
which aren’t found in lower-quality passive-matrix displays. Active-matrix
displays are brighter and have higher contrast than passive-matrix displays
thanks to the transistors.

ActiveX
This Microsoft-developed technology was created to connect desktop
applications to the Internet. Software developers can use ActiveX
development tools to build interactive Web content for their apps. Word and
Excel documents, for example, can be viewed natively in ActiveX-enabled
Web browsers. While ActiveX is a helpful technology, using ActiveX-
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 3

enabled material requires that you have an up-to-date version of ActiveX

installed on your PC.

Ad Hoc Network
The term “ad hoc” is derived from the Latin phrase “for this purpose.” It is
a term that is frequently used to describe solutions that are created on the
spot for a specific goal. An ad hoc network is a network connection that is
established for a single session and does not require the use of a router or a
wireless base station in computer networking.

Figure 1. Ad Hoc network.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.



  

 
, for example, you
may set up an ad hoc network between your computer and his laptop. This
can be accomplished by using an Ethernet crossover connection or the
wireless cards on the PCs to communicate with one another. Set up a multi-

 



  
 


An ad hoc network is essentially a transient network connection made

   
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another). It is a regular local area network (LAN) if the network is set up for
a longer period of time.

ADC
ADC is the abbreviation for “Analog-to-Digital Converter.” Computers
can only process digital data; hence they need digital input. As a result,
an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is required when an analog input is
transferred to a computer. This device can digitize an analog signal, such as
4 Key Concepts in Computer Science

an electrical current, into a binary representation that can be understood by

a computer.
The conversion of analog video to digital format is a popular use for an
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in an analog format. The video must be converted to a digital format before
it can be transferred to a computer. An ADC video converter box, which
normally has composite video inputs and a Firewire output, can be used to
accomplish this. Some digital camcorders have analog inputs that can be
used to convert video from analog to digital.
Analog audio streams can also be converted using ADCs. If you wish
to record sounds from a microphone, for example, you will need to convert
the audio from the microphone’s analog signal to a digital signal that the
computer can comprehend. This is why all sound cards with an analog audio
input also need an ADC to transform the signal to a digital representation.
The sample rate employed in the conversion process determines the accuracy
of the audio conversion. Enhanced sampling rates allow for a more accurate
assessment of the analog signal, resulting in higher sound quality.
While ADCs transform analog inputs into a digital format that computers
understand, a computer may occasionally need to produce an analog signal.
A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) is used for this type of conversion.
Important: ADC can alternatively stand for “Apple Display Connector,”
an Apple-developed proprietary video connector. It was a single cable that
combined DVI, USB, and AC power. In 2004, Apple discontinued making
computers with ADC connections in favor of the more common DVI
connection.

Add-on
An add-on is a software expansion that enhances a program’s functionality. It
may add new objects to the program’s interface, extend particular functions
within the program, or offer the software new capabilities. Add-ons such
as the Google toolbar, ad blockers, and Web developer tools, for example,
are supported by Mozilla Firefox, a popular Web browser. Some computer
games allow players to purchase add-ons that include extra maps, new
characters, or the ability to customize the game.
The majority of add-ons come in self-installing packages. This implies
that the user may just double-click the add-on package to install the program’s
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directories. While not all applications enable add-ons, many programs are
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 5

now designed with add-on support since it allows other developers to easily
extend the program’s functionality.
These supplementary functions are not always referred to as “add-
ons” in all software applications. Dreamweaver, for example, provides
“extensions,” which add new Web development functions, whereas Excel
can import “Add-Ins,” which add extra spreadsheet tools to the user. Plug-
ins, which are a form of add-on, are also supported by many programs.

ADF
ADF is the abbreviation for “Automatic Document Feeder.” In copy
machines and scanners, an ADF is used to feed papers into the machine. It
lets you copy or scan numerous pages at once without having to set each one
in the copier or scanner separately.
" [   <
  
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each sheet on the scanning surface individually. While this is OK for single
pages, copying 80 would necessitate a lot of manual page loading! Some
copy machines come equipped with both an automatic document feeder and
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documents.

ADSL
ADSL is the abbreviation for “Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line.” ADSL
is a sort of digital subscriber line (DSL), which is a technique of sending
data over copper phone lines. While symmetrical DSL (SDSL) uploads and
downloads data at the same speed, ADSL uploads and downloads data at
varying maximum data transfer rates.
An ADSL connection, for example, may support download speeds
of 1.5Mbps while upload speeds are limited to 256Kbps. Because most
users download far more data than they upload, the difference between
the two rarely affects Internet connection speeds. However, ADSL would

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upstream.

Adware
Adware is a type of free software that is monetized through adverts. Toolbars
that sit on your desktop or work in combination with your Web browser
are examples of common adware programs. They offer capabilities such
6 Key Concepts in Computer Science

as improved Web or hard drive searching, as well as superior bookmark

and shortcut organization. Adware can sometimes take the form of more
complex programs like games or utilities. They are free to use, but you
must view adverts for the duration of the program. Adware often requires
an active Internet connection to execute because the adverts often allow you
to click to a Web site.

Figure 2. Adware.

Source: Image by Flickr.

Although most adware is harmless, some can act as spyware, collecting
information about you from your hard drive, Websites you visit, or
keystrokes. Spyware applications can then communicate the information
to another machine through the Internet. As a result, one must be cautious
about what adware they install on their computer systems.


Internet marketing is propelled by website affiliates. Affiliate programs are
used by businesses to earn leads and sales from other websites. They pay a
commission to the websites that host their adverts for things sold through
the links on their pages. If a site owner joins Amazon’s affiliate program, for
example, he will receive ad banners or links from Amazon that he can display
anyplace on his website. If a visitor purchases something after clicking on
the Amazon.com banner or a link on his site, he will receive a commission.
Unfortunately for website owners, affiliate commissions rarely exceed 5%
because most online sales have low profit margins.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 7

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win-win situation. The only disadvantage is that setting up and maintaining
the programs takes a lot of time (and often a lot of money). As a result,
  
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AGP
AGP is the abbreviation for “Accelerated Graphics Port.” This is a graphics
card expansion port on a computer’s motherboard that was designed by
Intel. PCI graphics connections have a maximum transfer rate of 132 MB/
sec and normally run at 33 MHz AGP ports, on the other hand, operate at 66
MHz and can transport data at speeds of up to 528 megabits per second. This
allows games and apps to store and retrieve larger, more realistic 3D shapes
and textures without causing the animation on the screen to slow down. AGP
cards can also store graphics in system memory rather than visual memory,
which in turn helps with performance. AGP graphics cards will often have
better performance per MB of VRAM than PCI graphics cards due to these
advantages.

AIFF
AIFF is the abbreviation for “Audio Interchange File Format.” AIFF is an
audio format for storing high-quality sampled audio data that was created
by Apple Computer.

Figure 3."
 
 

Source: Image by Thenounproject.com.

8 Key Concepts in Computer Science

In terms of size and quality, AIFF files are equivalent to Windows WAVE
files. AIFF and WAVE files can both store CD-quality audio and can be
burned on an audio CD. Even though Apple designed the AIFF format,
audio apps on both the Mac and PC can usually read the files.

AIX
Although some Linux enthusiasts have referred to it as “Ain’t UNIX,” it
stands for “Advanced Interactive Executive.” IBM’s AIX operating system
is based on the Unix operating system. It is designed for enterprise servers
and has a comprehensive set of security features like Kerberos V5 network
authentication and dynamic secure tunnel authentication. The system
administrator can divide memory, CPU, and disc access amongst different
jobs in AIX. The system is backwards compatible with 32-bit software and
supports IBM’s 64-bit POWER processor. It also supports Java 2 and can run
most Linux applications (after recompiling them). If you are confused, don’t
worry: AIX isn’t your ordinary consumer operating system. It is primarily
used in huge corporations for servers, where IT nerds get to work with it.

Alert Box
An alert box, also known as a message box, is a little window that appears on
your screen to notify you when your computer is about to conduct a possibly
harmful operation. When you empty your computer’s trash or recycle bin,
for example, an alert box may appear that asks, “Are you sure you want to
permanently erase these items?” After that, you have the option of selecting
“OK” to delete the items or “Cancel” to prevent them from being deleted.
Users are protected by alert boxes, which prevent us from doing
something people regret. The notice box that appears when you try to close a
document without saving it is probably the most common. “Save changes to
this document before closing?” will most likely appear in an alert box. You
can choose between “Don’t Save,” which will reject the changes, “Save,”
which will save the changes before closing the document, and “Cancel,”
which will prevent the document from closing and allow you to continue
working on it.
To catch your attention, most alert boxes use the standard alert icon,
which is a triangle with an exclamation point in the middle. However, not
all alert boxes, such as “Cancel” and “OK,” contain several possibilities. An
alert box may appear on your screen, for example, stating that a software has
unexpectedly quit after performing an unauthorized operation. When this
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 9

happens, your only alternative is to hit “OK” and then smack your computer
in the face for leaving the software before you could save your work.

Algorithm
An algorithm is a set of instructions, sometimes known as a method or a
function, that are used to complete a certain task. This might be as basic as
putting two integers together or as sophisticated as applying effects to an
image. To sharpen a digital photo, for example, the algorithm would have
to process each pixel in the image and determine which ones to change and
by how much such change is to be affected to make the image look sharper.
The majority of computer programmers >
    


of their work to developing algorithms. (They spend the rest of their time
debugging algorithms that aren’t working properly.) The goal is to develop
 
  

  

! 
as RAM and CPU time). This can be challenging since a method that works
well on one piece of data may not work as well on another.
Poorly constructed algorithms, as you might expect, can cause
applications to operate slowly or even crash. As a result, software upgrades
are frequently released with claims of “enhanced stability and performance.”
This is impressive, but it also suggests that prior versions of the software’s
algorithms were not written as properly as they could have been.

Figure 4. Algorithm.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

10 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Analog
As humans, they have an analog perception of the world. Everything they
see and hear is a constant stream of data reaching our senses. Analog data is
defined by this continuous stream. Digital information, on the other hand,
uses only ones and zeros to approximate analog data.
A turntable (also known as a record player) is an analog device, whereas
a CD player is digital. This is because a turntable reads a continuous signal
from a record, whereas a CD player merely reads a series of ones and zeros.
A VCR, on the other hand, is an analog device, whereas a DVD player is
digital. A VCR reads a tape as a continuous stream of information, but a
DVD player only reads ones and zeros from a disc.
Digital devices can only approximate an audio or video stream because
they can only read ones and zeros. As a result, analog data is more precise
than digital data. Digital data, on the other hand, is easier to alter and
preserve than analog data. Furthermore, computers can only handle digital
data, which is why most information is now stored digitally. However, you
are not out of luck if you wish to transfer video from old analog video tapes
to your computer so you may edit them. A digital to analog converter (DAC)
can be used to transform analog data into a digital signal that your computer
can understand.

Android
Android is a mobile operating system (OS) developed by Google and used
by several smartphones, including the G1, Droid, and Nexus One. Android is
open source, which means it isn’t tied to any particular phone manufacturer
or service provider. The Android operating system also supports third-party
applications, which can be downloaded from Google’s online software
store, Android Market. For example: “The Android operating system can be
customized for each mobile device.”
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 11

Figure 5. Android

Source: Image by Pixabay

ANSI
ANSI is the “American National Standards Institute.” By developing and
facilitating voluntary consensus standards and conformity assessment
systems, ANSI aims to promote the global competitiveness of American
enterprises and the quality of life in the United States. Rather than being
regulated by the government, “voluntary” standards are determined by
market requirements. “Conformity assessment systems” assess a product’s
or service’s adherence to a set of guidelines.
ANSI does not create standards or administer examinations; rather, it
helps this work by “accrediting” (that is, recognizing) competent bodies with
the necessary expertise. The Institute represents the US at the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC). The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is
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DC, and New York City. The ANSI Web site is the best place to go if you
want to learn more about the organization. More information on ANSI and
what they do can be found there, as well as the most recent news on national
and international standards.
12 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Antivirus
Antivirus (sometimes spelled “anti-virus” or just “AV”) is computer software
that prevents, detects, and removes infections and harmful programs. Most
antivirus programs work in the background, scanning new files for viruses
and running regular system checks once they’ve been installed. You can also
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to make sure your computer isn’t infected.”

Figure 6. Antivirus.

Source: Image by Pxhere.com.

While antivirus software is primarily used to detect viruses, many
modern antivirus applications also scan for other types of malware. Trojan
horses, worms, spyware, and adware are all examples of this. Many
antivirus products are now incorporated as part of “internet security” suites,
  
  
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monitoring in addition to antivirus protection.

API
Although it is commonly referred to as an “Application Programming
Interface,” it stands for “Application Program Interface (API).” A
programming interface (API) is a set of commands, functions, and protocols
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 13

that programmers can use to create software for a particular operating

system. The API allows programmers to interface with the operating system
by calling predefined functions rather than developing them from scratch.

Figure 7. Application Program Interface.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

For programmers, all computer operating systems, including Windows,
Unix, and Mac OS, have an application program interface. Video gaming
consoles and other hardware devices that can run software programs employ
APIs as well. While the API makes programming easier for programmers,
 
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have a similar user interface.

Apple
Apple, situated in Cupertino, California, is a technological corporation.
Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne created it in 1976. The
iMac, Mac mini, MacBook, MacBook Pro, and Mac Pro are all Macintosh
computers made by Apple. Apple also produces several personal electronic
gadgets, such as the iPhone, iPad, iPod, and Apple Watch.
Apple is most recognized for its hardware products, but it also creates a
wide range of software tools. The macOSOS X operating system, the Safari
web browser, and the iWork programs are all examples. Final Cut Pro and
Logic Pro are two professional media software developed by Apple.
Apple also provides a number of different subscription platforms,
including Tunes Store, App Store, and the upcoming Mac App Store are all
examples. You can download media and programs directly to your PC using
these services. Apple also has over 300 retail outlets throughout the world
that sell Apple products and provide customer service.
14 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Applet
This is a Java application that may be included in a Web page. A Java applet
differs from a conventional Java application in that it cannot access system
resources on the local computer. The applet cannot access or use system
files or serial devices (modems, printers, scanners, and so on). This is for
security concerns; no one wants their computer to be wiped clean by a rogue
applet on a bad actor. Applets helped to make the Web more dynamic and
engaging and gave the Java programming language a boost.

Application
A computer application, often known as an application program, is a piece
of software that runs on your computer. Applications include web browsers,
email programs, word processors, games, and utilities. Because each software
has a unique application for the user, the term “application” is utilized. A
word processor, for example, can assist a student in writing a research paper,
while a video game can keep the student from getting distracted.
System software, on the other hand, is made up of programs that
operate in the background and allow apps to run. Assemblers, compilers,
    

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programs. Because the system software is made up of “low-level” programs,
applications are said to run on top of it. While system software is loaded
along with the operating system, you have the option of selecting which
programs to install and run on your computer.
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Mac programs end in-app and Windows programs end in.EXE. Even though
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Archie
Archie is a program that searches FTP (File Transfer Protocol) servers for
files. Archie isn’t used very often anymore because it requires that you to
know the exact file name. The majority of file searches are now conducted
via the Internet using a Web browser, such as Firefox, Chrome, or Safari.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 15

Archive
An archive is a single file that contains several files and/or folders. Archives
can be preserved in a variety of formats, the majority of which use file
compression to reduce file size. They are used to assemble a collection of
files into a single package. When moving several files to another user or
backing up data, this can be useful.
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ARP
“Address Resolution Protocol” or ARP is a mechanism that maps an IP
address to a computer on a local area network (LAN). The ARP translates
the IP address to the MAC address since each machine has a unique physical
address called a MAC address. This guarantees that each computer has its
own network ID.
When data supplied to a network arrives at the gateway, which acts
as the network’s entrance point, the Address Resolution Protocol is used.
Based on the IP address to which the data is being delivered, the gateway
utilizes ARP to locate the computer’s MAC address. This information is
usually found in a table termed the “ARP cache” by the ARP. If the address
is located, the information is passed on to the gateway, which routes the data
to the correct computer. If necessary, it can also transform the data to the
right network format.
If the address cannot be discovered, the ARP sends out a “request packet”
to other machines on the network to determine if the IP address belongs to
one of the machines not in the ARP cache. If a genuine system is discovered,
the information is conveyed to the gateway, and the ARP cache is updated
with the new data. Future requests for that IP address will be substantially
faster after you update the ARP cache. While this may appear to be a time-


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Array
A data structure that contains a group of elements is known as an array. In
computer programs, arrays are widely used to organize data so that a related
16 Key Concepts in Computer Science

group of numbers can be readily sorted or searched. A search engine, for

example, might utilize an array to store Web sites found during a user’s
search. The software will output one element of the array at a time when
showing the results. This can be done for a set number of values or until the
entire array of values has been output. While the program might generate a
new variable for each result, putting the results in an array is a much more
effective method of memory management.
The syntax for storing and displaying the values in an array typically
looks something like this:
arrayname[0] = “This”;
arrayname[1] = “is”;
arrayname[2] = “pretty simple.”;
print arrayname[0];
print arrayname[1];
print arrayname[2];
  
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is fairly straightforward.” The programmer can tell the program to output
each value in the array until the last value is reached by using a “while” or
“for” loop. As a result, arrays not only assist programmers manage memory
more effectively, but they also make the programmer’s job easier.

ASCII
Computers utilize ASCII, or American Standard Code for Information
Interchange, to represent all upper and lower-case letters, digits, and
punctuation. Without ASCII, each type of computer would have its own way
of expressing letters and numbers, causing enormous confusion for computer
programmers (and allowing them to sleep even less than they already do).
Text can be displayed in the same way on a Dell Dimension in Minneapolis,
Minnesota, as it can on an Apple Power Mac in Paris, France, thanks to
ASCII. There are 128 ASCII codes, each of which can be represented by a
7-digit binary number (because 2^7 = 128).

ASP
Just to confuse ordinary people like you and me, there are two equally
important definitions of ASP. The term can refer to (1) an Active Server
Page, or (2) an Application Service Provider.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 17

1. Active Server Page

This is a Web page that contains one or more ASP scripts. When an ASP-
based Web page is visited, ASP scripts run like small computer programs.
If the URL’s suffix is .”asp,” you’re on an active server page (as opposed to
“.html”). Before being sent to a user’s browser, ASP pages are processed on
a Web server.
ASP pages are commonly used for pages that include dynamic or
constantly changing data. An ASP script might obtain a visitor’s zip code via
a Web form and then customize the content on the resulting page based on
that information. ASP scripts are often written in Microsoft’s Visual Basic
programming language, as ASP technology was created by Microsoft.

2. Application Service Provider

This is a third-party corporation that distributes software-based services
from a central site to customers in various locations, sometimes known as an
“app-on-tap.” Companies can utilize ASPs to outsource services that would
otherwise have to be done in-house or on-site. Using an ASP to manage
information services is typically a cost-effective option for businesses
and organizations. There are five main categories of Application Service
Providers:
Local or regional application service provider (ASP) – provides a
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ASP.NET
ASP.NET is a set of Web development tools offered by Microsoft. Programs
like Visual Studio .NET and Visual Web Developer allow Web developers
to create dynamic websites using a visual interface. of course, programmers
18 Key Concepts in Computer Science

can write their own code and scripts and incorporate it into ASP.NET
websites as well. Though it is often seen as a successor to Microsoft’s ASP
programming technology, ASP.NET also supports Visual Basic.NET, JScript
.NET and open-source languages like Python and Perl.
The ASP.NET framework is based on the.NET framework, which
provides software programmers with an application program interface (API).
The.NET development tools can be used to create apps for both Windows
and the Web. Visual Studio.NET, for example, provides a visual interface for
developers to create their apps, making .NET a viable option for developing
Web-based applications.
An ASP.NET website must be published to a Web server that supports
ASP.NET apps in order to work properly. By far the most popular platform
for ASP.NET websites are Microsoft’s Internet Information Services (IIS)
Web server. While there are various open-source choices for Linux-based
computers, these options often fall short of providing complete support for
ASP.NET apps.

ATA
“Advanced Technology Attachment” is a disc drive that has the drive
controller built inside it. ATA hard drives can be used in computers without
the need for a special controller. A separate card (such as a SCSI card for
a SCSI hard drive) is not required, but the motherboard must still support
an ATA connection. Some different types of ATA standards include ATA-1,
ATA-2 (a.k.a. Fast ATA), ATA-3, Ultra ATA (33 MBps maximum transfer
rate), ATA/66 (66 MBps), and ATA/100 (100 MBps).
IDE stands for “Integrated Drive Electronics,” and it’s also how ATA
drives are referred to. ATA drives are sometimes labelled as “IDE/ATA” to
confuse consumers who are buying hard drives. ATA uses IDE technology
technically, but the crucial thing to remember is that they both refer to the
same object.

ATM
“Asynchronous Transfer Mode” is the abbreviation for “Asynchronous
Transfer Mode.” The majority of people are familiar with ATMs as
automated teller machines, which are friendly boxes that allow you to
take cash from your bank or credit account. ATM, on the other hand, has
a different meaning in the computing world. Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) is a networking protocol that sends data in packets or cells.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 19

53-byte cells are used in ATM (5 bytes for the address header and 48
bytes for the data). These incredibly small cells can be processed quickly
enough through an ATM switch (not an automated teller machine) to sustain
data transfer speeds of over 600 megabits per second. The technology was
created to transmit all types of material at fast speeds, from simple graphics
to full-motion video.
ATM equipment can transfer massive volumes of data over a single link
while ensuring that no single transmission consumes all of the bandwidth
since the cells are so small. It also allows Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to
assign each client a certain amount of bandwidth. While this may appear to
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Internet connection, resulting in a speedier overall connection for everyone.

Autocomplete
Autocomplete is a text prediction system that works as you type. When you
type a query into a search box, for example, autocomplete will show you a
list of options that start with the string you typed.
The suggestions supplied by autocomplete are usually based on the
search engine’s history of user searches. However, information like your
location or browser history may be included in the autocomplete algorithm.
As a result, the autocomplete suggestions you see may differ from those of
others.
Autocomplete serves two main purposes — to give you search
suggestions and save you time If you notice a search phrase you wish to use,
simply click on it, or use your keyboard’s arrows to get to it, then hit Enter.

Autoresponder
A mail server’s autoresponder is a program or script that automatically
responds to e-mails. An autoresponder can normally be set up by the user
through a Web-based interface, even if it is administered by the mail server.
For instance, a corporation might set up an autoresponder for its support
e-mail address to notify users that their help requests have been received. It
is possible that the automated response will say something along those lines:
“Thank you for your message; we have received it. After he finishes his dart
game in the lobby, one of our techs will try to address your query.”
20 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Avatar
An avatar is a digital representation of a person. Players can create bespoke
characters, known as avatars, in games like World of Warcraft and The Sims
Online, for example. In an online environment, people can control their
avatars and communicate with other players. The icon and username that
a user picks while registering for a website or online discussion forum can
also be referred to as an avatar. The avatar name and image typically show
up next to any contributions the user makes on the website. For example:
“His World of Warcraft avatar is a Mage with black armor and a silver staff.”
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 21

B
Backbone
A network backbone transports data to smaller transmission lines, in a similar
way that the human backbone transports signals to many smaller neurons
throughout the body. The major network cables that connect numerous local
area networks (LANs) together are referred to as a local backbone. As a
result, a wide area network (WAN) with a backbone connection has been
created.
The Internet, as the world’s largest wide-area network, relies on a
backbone to transport data over long distances. The Internet backbone is
made up of multiple ultra-high-bandwidth links that connect a variety of
nodes all around the world. Incoming data is routed through these nodes to
smaller networks in the area. The fewer “hops” your data must take before
reaching the backbone, the faster it will be delivered to its destination. This is
why many Web servers and ISPs have direct Internet backbone connections.

Backside Bus
Data is sent to and from a computer’s CPU via two types of buses. The front
side bus and the backside bus are the two types of buses. Surprisingly, there
is no link between them and the backside and frontside airs popular among
snowboarders.
The backside bus transports data to and from the computer’s secondary
cache, while the front side bus transports data between the CPU and memory.
The L2 cache, or secondary cache, keeps frequently used functions and data
close to the processor. Because it can repeat tasks faster, the computer’s
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The backside bus is used to send information from the L2 cache to the
processor. Because this operation must be completed quickly, the rear bus’s
clock speed cannot be allowed to fall behind. As a result, the backside bus is
frequently faster than the processor. On the other hand, the front side bus is
usually half the speed of the processor or slower.

Backup
Backup is the most important computer term one should be aware of. A
backup is a duplicate of one or more files prepared as a fallback if the
22 Key Concepts in Computer Science

original data is lost or becomes unusable. For example, you might keep
numerous versions of a research paper as backup files on your hard drive in
case you decide to use a previous draught. Better yet, save the backups to a
USB flash drive, which will secure the files if the hard drive fails.
Hard drives are designed to last a long time without failing. However,
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on moving parts to retrieve data because they are not solid-state devices,
which can fail and render your data unrecoverable. Go to your local computer
store and have someone show you an open hard drive if you need proof of
how delicate hard drives are. When you realize that all your data is saved
on such a small, delicate device, you may have a new appreciation for the
importance of data backup.
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structures can result in the disappearance of entire folders. Viruses and

  
      

 
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there are numerous ways for your data to be lost or destroyed.
That is why it is critical to have a backup of your data. Many individuals
do not recognize the value of having a backup until it’s too late. of course,
maintaining a backup becomes even more important when you’ve lost years
of images, school papers, business documents, e-mail archives, music,
movies, or any other data that you can’t retrieve.
So how do you backup your data? The best way is to use an external

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media, such as CD-R and DVD-R discs. Backing up individual folders and
      
   
   
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hard disk) to the destination (an external hard drive). If you want to back
up your entire system or would like to have regular backups automatically
performed, you can use backup software that will back up your data for
you. Many programs are available for both Mac and Windows that provide
automatic backups and system restore capabilities.

Bandwidth
The amount of data you can transport via a network or modem connection
is referred to as bandwidth. Bits per second, or “bps,” is the most common
unit of measurement. Bandwidth can be compared to a highway with cars
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 23

travelling on it. The roadway represents the data, and the automobiles are the
network connection. The more cars that can travel on a roadway at the same
time, the broader it is. As a result, more cars will arrive at their destinations
faster. In the case of computer data, the more bandwidth available, the more
data that can be transported in a given length of time.

Banner Ad
Whether you like it or not, advertising powers most of the Internet. Websites,
like television and radio, can provide free content in exchange for advertising
revenue. While you may become tired of seeing commercials on the Internet
from time to time, most people would agree that seeing a few ads here and
there is preferable to paying a monthly fee for each website.
The banner ad is perhaps the most used type of online advertising. It’s
a long, rectangular graphic that can go nearly anyplace on a Web page.
The majority of banner advertisements are 468 pixels wide by 60 pixels
tall (468x60). They may feature text, photos, or obnoxious animations that
 

 
  
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a banner ad, he or she is taken to the advertiser’s website, regardless of the
type of ad.

Base Station
The word “base station” was first used to describe the cell phone towers that
can be seen on the side of the road. These stations take care of all cellular
calls within their service area, receiving data from one end of the line and
transmitting it to the other.
A base station, on the other hand, is the wireless access point for PCs
with wireless cards in the computer industry. It is essentially a router that
communicates with Wi-Fi-enabled devices. 802.11b and 802.11g are two
prevalent Wi-Fi setups. Companies such as Netgear, Linksys, D-Link,
Apple Computer, and others produce wireless base stations. Fortunately, all
wireless cards can connect with base stations from any manufacturer as long
as the hardware is based on the Wi-Fi standard.
24 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Figure 8. Base Station.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

Baseband
A baseband signal is a signal that has not been modulated or has been
demodulated back to its original frequency. To be sent over long distances,
most telecommunications protocols require baseband signals to be
transformed, or modulated, to a higher frequency. As a result, throughout
the transmission process, the original baseband, or lowpass, signals are
converted. The signal is demodulated when it reaches its destination,
allowing the recipient to receive the original baseband signal. Because it
delivers data in baseband, Ethernet is an example of a protocol that does
not require signal modulation. For example: “Baseband signals must be
modulated to higher frequencies for radio transmission.”

Figure 9. Baseband.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

 Key Concepts in Computer Science 25

BASIC
“Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code” is the acronym for
“Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.” BASIC is a computer
programming language that was created in the mid-1960s to help students
write basic computer programs. Since then, the language has matured into a
more sophisticated and powerful programming language that can be used to
construct advanced applications for today’s computers.
Initially, BASIC used numbers at the beginning of each instruction (or
line) to tell the computer what order to process the instructions. Lines would
be numbered as 10, 20, 30, etc., which would allow additional instructions to
be placed between commands later if needed. “GOTO” statements enabled
programs to loop back to earlier instructions during execution. For example,
line 230 of a BASIC program may have an “if” clause that tells the computer
to jump back to line 50 if a variable is less than 10. This instruction might
look something like this:
230 IF (N < 10) THEN GOTO 50
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condition is true, are used in more contemporary BASIC implementations.
For storing variables and other data, newer BASIC programming software
offers more data types, such as integers, strings, and arrays. While the early
BASIC development environments were solely text-based, today’s BASIC
programming software allows programmers to create most of their code
visually using a graphical user interface. REAL basic and Microsoft Visual
Basic are two of the most popular BASIC development programs today.

Batch File
A batch file is a script that has a list of commands in it. These commands are
run in a specific order and can be used for automating tasks. Some programs,
for example, may include a batch file that runs a series of commands when
the program starts up. A user can also make their own batch file to automate
time-consuming tasks like moving numerous directories or renaming
multiple files all at once.
26 Key Concepts in Computer Science

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Source: Image by thenounproject.com.

The COMMAND.COM program, which is included with DOS and
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used in the Windows operating system. Other scripting tools for Macintosh
and Unix, such as AppleScript and Unix shell commands, can be used for

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File Extensions: .BAT, .CMD

Batch Process
Some computer chores can be monotonous and repetitious. If a task is indeed
repetitive, a batch process can be utilized to automate most of it.
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time and effort of opening each one separately. The operating system, such
as Windows or Mac OS, would run this type of batch task. A Photoshop user,
on the other hand, may use a batch procedure to make changes to multiple
photos at once. She could, for example, record a Photoshop action that
resizes and crops an image. She can batch process a folder of photographs
after recording the action, which will conduct the operation on all of the
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 27

images in the folder. By automating repeated activities, batch processing

can save time and energy. While writing the script or recording the repetitive
motions may take some time, doing it once is preferable to doing it many
times.

Baud
Unlike common perception, baud is not a measurement of data transfer
speed; rather, it is a measurement of the number of electrical signals sent
per second. For modems, networks, serial cables, and other data transfer
media, Baud is used to quantify the rate of electrical signals, or “signaling
components.”
Some individuals mistakenly believe that baud and bits per second are
the same thing. They’ll state, for example, that a 28,800-bps modem sends
at 28,800 baud and behave as if they know everything. However, most
modems provide multiple bits of data per baud, so while the two numbers
are connected, they are rarely equal. So, the next time your friend claims
that his 56K v.90 modem can transport data at 56,000 baud, you may gently
correct him and explain the difference between baud and bits per second.

Bcc
“Blind Carbon Copy” is the abbreviation for “Blind Carbon Copy.” You
type the recipient’s address in the “To:” section when sending an email to
just one person. You can include addresses in the “Cc:” and “Bcc:” boxes
when sending a message to several recipients. The letters “Cc” and “Bcc”
stand for “Carbon Copy” and “Blind Carbon Copy,” respectively.
An e-mail that is copied to one or more recipients is known as a carbon
copy, or “Cc’d” message. All of the addresses the message was sent to are
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to the main recipient or the Bcc’d recipients when a message is blind
carbon copied. Carbon copying without the main recipient’s knowledge is
a valuable approach to allow others see an e-mail you send. It is less time
consuming than sending the original message and then forwarding it to the
other recipients. When copying a message to a large group of people, it’s also
good etiquette to utilize Bcc. This protects the e-mail addresses from being
taken and used for spamming reasons by someone on the list. If it’s critical
that each recipient understands who your communication is addressed to,
utilize carbon copy (Cc).
28 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Bespoke
The term “bespoke” originated in England, where it referred to custom or
tailored clothing. However, in recent years, the term has been applied to
information technology (IT) and has come to refer to customized services
or solutions.
Bespoke software, for example, is software that has been tailored to
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include a unique layout, custom database integration, and other unique
features requested by the client. Bespoke websites take longer to construct
and are more expensive than websites made from templates since they must
be individually suited to a client’s needs.
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Apple. For example, one individual may opt for a high-end graphics card
for video production, while another may opt for a simple graphics card
but add additional RAM so that her machine can run multiple programs
simultaneously. Bespoke systems are a term used to describe these
specialized arrangements.

Beta Software
A commercial software application normally goes through a “beta” phase
before being released to the public. The software is checked for bugs,
crashes, errors, inconsistencies, and other issues during this step. Though
beta versions of software were once only available to developers, they are
now occasionally made available for public testing, usually through the
software company’s website. Because beta software is free, it normally
expires after a certain amount of time. If you decide to try out a beta
software program, don’t be surprised if it has several issues and crashes
your computer frequently. It is, after all, a beta version. By looking at the
program’s attributes, you can identify if it’s still in beta. It’s a beta version if
the version number starts with a “b” (e.g., Version: 1.2 b3).
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 29

Binary
Binary is a two-digit (Base-2) number system used by computers to store
information and perform calculations. Because digital switches inside
computers can only be turned on or off, which is represented by a 1 or 0,
computers employ the binary system. Even though the binary system only
has one and zero digits, the two digits can be utilized to represent any integer.
For example:
A single 0 in binary represents zero.
A single 1 represents (2^0) or 1.
10 represents (2^1) or 2.
11 represents (2^1 + 2^0) or 3.
100 represents (2^2) or 4.
101 represents (2^2 + 2^+0) or 5.
110 represents (2^2 + 2^1) or 6.
111 represents (2^2 + 2^1 + 2^0) or 7.
1000 represents (2^3) or 8, and so on.

Figure 11. Representation of binary

Source: Image by Flickr

Bing
Bing is a Microsoft-developed search engine. It evolved from “MSN
Search,” later renamed “Windows Live Search,” and finally “Live Search.”
30 Key Concepts in Computer Science

In 2009, Microsoft decided to rebrand their search engine and give it the
moniker “Bing,” which is both easy to remember and pronounce.
Bing, like Google, Yahoo!, and other search engines, provides a distinct
web search experience. The main page, for example, features a bespoke
image or video with related information that is updated daily. You may also
link your Facebook account to your Bing login, allowing Bing to show you
pages that your friends enjoy in the search results.
Bing also offers a variety of specialized searches, such as photos, videos,
commerce, news, and maps, in addition to online searches. Microsoft
Translator, a language translation service, is also available. Bing is available
for free at Bing.com.

Biometrics
Biometrics are technologies that detect and recognize physical traits in
humans. Biometrics is frequently used interchangeably with “biometric
authentication,” a sort of security authorization based on biometric input in
the IT sector.

Figure 12. Biometrics.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

Biometric authentication comes in a variety of forms. Fingerprint
scanning, retinal scanning, facial recognition, and speech analysis are all
common instances. A facial recognition system, for example, captures an
image of a person’s face using a camera. Biometrics software is then used to
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 31

record and process the image. The software tries to match the scanned image
with a photo from a user’s photo database. If the scan gets close enough to a
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to sections. In some circumstances, in addition to a biometric scan, a key
card, passcode, or login is required for added security.

BIOS
“Basic Input/Output System” is the abbreviation for “Basic Input/Output
System.” Most individuals will never need to meddle with a computer’s
BIOS, but knowing what it is might be useful. The BIOS is a program that
is pre-installed on Windows-based computers (but not on Macs) and is used
to start up the computer. Even before the operating system is loaded, the
CPU contacts the BIOS. After that, the BIOS examines all your hardware
connections and locates all your devices. The BIOS then loads the operating
system into the computer’s memory and completes the boot-up procedure if
everything is in order.
It can’t survive on a hard drive since the BIOS manages them, and it
can’t live in RAM because it’s available before the computer powers up.
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in the computer’s ROM (Read-Only Memory) chip, which is an erasable
programmed read-only memory. So, as soon as you turn your computer on,
the CPU accesses the EPROM and gives control to the BIOS.
After the computer has booted up, the BIOS is also used. It serves as a
link between the CPU and the input/output (I/O) devices. Your programs and
operating system don’t need to know exact data (such hardware addresses)
about the I/O devices attached to your PC because of the BIOS. Only the
BIOS needs to be changed when device details change. When your machine


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as your computer starts up, hold down the DELETE or F2 key to reach the
BIOS.
32 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Bit
The computer term “bit” comes from the phrase “Binary DigIT. A bit is the
smallest unit of computer data and represents a single digit number in base-2
(a zero or a one). A whole page of text contains approximately 16,000 bits.
It is important not to confuse bits with bytes. Both are used to measure
amounts of data, but it takes eight bits to make one byte. The most common
area where bits are used instead of bytes is in measuring bandwidth (in bits
per second). Why? Probably because it makes your Internet connection
sound faster than it really is.

Bitmap
Bitmaps make up the majority of the images you view on your computer. As
long as you sit a decent distance away from the screen, a bitmap is a map
of dots, or bits (hence the name), that appears to be an image. BMP (raw
bitmap format), JPEG, GIF, PICT, PCX, and TIFF are all common bitmap
file types. When you zoom in on a bitmap image, it looks to be incredibly
blocky since bitmap images are made up of a collection of dots. Vector
graphics (made with software like Freehand, Illustrator, or CorelDraw) may
be scaled up without becoming blocky.

Bitrate
The rate at which bits are transported from one location to another is referred
to as bitrate. To put it another way, it measures how much data is sent in
a certain amount of time. Bitrate is typically expressed in bits per second
(bps), kilobits per second (Kbps), or megabits per second (Mbps) (Mbps). A
DSL connection, for example, may be capable of downloading data at 768
kbps, but a Firewire 800 connection can transmit data at 800 Mbps.
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 Key Concepts in Computer Science 33

BitTorrent
BitTorrent is a peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing technology that aims to
cut down on the amount of bandwidth needed to transport content. This
is accomplished by spreading file transfers across numerous computers,
reducing the average bandwidth consumed by each computer. If a user
starts downloading a movie file, the BitTorrent system will look for other
computers that have the same file and begin downloading it from all of them
at the same time. Downloading from numerous computers can greatly boost
the file transfer rate because most ISPs offer far quicker download rates than
upload speeds.

Figure 13. BitTorrent.

Source: Image by Flickr.

A BitTorrent client, which is a software program that connects to the
BitTorrent network, is required to use the BitTorrent protocol. You can use
   




  


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are downloads that are currently in progress. Torrents that have been paused
or stopped can usually be resumed using most BitTorrent clients. When


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Blob
The term “blob” refers to a binary large object (BLOB) that is used to
store data in databases. A blob is a binary data storage data type. In contrast
34 Key Concepts in Computer Science




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characters, and strings, which store letters and numbers, this one store letters
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because they can store binary data. A photo album, for example, may be
saved in a database with photos recorded as blobs and descriptions stored
as strings.
Blobs demand substantially more space than other data types since they




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of data a blob can hold varies by database type, however some databases
allow blobs to be many gigabytes in size. Now that is a big blob!

Blog
This term refers to a list of journal entries put on a Web page and is short
for “Web Log.” Anyone who understands how to develop and publish a
Web page can start a blog. Some Web providers have made it even simpler
by providing an interface that allows users to just input a text entry and tap
“publish” to publish their blog.

Figure 14. Blog.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

Many people (often young children and adults) have found a new
presence on the Internet as a result of the ease with which they can create a
blog. Individuals can now share their personal sentiments and experiences
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 35

 
 

 
 
 

 
entries in a book that no intends to see. Blogs are often updated on a daily,
monthly, or irregular basis. “Blog” may also be used as a verb, as in “Wow,
Matt blogged a lot last week.”

Blu-ray
Blu-ray, such as CDs and DVDs, is an optical disc format. It was designed
for storing enormous amounts of data and recording and playing back high-
definition (HD) video. A single Blu-ray disc can carry up to 25 GB of data,
compared to 700 MB on a CD and 4.7 GB on a standard DVD. Even a rare
double-sided, dual-layer DVD can only carry 17 GB of data. 50 GB of data
will be stored on dual-layer Blu-ray discs. That’s the equivalent of 4 hours
of high-definition television.

Figure 15. Blu-Ray.

Source: Image by Flickr.

Because of the blue lasers used in the drives, Blu-ray discs can carry
more data than regular optical media. Although the laser is blue-violet,
“Blu-ray” is a little easier to say than “Blu-violet-ray.” The wavelength of
the blue-violet laser is shorter than that of the red lasers used in CDs and
DVDs (405 nm compared to 650 nm). This allows the laser to focus on a
smaller region, allowing far more data to be packed onto a disc the same size
as a CD or DVD. As more people switch to HDTV, supporters of the Blu-
36 Key Concepts in Computer Science

ray technology predict that Blu-ray players will replace VCRs and DVD
recorders. Visit Blu-ray.com for the most up-to-date Blu-ray news.

Bluetooth
This wireless technology allows Bluetooth-enabled devices to communicate
with one another. It connects desktop and laptop computers, PDAs (such the
Palm Pilot or Handspring Visor), digital cameras, scanners, cellular phones,
and printers over short distances.
Infrared used to serve the same purpose as Bluetooth, but it had
a few disadvantages. If an object were to be placed between the two
communication devices, for example, the transmission would be disrupted.
(If you’ve ever used a television remote control, you’ve probably observed
this limitation.) Infrared transmission was very slow, and devices were
frequently incompatible with one another.

Figure 16. Symbol of Bluetooth.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

All of these limitations are taken care of via Bluetooth. Because the
system is based on radio waves, items or even walls can be placed between
the communication devices without disrupting the connection. Bluetooth
also employs a common 2.4 GHz frequency, ensuring that all Bluetooth-
enabled devices are interoperable. The sole disadvantage of Bluetooth is that
 
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for transferring data within the same room, you may be out of luck if you
are walking in your backyard and want to transfer your address book from
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 37

your cell phone to your basement computer. The low range, on the other
hand, can be viewed as a positive feature because it increases the security of
Bluetooth connection.

BMP
“Bitmap” is abbreviated as “Bitmap.” “Bump,” “B-M-P,” or simply “bitmap
image” are all possible pronunciations. The BMP format is a raster graphic
format for saving image files that is widely used. It was first introduced on
the Windows platform, but many programs now recognize it on both Macs
and PCs.
Without any compression, the BMP format stores color data for each
pixel in the image. A 10x10 pixel BMP image, for example, will have color
data for 100 pixels. This way of storing image information yields enormous
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utilized on the Web, while BMP images are frequently used for printing.

Bookmark
An Internet bookmark functions similarly to a physical bookmark in that it
serves as a marking for a website. (They’re called “Favorites” in Internet
Explorer.) To go to a certain site in a Web browser, simply select a bookmark
from the browser’s Bookmarks menu. You won’t have to repeat the process
of putting in the Internet address every time you visit one of your favorite
sites this way. Also, who remembers those 200-character addresses anyway?

Figure 17. Bookmark symbol.

Source: Image by Thenounproject.com.

38 Key Concepts in Computer Science

When you’re on a website you want to bookmark, most browsers let

you make a bookmark by selecting “Add Bookmark” from the Bookmarks
menu. Wow, that’s a lot of “bookmarks” in one line. That’s what happens
when nouns and verbs are used interchangeably.

Boolean
This is the logic that computers use to determine if a statement is true or
false. There are four main Boolean operators: AND, NOT, OR, and XOR.
Below are some examples of how the 4 operators work:
x AND y returns True if both x and y are true, otherwise the expression
returns False.
NOT x returns True if x is false (or null) and False if x is true.
x OR y returns True if either x or y or both are true; only if they are both
false will it return False.
x XOR y returns True if either x or y are true, but not both. If x and y are
both true or false, the statement will return False.

Figure 18. Boolean.

Source: Image by Wikipedia.

While Boolean expressions are used to power computers’ CPUs, they
can also be used by users. Many search engines, for example, accept Boolean
operators in search queries when looking for information on the Internet
(i.e., “Yamaha AND piano NOT motorcycle”). In software development,
Boolean expressions are frequently used to control loops and variables.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 39

Boot
You kick a football a long far when you boot it. You just switch on a computer
when you boot it. It’s not a good idea to kick your computer too hard, even if
you’re inclined to do so. The word “boot” comes from the term “bootstraps,”
which was sometimes used to put on one’s footwear. Similarly, “booting” a
computer brings it up to speed.
To put it simply, booting a computer is turning it on. The “boot process”
begins when the computer’s power is turned on. The start-up instructions are
loaded from the computer’s ROM, and then the operating system is loaded
from the current boot disc. The boot disc is commonly a hard drive inside
the computer, although it can also be an external drive, a CD or DVD-ROM,

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process is complete and the computer is ready to be used.

Boot Disk
A boot disc isn’t a computer disc that looks like a boot. Most disc drives
would have a hard time reading it if it was. A boot disc, on the other hand,
is a disc that a computer can use to start up or “boot” from. An internal hard
drive is the most popular sort of boot disc, and it’s where most computers
start up from. During the boot process, the operating system installed on the
hard drive is loaded.
Most computers, on the other hand, allow you to boot from external
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must have an operating system installed that the machine can understand to
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Windows or Mac OS X, or a small utility operating system like Norton
Utilities or Disk Warrior.
When the operating system on the internal hard drive fails to load, CD
and DVD boot discs are frequently used to restart the machine. When faulty
data blocks or other mistakes occur on the disc, this can happen. You may
typically repair the hard drive and restart it using the whole operating system
by utilizing a disc repair program from a CD or DVD.

Boot Sector
The first section of a hard disc or other data storage medium is known as the
boot sector. It houses the master boot record (MBR), which the computer
consults throughout the boot process. A partition map, which defines each
40 Key Concepts in Computer Science

disc partition, may also be included in the boot sector. For example: “The
computer could not start up from the hard disk because the boot sector was
damaged.”

Boot Sequence
When a computer first turns on, it goes through a variety of procedures. A
“boot sequence” is the name given for this series of events. The computer
activates the necessary hardware components and loads the needed software
during the boot procedure so that a user can actively interact with the system.
The boot sequence starts by accessing the computer’s BIOS on
Windows PCs or the system ROM on a Macintosh. Basic instructions
teach the computer how to boot up and are stored in the BIOS and ROM.
These instructions are subsequently sent to the CPU of the computer, which
begins loading data into the system RAM. The computer begins loading
the operating system into system memory once a valid boot disc or start-up
disc is detected. The computer is ready to use once the operating system has
 

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take anything from a few seconds to several minutes. The boot time may be
much greater if the computer is booted from a CD or DVD than if it is booted
from a hard drive. Additionally, if your computer was shut off unexpectedly,
the start-up time may increase while the system does additional checks to
ensure everything is in working order.

Bot
This is an automated software program that can execute certain commands
when it receives a specific input (like a ro-”bot”). Bots are most often seen
at work in the Internet-related areas of online chat and Web searching. The
online chat bots do things like greet people when they enter a chat room,
advertise Web sites, and kick people out of chat rooms when they violate the
chat room rules. Web searching bots, also known as spiders and crawlers,
search the Web and retrieve millions of HTML documents, then record
the information and links found on the pages. From there, they generate
electronic catalogs of the sites that have been “spidered.” These catalogs
make up the index of sites that are used for search engine results.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 41

Figure 19. Bot.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

Botnet
A botnet is a collection of computers controlled by a single computer. While
some botnets are built for lawful cluster computing reasons, the vast majority
of botnets are designed for malevolent objectives. Sending spam messages,
propagating malware, and attacking Internet servers are just a few examples.
For example: “When he ran the antivirus software, he realized his computer
had been part of a botnet.”
Botnets are created when hackers compromise the security of numerous
computers and install bots (automated programs) on each one. This is
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system or a piece of software. Because botnet activity is often hidden
from the user, most people are unaware that their computers have been


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install antivirus software that monitors your computer for strange activities
on a frequent basis.
42 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Figure 20. Botnet.

Source: Image by Thenounproject.com.

Bounce
The term “bounce” has several different IT related meanings, yet none of
them include bouncy balls. The most common definition of bounce used in
the computer world refers to e-mail messages.

1. Returning E-mail
When you send an e-mail message to someone else, the message is processed
by the mail server and delivered to the appropriate user’s mailbox. If you
send an email to “[email protected],” for example, the mail.com server
looks for a user named “merman” to deliver it to. If the user does not exist,
the message may be bounced back to the sender with the message “Sorry,
that user does not exist.” These messages often come from “Mail Delivery
Subsystem” and have a subject line that reads “Returned mail: see transcript
for details.”
If you get a bounced message, double-check the e-mail address you
used to send the message and make sure it’s correct. If the address is valid,
reading the body of the bounced message for extra information may be
helpful. “User quota over limit,” for example, indicates that the recipient
has exceeded his or her e-mail quota and must delete some messages and/or
attachments in order to receive new mail. If this is the case, you may want to
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 43

phone the person or use a different e-mail address to inform him or her that
he or she needs to perform some Inbox maintenance.

2. Restarting a Computer
The process of rebooting or restarting a computer is also known as “bounce.”
After installing new software, for example, a workstation may need to be
bounced. A Web server may also be bounced if the websites hosted on it are
not responding properly.

3. Exporting Audio
The term “bounce” can also refer to the process of converting many tracks
in an audio mix to one mono or two stereo recordings. This aids in the
consolidation of audio tracks that have been mixed. Bouncing audio tracks
reduces the amount of processing power required because the computer only
has to process one track instead of all of them. Digital Performer is the
primary audio software program that uses bouncing to export audio.

4. Hiding a Network Connection

Finally, in networking, the term “bouncing” can refer to a technique for
concealing the source of a user’s network connection. BNC is a common
abbreviation for this form of bouncing. A “bouncer” is someone who
bounces his network connection, but this is not the same person who verifies
your ID at the bar.

BPS
“Bits Per Second” is the abbreviation for “Bits Per Second.” (The “b” is
capitalized because it refers to bits rather than bytes.) The conventional way
of measuring how fast data passes via a network or phone system is in bits
per second. A 56K modem, for example, can theoretically transmit data at
56,700 bits per second.

Bridge
A bridge is erected to connect two land masses when a road needs to extend
across a river or valley. Because the average car can’t swim or fly, the bridge
allows cars to continue driving from one land mass to the next.
A bridge serves a similar job in computer networking. It joins together
two or more local area networks (LANs). The bridge is used by the cars, or
44 Key Concepts in Computer Science

data in this example, to move to and from different parts of the network.
Although the device resembles a router, it does not evaluate the data being
sent. As a result, bridges are usually quick in transferring data, but they
aren’t as adaptable as routers. For example, unlike most routers, a bridge
 
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or level 2 of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) networking reference
model, and can transport data across different protocols (for example, a
Token Ring and Ethernet network).

Broadband
This is a type of high-speed data transmission in which a single cable may
simultaneously convey a significant volume of data. Cable modems (which
use the same connection as cable TV) and DSL modems are the most
frequent types of Internet broadband connections (which use your existing
phone line). Broadband has begun to supplant baseband, the single-channel
technology that was originally utilized in most computer networks, due to
its multiple channel capability. So now you’ll know what corporations like
AT&T and SBC are talking about when they put those fancy “broadband”
advertising in your face.

Figure 21. Broadband.

Source: Image by Thenounproject.com.

 Key Concepts in Computer Science 45

Buffer
A buffer is a storage area for data that is only kept for a brief period, usually
in the computer’s memory (RAM). A buffer’s job is to keep data until it’s
time to use it. When you download an audio or video file from the Internet,
for example, it may put the first 20% of it into a buffer before starting to
play. While the video is playing, the computer is downloading the rest of the
video and saving it in the buffer. There is less of a possibility that the audio
or video may stall or skip when there is network congestion because the clip
is being played from the buffer rather than directly from the Internet.
Buffering is also utilized to increase computer speed in other areas. A
buffer is used by most hard drives to provide for faster access to the data
on the disc. Before being displayed on the screen, video cards transmit
images to a buffer (known as a screen buffer). Buffers are used by computer
programs to store data while they are running. Computers would work far

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Figure 22. Buffering symbol.

Source: Image by Thenounproject.com.

Bug
A bug is a software program error in the computer world. It could cause a
software to quit unexpectedly or behave in an unexpected way. A simple
problem, for example, could cause a button in a program’s interface to not
46 Key Concepts in Computer Science

respond when you click it. Due to an infinite calculation or memory leak, a
more serious problem may cause the program to hang or crash.
Bugs in a program’s source code can be syntax or logic problems from the
developer’s perspective. A debugger, as the name implies, is a development
tool that can be used to rectify these mistakes. The problems will be detected
by the user if errors are not discovered before the software is compiled into
    

Because bugs can degrade a program’s usefulness, most programs
undergo extensive testing before being released to the public. Commercial
software, for example, frequently goes through a beta phase in which several
users extensively test all components of the program to ensure that it runs
properly. Once the program is determined to be stable and free from errors,
it is released to the public.
In fact, even after being properly tested, most programs are not
completely error-free, as is common knowledge. As a result, software
developers frequently produce “point updates” (e.g., version 1.0.1), which
contain bug patches for issues discovered after the software was released.
Programs that are especially “buggy” may require multiple point updates
(1.0.2, 1.0.3, etc.) to get rid of all the bugs.

Burn
When you “burn a disc,” you perform the action of writing data on it. If you
were taking the SAT test, the parallel would go as follows:
Hard Disk::: write

Burn a CD/DVD
Because the CD-writer, or burner, literally burns the data onto a writable CD,
the term “burn” is employed. A CD-laser writer can be turned up to a higher
power level than a standard CD-ROM laser. It can engrave hundreds of 1s
and 0s in the form of binary language onto a CD because of this property.
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just say they’re “writing” the data to a CD and get away with it, but people
seem to prefer “burning.”

Bus
While a bus’s wheels run “round and round,” the data on a computer’s bus
goes up and down. Each bus in a computer is made up of a series of wires that
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 47

allow data to flow back and forth. Most computers have multiple buses that
carry data to various portions of the machine. Each bus has a size, specified
in bits (such as 32-bit or 64-bit), that controls how much data can possibly
be sent across it at once. Buses also have a speed, measured in megahertz,
that governs how quickly data can be transmitted across a system.
The frontside bus is the computer’s primary bus, and it connects the
CPU to the rest of the motherboard’s components. Data can be moved to
and from expansion cards, like as video cards and other I/O devices, using
expansion buses like PCI and AGP. While a computer has numerous buses,
 
 
  
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enter and exit the processor.

Byte
A byte is an 8-bit representation of a single character in computer memory.
This term should not be confused with “bite,” as in biting into a cookie,
because they are completely distinct. Bytes are used to measure file sizes,
hard drive capacity, and computer memory, while bits are used to measure
data transfer speeds. Megabytes, gigabytes, and terabytes are units of
measurement for larger amounts of data. One kilobyte, for example, is
equivalent to 1,024 bytes.
48 Key Concepts in Computer Science

C
C/C++
C is a mid-1970s high-level programming language. It was created to write
Unix programs, but it is now used to create apps for almost every platform.
C is easier to comprehend, more flexible (it may be used for a wide range
of purposes), and memory efficient than most preceding languages. C++ is
a programming language based on the C language. It is pronounced “C plus
plus.” C++ has a syntax that is essentially comparable to C, but it has object-
oriented capabilities that allow it to be used with other languages.

Cable Modem
A cable modem is substantially faster than a traditional dial-up modem for
connecting to the Internet. Cable modems can enable data transfer rates of
up to 30 Mbps, but 56K modems can only accept data at roughly 53 Kbps.
That’s a 500-fold increase in speed. To save bandwidth, most ISPs limit their
subscribers’ transfer rates to less than 6 Mbps.

Figure 23. Cable Modem.

Source: Image by Pxhere.com.

A cable modem differs from a dial-up modem in another pertinent
way: it does not connect to a phone line. The cable modem, as the name
implies, connects to a local cable television line. This allows cable modems
to maintain a constant Internet connection. As a result, you will not have to
dial your ISP every time.
Cable modems are normally separate devices with a much more
complicated design than dial-up modems, but certain variants can be
integrated within a computer. Instead of connecting to a serial port like a
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 49

dial-up modem, cable modems connect to a normal Ethernet port to send

data at the highest feasible speed.

Cache
This term is pronounced like “cash” rather than “catch” or “cashé.” A cache
saves recently used data in a location where it may be accessed quickly. A
cache, for example, is used by a Web browser like Internet Explorer to save
recently seen pages, images, and URLs of recently visited Web sites on your
hard drive.
When you visit a page, you have previously visited, the pages and photos
do not have to be downloaded all over again thanks to this clever method.
Caching Web Sites can greatly speed up Web browsing because accessing
your computer’s hard disc is much faster than accessing the Internet. The
amount of the cache may usually be adjusted in the browser options of most
Web browsers.

Figure 24. Cache.

Source: Image by Seoability.net.

A disc cache is another typical form of cache. This keeps information
you’ve recently read from your hard disc in the RAM, or memory, of the
computer. Because reading data from the hard disc is slower than accessing
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drive much faster.
A processor cache is another sort of cache that stores small bits of data
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of common instructions, resulting in a reduction in computing time.
50 Key Concepts in Computer Science

CAD
Stands for “Computer-Aided Design” Engineers and architects see it as the
greatest invention of all time. CAD software is now utilized for almost all
three-dimensional design work. Designers can, in a much more rapid and
accurate manner, convert an object into an electronic representation than
they can using a pencil and paper. Even better, items generated with CAD
software may be quickly moved, scaled, and rotated with a pencil and paper,
you can only erase so much before it starts to smudge.

Figure 25. Computer-aided design.

Source: Image by Picpedia.

Camera RAW
The images you take with most digital cameras are processed and compressed
right after they are taken. This is advantageous since it reduces file sizes (via
JPEG compression) and handles color adjustment, such as white-balance,
tint, and exposure, so you don’t have to. Professional photographers, on the
other hand, prefer more control over how each shot is treated. As a result,
many high-end cameras are capable of shooting in RAW mode. This option
does not compress the images at all and does not manipulate them at all.
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photos. As a result, most high-end camera manufacturers provide Camera
RAW editing software with their products. These apps let you open RAW
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formats including bitmap, TIFF, and JPEG.
While shooting in Camera RAW mode gives you a lot of control over
your photographs, each photo you snap requires additional software and
time to access and edit. Using the camera’s built-in processing is the best
solution for most casual photography.

Caps Lock
Caps lock is a function found on nearly all keyboards that capitalizes each
letter written on the keyboard when activated. The caps lock key, unlike
most other keys on the keyboard, is a “toggle key,” meaning it is always
in one of two states: on or off. When the switch is turned off, the letters
written are entered as usual. When the feature is enabled, each letter written
is sent as an upper-case character. The input from the rest of the keys, such
as numbers and symbols, is unaffected by caps lock.
It is crucial to know if caps lock is on or off because it alters the input
of the characters on the keyboard. As a result, most keyboards have a light
on the caps lock key that illuminates when the key is pressed, signaling
that caps lock is activated. Because passwords are frequently case-sensitive,
it’s a good idea to avoid using caps lock when entering login information.
When typing e-mails, it’s also a good idea to avoid using caps lock because
it makes it appear as if you’re yelling.

Captcha
“Captchas may be used on online forms to prevent automated programs from
inputting data.” A captcha is a challenge-response test that is used to detect
whether a user is human or a bot. A standard captcha consists of a distorted
text image and a form field in which the user must enter the text. Captchas
are often seen at the bottom of online forms, and they must be completed
before the form can be submitted. Webmasters can prevent automated
programs from delivering spam or other harmful material through online
forms by requiring users to decipher and enter the captcha text.
52 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Figure 26. Captcha is used for security purpose.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

Card Reader
The phrase “card reader” refers to any input device that reads flash memory
cards. It can be a standalone USB device or integrated into a computer,
printer, or multifunction device. Most multifunction printers, scanners, and
copiers now have a card reader.

Figure 27. Card reader.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

 Key Concepts in Computer Science 53

$
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are among the memory card formats that most card readers accept. Other
card formats accepted by some card readers include XD, SmartMedia,
Microdrive, and Memory Stick Pro Duo.
A card reader, as the name implies, is used to read data from a memory
card. When you insert a memory card into a card reader, it frequently
appears as a mounted disk on your computer. The contents of the memory
card can then be viewed by double-clicking the card’s icon. On Macintosh
computers, this symbol appears on the desktop, while on Windows systems,
it appears in “My Computer.”
When you insert a memory card into your card reader, a photo organizing
program may automatically launch because memory cards typically include
photographs from digital cameras. This allows you to quickly import your
photos into your photo album. If you don’t want to use the program to import
images, simply close it and the card will remain mounted on your computer.
Make sure you unmount or “eject” the disk before physically removing
the card once you’ve decided to remove it. This will help keep the card’s
data from becoming easily corrupted.

Cc
Stands for “Carbon Copy.” The phrase derives from carbon copying, which
is the process of transferring writing from one piece of paper to another
using a piece of carbon paper (often used when filling out forms). However,
e-mail is now widely referred to as “e-mail.” In the “To:” area of an e-mail
message, you usually type the recipient’s address. You can use the “Cc:” box
to add other addresses to the message if you wish to send it to one or more
other people. The e-mail will be sent to the address in the “To:” area as well
as each of the addresses given in the “Cc:” field.
The “Cc:” option is often used in business communications when a
message is intended for one person, but is relevant to other people as well.
A shop employee, for example, may send an e-mail to another employee
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to inform them that he will be working the shift. Similarly, a team member
working on a product design may e-mail his supervisor with the most recent
design revisions and “Cc:” the rest of his team to let them know the e-mail
was received.
54 Key Concepts in Computer Science

“CCing” (yep, it’s a verb) is a simple way to include other persons in

your e-mail communications. It saves time because you don’t have to send
individual messages to each address. However, keep in mind that when you
Cc an email, all recipients will be able to view the other addresses to which
the letter was sent. Instead, utilize Blind Carbon Copy (Bcc) to disguise the
additional addresses.

CCD
Stands for “Charged Coupled Device.” CCDs are sensors that record still
and moving images in digital cameras and video cameras. The CCD captures
light and turns it into digital data, which the camera records. As a result, a
CCD is frequently referred to as the digital equivalent of film.
The resolution of a CCD sensor determines the quality of an image
taken by it. The resolution of digital cameras is measured in Megapixels
(thousands of pixels). As a result, a digital camera with 8 megapixels may
collect twice as much data as one with 4 megapixels. As a result, the image
is larger and more detailed.
CCDs in video cameras are typically sized by their physical dimensions.
Most consumer digital cameras, for example, have a CCD that is about 1/6
or 1/5 of an inch in size. CCDs in more expensive cameras may be 1/3 of an
inch or greater. The larger the sensor, the more light it can collect, resulting
in superior footage in low-light conditions.
CCDs for capturing red, green, and blue hues.

CD
“CD” is the abbreviation for “Compact Disc.” CDs are circular discs with a
diameter of 4.75 inches (12 cm). Sony and Philips proposed the CD standard
in 1980, and the technology was released in the United States in 1983. CDs
have a capacity of up to 700 megabytes of data or 80 minutes of audio. The
data on a CD is stored on the disc as microscopic notches that are read by a
laser from an optical drive. The drives convert the notches (which indicate
1s and 0s) into data that may be used.
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(which earlier replaced records). Audio CDs have the advantage of allowing
the user to navigate around the disc at will. CDs can also be listened to an
unlimited number of times without losing quality. Audio tapes can start to
lose quality after listening to them as few as ten times. This is because the
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 55

laser that reads the data on a CD doesn’t put pressure on the disc, whereas
the play heads on a tape deck slowly wear away the magnetic strip on the
tape.
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Recordable) technology was introduced in 1988, allowing computer users
to create their own CDs. However, it was not until the late 1990s that this
technique became widely used. A 3” CD known as “CD-3” is also available,
which can be read by most tray-loading CD-ROM machines.

CDR
Stands for “Compact Disc Recordable” CD-R discs are blank CDs that can
be used to record data that has been written to them by a CD burner. Because
CD-Rs are frequently used to record audio that can be played back by most
CD players, the term “recordable” is employed. However, because CD-
RWs can be erased, they don’t store data reliably for as long as CD-Rs do.
Therefore, you should use regular CD-Rs for long-term backups.

Figure 28. Compact disc recordable.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

CDMA
Stands for “Code Division Multiple Access.” CDMA is a wireless
transmission method invented by the English allies during World War II
56 Key Concepts in Computer Science

to circumvent transmission jamming. Qualcomm patented the concept and

commercialized it as a digital cellular technology after the conflict ended.
Many cell phone providers now employ CDMA as a prominent mode of
communication.
CDMA, unlike GSM and TDMA, communicates across the entire
frequency range accessible to it. It does not allocate each user on the
communications network a distinct frequency. During World War II, this

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is greater bandwidth available since CDMA does not limit each user’s
frequency range. More users can communicate on the same network at the
same time than if each user had their own frequency band.
Because CDMA is a digital technology, analog audio signals must be
converted to digital before being broadcast over the network. CDMA is a
wireless communication standard that is used in 2G and 3G networks and
runs at frequencies ranging from 800 MHz to 1.9 GHz.

Cell
In a spreadsheet, a cell is defined as the intersection of a row and a column.
Cell C7, for example, is the cell in the seventh row of column C. Cells can
hold a variety of data kinds, including numbers, dates, and text. Data that
is directly entered by the user is stored in static cells. Formulas are stored
in dynamic cells, which show the results of computations dependent on the
contents of other cells in the spreadsheet. For example: “The annual revenue
is located in cell D21 of the company’s financial spreadsheet.”


An SSL certificate, also known as a secure certificate, is a file that identifies
a website and is installed on a secure Web server. This digital certificate
verifies the company’s or merchant’s identity and legitimacy, giving online
customers confidence that the website is safe and secure.
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ensure that they are legitimate (that they are who they say they are).
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 57

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Source: Image by Flickr.

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of a few hundred dollars) once the authenticity of an organization and its
connected website has been established. When a user enters a secure part

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When the URL begins with “https,” you know you’re on a secure page. To
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not been renewed. While this does not necessarily indicate that the site is
bogus, it does indicate that it is not professionally run.

CGI
The term “Common Gateway Interface” refers to a collection of rules that
determine how scripts and programs can be run on a particular Web server.
The “Common” in “Common Gateway Interface” alludes to the fact that
CGI scripts may execute on a variety of server platforms and in a variety
of languages. Example – “Formmail.pl is a typical CGI script that allows
users to send e-mail through a form on a website.” In the root directory
of each website, most Web servers contain a folder called “cgi-bin.” The
CGI rules and permissions must be followed by any scripts installed in this
58 Key Concepts in Computer Science

folder. A script in the cgi-bin folder, for example, may have access to system
resources that other scripts do not.
Although CGI scripts are still used on many websites, Web developers
are increasingly writing scripts in languages such as PHP, ASP, and JSP.
Instead of being referenced from another URL, these scripts can be inserted
directly within an HTML page. CGI also stands for “Computer Generated
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of multimedia.

Character
Any letter, number, space, punctuation mark, or symbol that may be entered
on a computer is referred to as a character. For example, the word “computer”
has eight characters. The phrase “Hello there.” is nine characters long.
Because each character takes up one byte of space, the word “computer”
takes up eight bytes. The list of characters that can be typed is defined by the
ASCII and extended ASCII set. Some of the symbols accessible are unusual,
prompting you to exclaim, “That’s quite a character!”
“Since the checksums of the CDs matched, he knew the discs were
identical,” says the checksum example.
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integrity. Many techniques, such as the cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
or a cryptographic hash function, can be used to construct it. When the
checksums of two sets of data match, the data sets are considered identical.
While the phrase “chip” is vague, it should not be confused with the
term “card.” A graphics processor may be incorporated in the motherboard
of a laptop, whereas a graphics card attached to a PCI or AGP slot may be
found in a desktop computer. A chip can be found on a graphics card, but
a card cannot be found on a chip. A CPU, similarly, may have a chip (the
processor) as well as various other components. As a result, the term “chip”
can be used to refer to individual components, but it should not be used to
describe a group of components.

Chipset
An integrated circuit’s architecture is described by a chipset. This covers
the circuitry’s layout, the components utilized in the circuit, and the circuit
board’s functionality. The chipset of a modem card, for example, is very
different from the chipset of a computer’s CPU.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 59

Figure 30. Chipset.

Source: Image by Thenounproject.com.

Chipsets are also variable between processors. A PowerPC processor, for
example, with RISC architecture, will have a completely different chipset
than an Intel CPU with CISC technology. Even though they are both built
by Intel, a Pentium II and a Pentium III have somewhat different chipsets.
The crucial point is that a circuit functions with other components inside the
computer, regardless of the chipset it utilizes. As a result, if you replace your
computer’s hardware, be sure you purchase components that are made for
and compatible with your machine’s chipsets.

CISC
IT stands for “Complex Instruction Set Computing.” This is a design for a
microprocessor. The CISC architecture includes a vast number of computer
instructions that range from basic to advanced and specialized. Though the
design was meant to compute complicated instructions as quickly as possible,
it was eventually discovered that numerous little, short instructions could do
so more quickly. Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) became the
other major type of microprocessor architecture because of this. The Intel
Pentium CPUs are mostly CISC-based with some RISC features, whereas
the PowerPC processors are entirely RISC-based.

Clean Install
A clean install is an operating system (OS) installation that wipes the
hard disk clean of all previous data. A clean install, unlike a standard OS
upgrade, removes the existing operating system and user files throughout
the installation process. When a clean install is completed, the hard disk just
60 Key Concepts in Computer Science

contains the new operating system, much like when a computer is first used.
When upgrading your operating system, a clean install is rarely essential.
A normal “upgrade and install,” which merely upgrades the necessary
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operating system. Additionally, when installing an OS on a new hard drive
or transferring ownership of a machine to another person, a clean install may
be necessary.
When upgrading your operating system, both Windows and Mac OS X
allow you to conduct a clean install. Near the beginning of the installation
process, the installer will give you the option of a normal upgrade (usually
the default option) or a clean installation. If you choose a clean install,
Windows 7 also allows you to format and partition your installation disk.
Before performing a clean install in Mac OS X, you can use the Disk Utility
program to format or partition your drive.
Important: Because a clean install wipes out all data on the primary hard
disk, it’s critical to make a backup before proceeding. While it’s always
a good idea to have a recent backup of your data before upgrading your
operating system, it’s especially critical when doing a clean install.
While it’s always a good idea to have a recent backup of your data before
upgrading your operating system, it’s especially critical when doing a clean
install. It’s a good idea to back up your data to an external hard drive or
another computer system. It’s also a good idea to double-check your backup

 
   
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Clean room
A clean room is a highly purified and regulated room for producing
equipment that is sensitive to contamination.
Microprocessors, for example, are manufactured in a clean environment
because even little amounts of dust can cause manufacturing errors. As a
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and pressure are all variables that may be controlled.
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A cubic foot of air in a Class 1,000 clean room contains no more than 1,000
particles larger than 0.5 microns. There are no more than 100 particles in a
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 61

Class 100 clean room. People who work in clean rooms must wear protective
garments to avoid contaminating the environment. They resemble astronaut
suits in appearance, but are lighter and do not require the enormous boots
required for walking on the moon.

Client
Businesses have clients in the real world. Clients and servers exist in the
computer world. In both local and wide area networks, the “client-server”
design is prevalent. If a corporation has a server that stores the company’s
database, the other computers in the workplace that may access the database
are called “clients” of the server. On a broader scale, your computer acts as
the client that connects to the mail server when you access your e-mail from
an Internet mail server. The software that functions as an interface between
the client computer and the server is referred to as “client software.” If you
check your e-mail with Microsoft Outlook, for example, Outlook is your
“e-mail client program,” which allows you to send and receive messages
from the server. Isn’t it fascinating how everything works?

Clip Art
A collection of photographs or images that may be imported into a document
or another application is referred to as clip art. Raster or vector graphics
can be used to create the images. The number of photos in a clip art gallery
might range from a few to hundreds of thousands.
People, objects, nature, and other categories are commonly used
to classify clip art, which is especially useful when searching through
thousands of photos. Most clip art images are also labelled with keywords.
For example, a picture of a female teacher in a classroom may have the
keywords “school,” “teacher,” “woman,” “classroom,” and “students”
associated with it. You can search for images using these keywords in most
clip art systems.
You can copy a clip art image to your computer’s clipboard and paste it
into another software, such as Photoshop or Microsoft Word, once you’ve
found one you want to use. You might be able to save the image to your
Desktop or another folder on your computer. The majority of clip art is
royalty free, which means you can use it without paying royalties to the
artists who created it. So, if you spend $50 for a clip art package with 50,000
images, you are only paying a tenth of a penny each image. That’s a fantastic
deal.
62 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Clipboard
The clipboard is a memory area on your computer where copied data is
stored. This could be a word selection, an image, a file, or any other sort of
data. When you use the “Copy” command, which is usually found in the Edit
menu of most programs, it is copied to the clipboard. The “Paste” command,
which is also found in most programs’ Edit menu, can be used to paste data
which has been copied to the clipboard into a document or program. An
image copied to the clipboard from your photo album, for example, might
be put into a photo editing tool like Photoshop. A Web address can be copied
from an e-mail to the clipboard and pasted into the address field of your Web
browser.
You can examine what data is stored in the clipboard in several programs.
For example, you can choose “Show Clipboard” from the Edit menu in Mac
OS X’s Finder. When you copy data to the clipboard, any existing data in
the clipboard is usually overwritten by the new data. Because the clipboard
data is kept in RAM, when your computer is shut down or restarted, it is also
destroyed.

CLOB
CLOB stands for “Character Massive Object,” and it refers to a data structure
for storing large volumes of character data. Several current database
management systems (DBMS) support CLOBs, albeit some SQL functions
cannot be performed on CLOB columns. The CLOB data type is similar to
the BLOB data type, but it stores text instead of binary data.
“Most CPU processes take many clock cycles,” says the example. A
clock cycle, often known as a clock tick, is a unit of processor activity that
can be completed during one increment of the CPU clock. Load, store,
and jump procedures are all common clock cycle actions. To complete a
calculation, such as adding or subtracting two integers, these actions are
usually conducted in a sequence.
A processor’s clock speed is expressed in clock cycles per second, or
“Hz.” For example, a CPU that completes three billion clock cycles per
second has a clock speed of 3,000 megahertz, or 3 gigahertz.

Clock Speed
The clock speed of a processor is the rate at which a processing cycle can
be completed. Megahertz and gigahertz are the most common units of
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 63

measurement. One million cycles per second equals one megahertz, while
one billion cycles per second equals one gigahertz. A 1.8 GHz processor, on
the other hand, has twice the clock speed of a 900 MHz processor.
It’s crucial to remember, however, that a 1.8 GHz CPU isn’t always
twice as fast as a 900 MHz CPU, because different chip architectures are
used. For example, completing a multiplication instruction on one processor
may take more clock cycles than on another processor. Other aspects play a
role in a computer’s overall performance. The number of CPUs, bus speed,
cache capacity, RAM speed, and HDD or SSD speed are all examples. As
a result, while the processor’s clock speed is an important indicator of a
computer’s speed, it is not the only aspect to consider.

Clone
What are the similarities between sheep, droids, and computers? They’re all
clonable! Computer clones are by far the most prevalent of the three.
In the mid-1980s, the term “clone” was coined to designate DOS or
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clones” or “IBM compatible” computers were popular terms for the devices.
The machines were dubbed clones because they worked in the same way as
IBM computers. They were both powered by the same hardware and ran the
exact same software.
Clones of PCs can still be found nowadays. In fact, there are now dozens
more Windows-based computer manufacturers than there were in the 1980s.
Many additional manufacturers, including Dell, Gateway, HP, Compaq, and
Sony, produce Windows-based computers. The name “PC,” which stands
for “Personal Computer” in technical terms, is now commonly used to refer
to IBM clones.
Apple forced the end of Macintosh clone production by having the
Macintosh operating system only run-on Apple-branded machines for a few
years in the late 1990s.
The term “clone” can also refer to software that performs the same
function as a more well-known program. It can also refer to electrical
devices that are similar to computers.

Cloud Computing
“Cloud computing allows users to back up and retrieve information over
the internet,” for example. Cloud computing is a broad word that refers to
64 Key Concepts in Computer Science

a variety of Internet-based services. These include social networking sites

such as Facebook and Twitter, as well as online backup services and apps.
Computer networks connected over the Internet for server redundancy or
cluster computing are also included within the term of cloud computing.

Figure 31. Cloud computing.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

 
  

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of internet services all over the world. Anyone with an Internet connection
can utilize the cloud to store data and share it with other online users.

Cluster
A cluster can refer to two separate things in the computing world:
On a disk, a collection of sectors. A cluster is a slightly larger unit that is


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many clusters of disk space. Each cluster has its own unique ID, allowing
the hard drive to locate all clusters on the disk. Some clusters may remain
     
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they contain no data. These are known as “lost clusters,” and they can be
repaired with ScanDisk on Windows or Disk Utility on the Mac. This is
why using a disk tool or defragmentation program can help you free up disk
space.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 65

A collection of interconnected computers. A cluster can also refer to a

collection of machines that all do the same task. For example, a cluster of
eight PCs connected through high-speed Ethernet could be used to handle
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machine, this system is commonly referred to as “parallel computing.”
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calculations or decryption techniques.

CMOS
This technology is commonly used to make transistors and stands for
“Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor.” Unfortunately, the
“complementary” component of the phrase does not imply that these
semiconductors are free. Rather, it describes how they generate a positive
or negative charge. CMOS-based transistors run efficiently and consume
extremely little power because they only require one charge at a time. This
is because the charges can remain in a single state for a long time, allowing
the transistor to operate with little or no power unless it is required.

Figure 32. CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor).

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

Processors that use CMOS-based transistors can run at extremely
   

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66 Key Concepts in Computer Science

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basic system settings, may also be found in your computer. Because of the
CMOS’s low power consumption, the memory can be operated for many
years by a single Lithium battery.

CMYK
These are the four primary hues used in color printing. CMYK colors are
“subtractive,” unlike RGB (red, green, blue), which is utilized to create
visuals on your computer screen. This means that as you blend the colors
together, they become darker. Because RGB colors are utilized to represent
light rather than pigments, the colors become brighter as you blend or
intensify them.
In theory, mixing equal parts pure cyan, magenta, and yellow should
  
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due to imperfections in the inks. Therefore black (K) ink is frequently used
in conjunction with the other three colors. To avoid confusion with blue in
RGB, the letter “K” is used.

Codec
No, this is not a cheesy Kodak knock-off. The term “codec” stands for
“coder-decoder,” which is exactly what it does. Most audio and video
formats employ compression to ensure that they do not consume excessive
amounts of storage space. When audio and video files are saved, they are
compressed with a specific codec, which is then decompressed when they
are played again.
MPEG and AVI are common video codecs, whereas WAV and AIFF
are common music codecs. Codecs can also be used to compress streaming
media (live audio and video), allowing a live audio or video clip to be
transmitted over a high-speed Internet connection.

Command Prompt
In a text-based or “command-line” interface, such as a Unix terminal or a
DOS shell, a command prompt is utilized. It is a symbol or a sequence of
characters at the start of a line that signifies the system is ready to accept
input. To put it another way, it asks the user for a command (hence the
name). The current directory of the system the user is working with is
frequently displayed before the command prompt. The default prompt in
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 67

DOS, for example, may be C:, indicating that the user is working at the root
level of the primary C: drive.
In Unix, the prompt could be user$, where “user” is the current user’s
name. The tilde () denotes the user’s home folder as the current directory.
At the command line, a user can execute commands like cd /, which stands
for “change directory to the root folder,” and allows the user to explore




  

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programs, and perform other tasks. While the “cd” command is the same in
DOS and Unix, the syntax of many other commands differs.

Figure 33. Command Prompt.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

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if you don’t know the syntax of the command you’re trying to run. To use a
command-line interface, you’ll need to know a few fundamental commands.
Fortunately, most operating systems now solicit input from the user through
a graphical user interface (GUI). This means you won’t need to memorize

 
 
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line interface, on the other hand, is comparable to learning to drive a car
with a manual transmission. You never know when it will be useful.

Commercially Available Software

There are three types of computer software: freeware, shareware, and
commercial software. Freeware is free to use and does not require the user to
pay anything. Shareware is also free to use, but it usually contains restrictions
on the program’s capabilities or the amount of time it may be used until
68 Key Concepts in Computer Science

the user pays for it. Payment is required before using commercial software,
however it includes all the program’s capabilities with no restrictions or
time limits.
Commercial software products are usually packaged in a physical box,
which you can see in stores. While software boxes aren’t as large as they
once were, they nevertheless include the software CD or DVD, as well as a
“getting started” handbook and a registration key for activating the program.
Most commercial software applications need users to register the program

          
 
   
   
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commercial software products, such as later versions of Microsoft and
Adobe programs, demand registration after 30 days in order to continue
using them.
While the majority of commercial software is still sold in physical
boxes, many titles are also available in the form of downloads. Typically,
these downloads are made available through the company’s website. Instead
of receiving the software in the mail, the user pays for it directly on the
website and downloads it to his computer. Paying for a registration key,
which unlocks the capabilities of a shareware product, is another popular
way of acquiring commercial software online. This converts the shareware
program to a commercial version, which removes all of the shareware’s
constraints.

Compact Flash
Compact Flash is a form of flash memory that is sometimes abbreviated
as “CF.” Compact flash cards are typically used to store photos in digital
cameras, but they are also found in PDAs and portable music players.

Figure 34. Compact Flash.

Source: Image by Flickr.

 Key Concepts in Computer Science 69

Compact Flash cards are divided into two types: Type I and Type II.
Type I cards are 3.3 mm thick, while Type II are 5 mm thick. IBM makes a
“MicroDrive” card that has the same dimensions as a Type II CF card, but
uses an actual hard drive

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Flash cards used to be able to hold only a few megabytes of data, but they
can currently hold many gigabytes. The new CF+ standard has a storage
capacity of up to 137 GB.

Compile
When programmers construct software, they start by writing the code
in source code, which is written in C, Java, or any other programming
languages. These source code files are preserved in a text-based, human-
readable format that programmers may open and edit. The source code,
on the other hand, cannot be run directly by the computer. The code must
be translated from source code (a high-level language) to machine code
before it can be recognized by the computer’s CPU (a low-level language).
“Compiling” the code is the term used to denote this procedure.
A compiler is included in most software development systems, and it

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Compiler
A compiler is a piece of software that converts source code files into
executable code. Most computer software packages contain it as part of the
integrated development environment (IDE).
The compiler converts source code written in a high-level language like
C, BASIC, or Java into a low-level language like machine code or assembly
code. This code is tailored to a processor, such as an Intel Pentium or a
PowerPC. The CPU will then detect the program and run it through the
operating system.
A compiler can’t change a program after it’s been compiled from source

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in the source code, and the program must be recompiled. Fortunately, most
current compilers can identify changes and just require recompilation of the
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70 Key Concepts in Computer Science

cut their 100-hour work weeks down to roughly 90 hours before project
deadlines.

Figure 35. Compiler.

Source: Image by Flickr.

Component
A motherboard, CPU, RAM, and hard drive are only a few of the components
that make up a computer. Each of these parts is built up of components,
which are smaller parts.
Electrical connectors, a printed circuit board (PCB), capacitors, resistors,
and transformers, for example, are all found on a motherboard. All of these
pieces work together to allow the motherboard to communicate with the rest
of the computer. Integrated circuits, switches, and incredibly thin transistors
are all part of the CPU. These components oversee processing data and
performing calculations.
A component, in general, is a subset of a larger group. As a result,
computer components include the bigger portions of a computer, such as the
CPU and hard drive. Components, on the other hand, are the little parts that
make up these machines. Component video is a sort of high-quality video
link that is sometimes referred to as component. The visual signal is sent
over three independent wires in a component connection: red, green, and
blue. Composite video (usually a yellow connector), which combines all of
 

 

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When people talk about their computer setup in the computing world, they
are talking to the technical specifications, or “tech specs,” of their machine.
Processor speed, RAM, hard drive space, and the type of video card in the
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 71

machine are often included in these specifications. While there are many
additional advanced specifications that you could list, most computer geeks
will let you into their conversation if you know the four described above.

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Source: Image by Pixabay.

Contextual Menu
When you right-click on a certain region of the screen, a contextual menu
appears as a pop-up menu. Because the menu items are related to what you
click on, it is “contextual.” While contextual menus are not supported by
all programs, they are usually a standard feature of most modern operating
systems and applications.
Contextual menus offer a selection of alternatives based on where the
cursor is when the right mouse button is pressed. For example, if you right-
click on your computer’s desktop, the menu that appears will have desktop-

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up the icons, or see the desktop properties are some of the options available.
You may see options to create a new folder, modify the view settings, or
examine the folder properties if you right-click within a desktop window.
When you right-click within an application, you usually get menu
selections that are exclusive to that program. Right-clicking on a Web
browser window, for example, may bring up a menu with options like
“Back,” “Reload,” and “Print.” A list of related correctly spelled words
appears when you right-click a misspelled word in a word processing tool.
72 Key Concepts in Computer Science

In an image-editing program, right-clicking a photo may reveal a menu of

modifying options. These are just a few of the many contextual menus that
can be found in various programs.
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This is because they usually have a lot of the same options as the program’s
main menu, but only show the items that are relevant to the spot you clicked.
As a result, contextual menus can be a convenient and quick approach to
choose the choice you require. Try right-clicking in different places of the
screen the next time you use your favorite program. You might come upon
some useful options you weren’t aware of!

Control Panel
The Control Panel is a Windows operating system tool that allows users to
change system settings and controls. It contains several small apps, known
as control panels, that can be used to examine and modify hardware and
software settings. Display, Keyboard, and Mouse settings are examples
of hardware control panels. Date and Time, Power Options, Fonts, and
Administrative Tools are among the software control panels.
Many control panels are built into the Windows operating system, but
others can be added using third-party software or utilities. For example, if
you buy a new mouse, it may come with a CD that allows you to install
a control panel tailored to that mouse. Some graphics cards include an

  

     
    
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visual settings. Control panels can always be located in the Control Panel
folder, regardless of when they were installed.
By going to the Start menu and selecting Control Panel, you can get to
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in the “Other Places” portion of the window’s sidebar. The Control Panel
in Windows XP and Windows Vista can be seen in either Category View
or Classic View. Classic View divides the control panels into sections,
whereas Category View displays them all at once. While the Category View
  
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System Preferences with the launch of Mac OS X. In Mac OS X, the control
panels are now referred to as “Preference Panes.” They can be accessed by
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 73

going to the Apple menu and selecting “System Preferences” or by clicking

the System Preferences icon in the Dock.

Controller Card
The controller card, or simply “controller,” is a piece of hardware that
connects the motherboard to the rest of the computer’s components. Hard
drives, optical drives, printers, keyboards, and mice, for example, all require
controllers to function. All the necessary controllers are incorporated into
the motherboard as chips, rather than full-sized cards, in most PCs. If you
install other components, such as a SCSI hard disk, you may also need to
add a controller card. Controller cards are usually inserted in one of the PCI
slots of a computer.

Figure 37. Controller Card.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

Cookie
A cookie is data given to your computer by a Web server that keeps track of
your actions on a particular website. It is analogous to a preference file in a
computer software. When you visit the site after receiving the cookie, it will
load specific pages based on the information in the cookie.
Some websites, for example, can remember information such as your
user’s name and password so that you don’t have to re-enter it every time
you visit. Cookies are what allow you to have websites that are tailored to
74 Key Concepts in Computer Science

you. Cookies are what allow you to have personalized web sites like “My
Excite” or “My Yahoo,” where you can customize what is displayed on
the page. While cookies provide a lot of advantages, some people don’t
appreciate their information is collected or monetized by the websites they
visit. As a result of data privacy legislative frameworks, websites now ask
you whether you accept or reject cookies.

Copy
You may copy data in many software programs, such as text in Microsoft
Word or an image in Adobe Photoshop. To copy a piece of data, first select it
(or highlight it) and then choose “Copy” from the program’s Edit menu. The
keyboard shortcuts “Control-C” for Windows and “Command-C” for Mac
OS are available in most apps. When you copy data, it is saved in a buffer
called the “Clipboard” in the system’s memory. This is a temporary storage
region in the RAM of your computer that retains the most recently copied
object. Copying isn’t useful if you can’t use the information elsewhere.
To paste the copied data into a document, go to the Edit menu and select
“Paste,” and the data will be pasted in.

Copyright
Copyright safeguards an author’s original work from being plagiarized and
republished. It grants the author exclusive publishing and distribution rights,
preventing others from republishing the work. Literary works, artwork,
music, video, and digital publications, such as websites and blogs, all fall
under the umbrella of copyright protection. For example: “Copyright law
automatically protects original websites.”
Copyright protection is automatic in most nations. Copyrights may,
however, be registered with a central agency for extremely valuable work.
Although most websites and blogs are copyright protected by default, many
include a basic copyright line near the bottom of each page. This short line
of text, which frequently incorporates the “©” sign, informs visitors that the
page contains copyrighted material.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 75

Figure 38. Copyright symbol.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

CPA
“Cost Per Action” is a term used in online advertising. When a person clicks
on an advertisement on a publisher’s website and then completes a specific
action, the CPA is calculated. A publisher, for example, might put a banner
or text link from an advertiser on his website. The user is routed to the
advertiser’s website when she clicks the link. She may next be prompted
to complete a form or participate in a survey. The action is complete when
she completes the form or survey, and the advertiser pays the publisher a
specified amount based on the CPA.
The terms cost per acquisition (CPA) and cost per lead (CPL) are
frequently interchanged, albeit CPA is more generic.

CPC
It stands for Cost Per Click, is a term used in online advertising. The cost per
click (CPC) is the amount of money a publisher earns each time a user clicks
on an advertisement link on his website. A publisher, for example, may use
text or image-based adverts on his website. A visitor is led to the advertiser’s
website when he or she clicks on one of the advertising. The advertiser’s
monitoring system records each click, and the publisher is paid a certain
amount based on the CPC.
76 Key Concepts in Computer Science

CPL
“Cost Per Lead” is a term used in online advertising. CPL refers to the amount
of money a publisher earns when he generates a lead for an advertising. For
instance, the publisher might run an advertisement for an investing firm
on his website. When a user clicks on the advertisement link, she is taken
to the advertiser’s website, where she can open an account with them. If
she chooses to join up, a lead is created, and the publisher is compensated
according to the CPL.
The terms cost per lead (CPL) and cost per action (CPA) are frequently
interchanged, while CPL is more explicit.

CPM
“Cost Per 1,000 Impressions” is a term used in online advertising. The cost
per 1,000 impressions of an advertisement, such as a banner ad or other
promotion, is defined as a CPM. Each time an advertising is presented,
an impression is recorded. While some advertisers pay publishers based
on impressions alone, many marketers pay for individual clicks or leads
generated by their ads. As a result, measuring pay per click (PPC) or pay
per lead (PPL) rates in Web advertising may be more effective. In any case,
the advertiser’s goal is to produce as many leads as possible while keeping
costs reasonable.
The CPM is also used by web publishers to calculate the revenue per
1,000 impressions. While technically this should be “revenue per 1,000
impressions,” or RPM, from the publisher’s perspective, the words CPM
and RPM are frequently interchanged.

CPS
Stands for “Classroom Performance System.” CPS refers to a technology
system that is utilized in a classroom for educational reasons. It consists of
both technology and software that work together to provide students with a
modern, interactive learning environment. A projector, a CPS chalkboard, a
computer running CPS software, and answer pads for students make up a
typical CPS classroom setup.
The teacher can utilize a handheld CPS Chalkboard to give lessons or
assessments that are graphically shown on the projector in a CPS-enabled
classroom. The response pads, which are akin to remote controllers, allow
students to interact with the lesson or test.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 77

A projector, a CPS chalkboard, a computer running CPS software, and

answer pads for students make up a typical CPS classroom setup. Each
response pad features a number of buttons (A through H) that can be used
to respond to real-time test questions displayed on the projector. Instead of
everyone crying out the answer at the same time, each student can answer
each question in a more logical manner.
CPS has been found to boost children’s learning capacity and subject
retention. CPS can dramatically improve students’ interest in the subject
matter because each student can interact with every individual component
of the session. Given how tough it is to hold children’s attention these days,
CPS may be an attractive and welcome new technology for many teachers.

Cron
A cron is a procedure or task that runs on a Unix system at regular intervals,
often known as a “cron job.” Crons can be used to sync the time and date
through the Internet every ten minutes, send an e-mail notice once a week,
or back up specified directories once a month, to name a few examples. The
Unix “crontab” command can be used to schedule crons. The jobs are saved
in a crontab file and run by the system at predetermined intervals. of course,
if you don’t use Unix, you won’t need to utilize a cron or even understand
what one is. However, if you’ve read this far, you’ll know that it’s a great
way to impress your pals.

Crop
Cropping an image or photo removes a portion of the image. This may entail
chopping portions of the image from the left, right, top, or bottom, or a mix
of these. It might potentially be as simple as cutting out a small rectangle
from the image.
For instance, suppose a buddy takes a photo of your family and leaves


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a Christmas card photo. As a result, you can crop the top section of the
photograph with an image-editing application, leaving only a small region
above the tallest person’s head. You may want to crop some of the sides as
well if the camera was zoomed out too far.
The majority of picture editing software includes a crop function.
Normally, you would use the mouse to choose a rectangular area and then
click “Crop” to eliminate the area outside the selection. After cropping the
78 Key Concepts in Computer Science

image, the clipped area is removed, leaving only the rest. As a result, if
you’re cropping and storing an original shot, you might wish to make a
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image, which entails lowering the image resolution.

Cross-Browser
“The Web developer created a cross-browser website that looked similar in
Firefox and Internet Explorer,” says the Web developer.
A website that is cross-browser compatible is one that can be seen in a
variety of browsers. This indicates that the Web pages display properly in a
variety of browsers, including Safari, Internet Explorer, and Firefox. To be
interoperable across various sites, cross-browser sites may need to generate

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Crossplatform
Software that can run on a variety of different computer systems is known as
crossplatform software. The graphical tool Adobe Photoshop and the word
processor Microsoft Word, for example, are both available for Windows and
Macintosh. As a result, Photoshop and Word are considered crossplatform
programs. While “crossplatform” is most commonly associated with
computer software, it can also apply to hardware. Peripherals that function
on both Mac and PC, such as keyboards, mouse, printers, scanners, and
digital cameras, are crossplatform. Multiplatform software and hardware are
software and devices that can run on many platforms.

Figure 39. Crossplatform.

Source: Image by Flickr.

 Key Concepts in Computer Science 79

CRT
CRT stands for “Cathode Ray Tube,” which is the technology utilized in
computer monitors and televisions. Electrons are fired from the back of the
tube to phosphors in the front of the display to form the image on a CRT
display. The phosphors light up when the electrons hit them, and the image
is projected on the screen. The color you see on your screen is created by a
combination of red, blue, and green light, known as RGB.

Figure 40. Cathode Ray Tube.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

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and professional industries.

CSS
“Cascading Style Sheet” is what CSS stands for. The layout of Web pages
is formatted using Cascading Style Sheets. They can be used to define
text styles, table sizes, and other characteristics of Web pages that were
previously solely defined in the HTML of the page CSS enables Web
designers to establish a consistent look across multiple pages of a website.
80 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Commonly used styles only need to be declared once in a CSS document,

rather than describing the style of each table and each block of text within
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update the style of multiple pages at once. For 50 pages of a website, a Web
developer could want to increase the default text size from 10 pt to 12 pt.
If all the pages use the same style sheet, changing the text size on the style
sheet is all that is required, and the larger text will appear on all of the pages.
While CSS is best known for producing text styles, it may also be used
to format other components of a Web page’s layout. CSS can be used to
determine table cell padding, the style, thickness, and color of a table’s
border, and the padding around images and other objects, for example. CSS
allows Web designers more precise control over the appearance of Web
pages than HTML does. Therefore, most modern Web pages use cascading
style sheets.

CTP
“Composite Theoretical Performance” is what CTP stands for. Computer
processor performance is measured using CTP. CTP calculations return
values that are used in benchmarking to compare the performance of different
processors. Intel and AMD, for example, use CTP calculations to determine
how many millions of notional operations per second are performed
(MTOPS) An Intel Pentium M 770 processor with a clock speed of 2.13
GHz has a CTP of 7100 MTOPs, while an AMD Opteron 146 processor with
a clock speed of 2.0 GHz has a CTP of 7168 MTOPS.
Faster processor speeds may not usually imply a greater CTP, as shown
in the example above. Other factors, such as the architecture of the processor
and the speed of the frontside bus, have an impact on total performance. CTP
can be used to compare different brands of processors as well as different
models of the same company’s processors. CTP is now being used to quantify
the performance boost when numerous processors are used simultaneously,
as dual, and quad processors become increasingly common.
CTP also stands for “Computer to Plate.” This is a method of creating
 
 
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 Key Concepts in Computer Science 81

CTR
CTR stands for “Click-Through Rate,” and it’s a term that’s commonly used
in online advertising. When a visitor clicks on one of the advertising on
a website, the publisher normally receives money from the advertiser (the
PPC model). As a result, publishers are curious as to what is the percentage
of page visits which result in ad clicks. The higher a publisher’s click-
through rate is, the more money he or she will make. So, what do you think
a typical website CTR is? 5% vs. 10% vs. 5% vs. 10% vs. 1% is a good start.
Because the average click-through rate (CTR) on the internet is roughly 1%,
publishers must attract thousands of visitors each day to gain significant
money.

Cursor
The cursor on your screen can represent two things: (1) the location of your
mouse pointer, and (2) the location of the next character typed in a line of
text.
Most of the time, the mouse cursor is an arrow that you can use to point
to various objects on your screen. You can conduct an action on an object by
clicking or double-clicking the mouse button when the cursor is over it (such
as opening a program). When you roll over a link in a Web page, the mouse
pointer can transform into a little hand, or an hourglass (when Windows is
“thinking” so hard that it won’t let you click on anything).
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the middle of a line of text. Because you’re adding new text to the uncharted
white region of the page, the cursor will usually be near the end of the line
when you’re composing a paper.
You can use the mouse pointer to click the spot where you wish to insert
the text if you want to put a word or phrase somewhere else in a line of text.
When you start typing in most word processing systems, the text cursor


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again. Because most people can’t type and click at the same time, this is
done to avoid “cursor confusion.”

Cut
The Cut command copies a selected object to the clipboard after removing
it from the screen. It conducts a simultaneous Delete and Copy operation.
Data can be placed into another similar document after it has been cut from
82 Key Concepts in Computer Science

one. Text, photos, audio, and video selections can all be chopped. However,
because the command removes the selection from the page, only editable
elements can be clipped.

Cyberbullying
“You should report cyberbullying to a parent or teacher if you are a victim
of cyberbullying.” Cyberbullying is when a young person is harassed,
humiliated, or threatened online. It incorporates within it a variety of
communication channels, including the Internet, e-mail, and cell phone
conversation. Cyberbullying can occur in a variety of ways.
Posting nasty comments or photos of another person online, sending
sexual text messages, or bombarding a person with unsolicited e-mails are
just a few instances. It could also entail forming a group to target a single
individual and making defamatory comments on social networking sites
such as Facebook and MySpace. When it comes to adults, cyberbullying is
usually referred to as cyber-harassment or cyberstalking.

Figure 41. Cyberbullying.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

Cybercrime
Cybercrime is defined as criminal action carried out using computers and
the Internet. This might range from stealing millions of dollars from internet
bank accounts to downloading illicit music downloads. As a result, it’s a
good idea to double-check a site’s URL or Web address before providing
personal information.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 83

Because cybercrime encompasses such a broad range of illegal conduct,

the examples above are just a handful of the hundreds of offenses that fall
under this umbrella. While computers and the Internet have made our lives
easier in many ways, it is terrible that some people take advantage of others
by using these tools. As a result, it’s a good idea to safeguard yourself by
installing antivirus and spyware-blocking software and being cautious about
where you submit personal information.

Figure 42. Cybercrime has crossed international borders.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

Cyberspace
Unlike most computing words, “cyberspace” lacks a universally accepted
definition. Instead, it’s used to describe the computer’s virtual world. A
block of data floating through a computer system or network, for example, is
referred to as an object in cyberspace. With the introduction of the Internet,
cyberspace has expanded to include the entire global computer network. So,
after sending your friend an e-mail, you may declare you communicated
with her over cyberspace. However, this term should be used with caution,
as it is a popular novice term that has been abused.
The term “cyberspace” is credited to William Gibson, who coined it
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collective delusion shared by billions of authorized operators in every
country, as well as students learning mathematical principles… Data
extracted from the banks of every computer in the human system is
represented graphically. Complexity beyond comprehension. Lines of light,
84 Key Concepts in Computer Science

clusters, and constellations of data spanned the mind’s non-space “Berkley

Publishing Group, New York, 1989, 128.

Cyber squatters
“Cybersquatters frequently register hundreds or even thousands of
domain names,” says one cybersquatter. A cybersquatter, often known as
a “domainer,” is someone who registers a domain name but does not plan
to use it for a website. Many cybersquatters also set up parked pages for
their domain names, which can bring in money through advertising. While
cybersquatters often profit from the sale of domain names, they may be
forced to relinquish control of others. Cybersquatters are prohibited
from denying domains to individuals or businesses who have previously
trademarked or registered similar names under the Anti-Cybersquatting
Consumer Protection Act (ACPA).
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 85

D
DAC
The abbreviation DAC stands for “Digital-to-Analog Converter,” and it’s
commonly called “dac.” Computers can only recognize digital data, hence
the output they create is usually in digital format. However, some output
devices only accept analog input, which necessitates the use of a digital-to-
analog converter or a digital-to-analog converter.
The most common use for a DAC is to convert digital audio to an analog
signal. This conversion typically takes place in the sound card, which has
a built-in DAC. The digital signal, which is basically a stream of ones and
zeros, is transformed into an analog signal that might take the form of an
electrical charge. This electrical charge is recognized by most speaker inputs
and therefore can be output to a speaker system.
DACs are also used for converting video signals. Historically, most video
displays, such as TVs and computer monitors used analog inputs. Only in the
last couple of years have digital displays with DVI and HDMI connections
become commonplace. A DAC is most commonly used to convert digital
audio to analog audio. The sound card, which has a built-in DAC, is usually
where this conversion happens. Most speaker inputs recognize this electrical
charge, so it can be sent to a speaker system.
Video signals are also converted using DACs. Most video displays, such
as televisions and computer monitors, used analog inputs in the past. Digital
displays using DVI and HDMI connectors have just become mainstream in
the last several years. As a result, a computer’s digital video signal must be
converted to an analog signal before it can be output to an analog display.
This is why a DAC is included with all video cards that have an analog
output (such as a VGA connection).
There is a risk of quality loss when converting a signal from one format
to another. As a result, whether you’re converting audio or video signals, a
high-quality DAC is essential. Performing the opposite conversion, which
requires an analog-to-digital converter, or ADC, is the same.

Daemon
The word “daemon” is derived from the Greek language and refers to a
“inner or accompanying spirit” (Oxford American Dictionary). A computer
86 Key Concepts in Computer Science

daemon is a constantly running program that activates activities when it gets

particular input, therefore this is a fitting name.
When a user desires to print a document, for example, a printer daemon
spools information to a printer. On a mail server, a daemon routes incoming
mail to the relevant mailboxes. When users browse Web pages, web servers

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employed by the Unix operating system, but they have now been included
into the Unix-based Mac OS X.

Dashboard
With the release of Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger, Apple introduced Dashboard, a
user-interface component. It provides access to a variety of “widgets” that
display information such as the time, weather, stock prices, phone numbers,
and other pertinent information. Apple includes widgets that do all of these
tasks, as well as a calculator, language translator, dictionary, address book,
calendar, unit converter, and iTunes controller, with the Tiger operating
system. Aside from the standard widgets, there are hundreds of third-party
widgets available that allow users to do things like play games, check traffic,
and view sports scores, to mention a few.

Figure 43. Dashboard.

Source: Image by Backbonepro.com.

By selecting the Dashboard application, you can view the widget
dashboard. The user can see a list of all installed widgets by clicking the
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 87

plus “+” symbol in the lower-left corner of the screen. The widgets become
active when you click or drag them onto your desktop. They can be closed
individually by clicking the close box. By using the F12 keyboard shortcut,
they vanish until the user needs them again.

Data
Computer data refers to information that has been processed or saved by a
computer. Text documents, photos, audio recordings, software applications,
and other sorts of data may be used to store this information. Computer data
is saved in files and directories on the hard disk and may be processed by
the computer’s CPU.
Computer data is a collection of ones and zeros, known as binary data,
at its most basic level. Computer data may be created, processed, saved, and
stored digitally since it is in binary format. Data can be moved from one
computer to another via a network connection or a variety of media devices.
It also doesn’t degrade or lose quality over time when used several times.

Data Management
“The company’s data management has been delegated to the systems
administrator.” The way individuals, businesses, and organizations manage
computer data is referred to as data management. It encompasses both micro
and macro applications, such as data architecture and design, as well as data
storage, access, and security.
Although computer data is intangible, it is still precious. As a result, all
users should think about how they maintain their data. This could include
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Data Transfer, the data transfer rate is a typical metric for determining how
quickly data is moved from one point to another. A hard disk, for example,
may have a maximum data transfer rate of 480 Mbps, yet your ISP may only
offer a maximum data transfer rate of 1.5 Mbps.
88 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Figure 44. Data management is the fundamental task in computer science.

Source: Image by Flickr.

Data transfer
Data transfer rates are usually expressed in bits per second (bps) rather
than bytes per second (bps), which might be confusing. Because a byte
has eight bits, an 80 Mbps sustained data transfer rate only transfers 10MB
per second. While this may be perplexing for consumers, Internet service
providers must appreciate monitoring data transfer rates in bits per second
(bps) because it makes their Internet access speeds appear 8 times quicker
than they actually are.

Data type
Data type is a data storage format that can hold a particular kind or range of
values.
When data is stored in variables in computer programs, each variable
  
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characters, strings, and arrays are some of the most popular data types.
Dates, timestamps, Boolean values, and varchar (variable character) formats
are examples of more particular kinds.
Before assigning a value to a variable, certain computer languages
require the programmer to declare its data type. When initial data is entered
into a variable, other languages can up-automatically assign the variable’s
data type. If the value “1.25” is entered into the variable “var1,” the variable
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 89


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string data type if it was set to “Hello world!” Most programming languages
allow a single data type to be stored in each variable. As a result, if the data
type of the variable has already been changed to integer, assigning string
data to the variable may result in the data being converted to integer format.

Database
Database applications also make use of data types. It consists of one or
more tables, each with multiple fields. A data type, such as string or integer,
is assigned to each field. Each record that is entered into the database has
data in these fields. The information in a database can be quickly searched,
sorted, and updated since it is stored in ordered records.

Figure 45. Database.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

DBMS
Stands for “Database Management System.” In a nutshell, a database
management system (DBMS) is a database program. It is a software system
that uses a standard approach of classifying, retrieving, and conducting
queries on data in a technical sense. The DBMS organizes and manages
incoming data, as well as allowing users and other programs to modify or
extract it.
90 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Figure 46. Database management system.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft Access, SQL Server, FileMaker,
Oracle, RDBMS, dBASE, Clipper, and FoxPro are some examples of
database management systems. Because there are so many database
management systems out there, it’s critical that they can connect with one
another. As a result, most database software includes an Open Database
Connectivity (ODBC) driver, which enables the database to communicate
with other databases. Common SQL instructions like SELECT and INSERT,
for example, are converted from a program’s proprietary syntax into a syntax
that other databases understand.

DDL
The acronym DDL stands for “Data Definition Language.” It’s used to
describe a database’s structure, including the tables, columns, and data
types it includes. The Structured Query Language, a subset of SQL, is the
most widely used DDL. DDLs, on the other hand, can be used to describe
a variety of data structures, such as XML schemas and other data models.
Example “The DDL includes a “create” command that can be used to create
a new database or table.”

DDR
“Double Data Rate” is the abbreviation for “Double Data Rate.” It’s a more
advanced kind of SDRAM, which is a sort of computer memory. DDR-
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 91

SDRAM, often known as “SDRAM II,” can transport data twice as quickly
as traditional SDRAM chips. This is due to the fact that DDR memory is
capable of sending and receiving signals twice every clock cycle. DDR-
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consumes less power.

DBR 2
It stands for “Double Data Rate 2.” DDR2 RAM is a speedier and more
energy-efficient variant of DDR memory. DDR2 memory may deliver data
on both the rising and falling edges of the processor’s clock cycles, just
like normal DDR memory. The amount of work the RAM can do in a given
period of time is practically doubled. DDR and DDR2 are both form of
SDRAM, allowing them to run at a higher rate than standard memory.
While DDR and DDR2 RAM are comparable in many ways, DDR2
RAM is designed differently than DDR memory. DDR2 RAM is faster
than conventional DDR memory because of its improved architecture. The
RAM’s bandwidth has been increased because of the new design, allowing
more data to run through the RAM chip at once. This improves the memory’s
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it runs more effectively than normal DDR memory. DDR2 memory’s only
drawback is that it is incompatible with normal DDR slots. Before updating
your memory, ensure sure your machine supports DDR2 RAM.

DDR3
DDR3 (Double Data Rate Type 3) is an SDRAM specification that was first
introduced in 2007. DDR3 utilizes 30% less power and gives much better
data transfer speeds than the preceding DDR2 standard.
DDR3 memory modules come in both DIMM and SO-DIMM

 
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all-in-one computers typically use SO-DIMMs. Even though DDR3 DIMMs
and SO-DIMMs are the same size as DDR2 DIMMs and SO-DIMMs,
they are incompatible with DDR2 RAM slots. Fortunately, the connecting
connectors are positioned differently, thus inserting a DDR3 memory module
into a DDR2 RAM slot is physically impossible, and vice versa.
Several types of DDR3 memory exist, providing a range of maximum
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92 Key Concepts in Computer Science

1866, and DDR3–2133. DDR3–2133 (also called PC3–17000) supports

peak transfer rates of 17,067 MB/s.

Debug
Like everyone else, computer programmers aren’t flawless. This means that
the programs they produce may have minor flaws known as “bugs.” These
flaws can range from the minor errors, such as a failure to recognize user
input, to the more significant errors, such as a memory leak that causes the
program to crash. Programmers “debug” their programs before exposing
them to the public, removing as many mistakes as possible. This debugging
procedure can take a long time because resolving one issue can lead to the
emergence of new ones. It’s far easier to debug your windshield at a petrol
station than it is to debug a computer program.

Figure 47. Debug.

Source: Image by Thenounproject.com.

Debugger
Even the most seasoned software developers rarely get it right on the first
try. Certain flaws, commonly referred to as bugs, can occur in programs,
leading them to fail to work as intended by the programmer. Some problems
are simple to rectify, while others are quite difficult to track out. This is
particularly true for huge programs with thousands of lines of code.
Fortunately, debuggers are programs that assist software engineers in
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the programmer about the types of mistakes it discovers and, in many cases,
highlights the lines of code where the errors occur. Debuggers also allow
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 93


 
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and why it breaks. Advanced debuggers give precise information about the
program’s threads and memory usage at each stage of execution. A powerful
debugger program is comparable to OFF! With 100% deed.

Default
A pre-set value for some option in a computer program is referred to as this
word. When the user hasn’t given a value for a setting, this is the default
value. The default typeface in Netscape Communicator, for example, is
“Times.” The “Times” typeface will be used by default until you go to
Netscape settings and change it to something different. Default settings are
usually set to what most people would prefer, so there’s rarely a cause to
change them. If you’re one of those people who wants to tweak everything,
you can modify all of the default settings you desire.
“Default” can be used as a verb as well. If a custom setting fails for some
 
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you’re working on a networked computer and you print anything even
though no printer is mentioned. If you’re lucky, the print job will default to
the default printer and your work will be printed.

Defragment
Defragmenting your hard drive is an excellent technique to improve your
computer’s speed. Though the word “defragment” has a negative connotation,
it is a straightforward and beneficial procedure. After all, a happy hard disk
is one that has been defragmented.
It is a frequent operation to add and delete data from your hard drive.
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will have to scan numerous sections of the disk to read it. Because one of
the most major bottlenecks in a computer’s performance is hard disk seek
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you. This is why defragging your hard drive is so important. It’s time to
defragment if you’re hearing extra grinding sounds or your computer isn’t
94 Key Concepts in Computer Science

   

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using Windows by using the pre-installed Intel defragment tool.

Degauss
Have you ever wondered what the “degauss” button on your display does
other than make a buzzing noise and make the screen go crazy for a second?
Despite its primary use, the degauss button has another beneficial benefit.
You must first realize that the earth contains natural magnetic fields in order
to comprehend it. Magnetic charges from these fields can accumulate inside
your monitor, causing color accuracy to deteriorate. Degaussing removes the
monitor’s negative magnetism and replaces it with positive karma. If your
monitor doesn’t have a degauss button, don’t worry; many new monitors do
so automatically.

Del.icio.us
Del.icio.us, pronounced simply “delicious,” is a social bookmarking website
where users may save and share Web pages they come across. Other people
frequently bookmark Web pages that they find in other users’ bookmarks
since their bookmarks are made public and available by other users. Del.
icio.us tracks how many people bookmark each site and displays the most
popular ones on its home page.
News items, online learning resources, and tech assistance pages are
among the most popular Del.icio.us bookmarks. The greatest Web pages
eventually ascend to the top of the popularity chain as other users add
  
 

  
 


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pages that are helpful and worthwhile visiting. Del.icio.us allows users to
browse or search its bookmark database.
When a user saves a bookmark, he or she can include a description as
well as tags (keywords) relevant to the Web page. This improves the page’s
visibility in relevant searches. Because the sites have all been picked by
users, the results of Del.icio.us searches are often of greater quality than
those of a standard search engine. Other Web users appear to agree, as the
website became so popular that Yahoo! Purchased Del.icio.us at the end of
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 Key Concepts in Computer Science 95

Delete
Delete is computer jargon for “delete” or “erase.” You can erase entire files
or directories from your hard drive, as well as text from a document. You
can delete characters below the cursor when typing a document by using
the delete key. You can delete characters in front of the cursor by pressing
the tiny delete key on the keyboard near the home and end buttons. You can
even delete entire parts of text by selecting the text and pressing either the
delete or backspace keys on your keyboard.
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that have been mistakenly destroyed.

Desktop
The desktop on your computer is very similar to a physical desktop. Pens,
papers, folders, and other often used objects are likely to be kept on your
desk. The desktop on your computer serves the same purpose: to provide
quick access to files on your hard drive. On your desktop, it’s customary
to keep commonly used files, directories, and apps. Instead of rummaging
through the director, you can reach the desired objects quickly this way.
The desktop is a fundamental feature of both the Macintosh and Windows
user interfaces. Both operating systems allow you to drag and drop items
onto and off the desktop, as well as organize and clean up the items on the
desktop. Yes, it would be great if there was a similar option for a real-world
desktop. You can also personalize your computer’s desktop by selecting a
pattern or background image.

Desktop Computer
A desktop computer is a computer system that is designed to be used at
a desk or table. Some desktop computers feature a separate monitor and
system unit, while others are “all-in-one” devices with the monitor built-in.
System units are normally positioned on the ground, while all-in-one PCs
are built to sit on a desk. Input devices on both types of desktop computers
are a keyboard and mouse.
96 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Desktop computers, unlike laptops, are not portable devices. Instead,

they’re made to stay in one place and need to be connected to a power
source. Desktop computers are the most common home and commercial
workstations due to their static nature.

Desktop Publishing
Documents and photos are “published” when they are printed. Prior to the
introduction of computers, the publishing process necessitated the use of
enormous print presses that copied and replicated pages. Text and graphics
would have to be printed separately, cut out, arranged on a single sheet,
taped in position, then copied and printed to print images and words on
the same page. Thankfully, computers with graphical user interfaces have
made desktop publishing possible, allowing this procedure to be completed
electronically.
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printable document. The term is most generally used, however, to refer to
professionals.
Desktop publishers develop page layouts for content they want to
print using applications like Adobe InDesign and QuarkXPress. Books,
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publications can all be created with these desktop publishing programs.
Publishers can also produce printable visuals with applications like Adobe
Photoshop and Illustrator. Basic desktop publishing can be done with word
processing apps like Microsoft Word.
Complete desktop publishing entails typesetting (text layout and font

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and document printing. Desktop publishing, on the other hand, might be
as basic as typing and printing a school paper, as previously said. You only
need a computer, monitor, printer, and software that can create a printable
document to desktop publish. While this is more expensive than a pen and
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DHCP
It stands for “Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.” This protocol is
used by a network server to dynamically assign IP addresses to networked
machines. When a machine connects to the DHCP server, it is assigned an IP
address from a master list maintained on the server. Because IP addresses do
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 97

not have to be manually issued to each machine on the network, DHCP aids
with the setup of big networks. DHCP is the most widely utilized networking
protocol because to the smooth automation involved.

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Source: Image by Wikimedia Commons.

Dial-up
“Before upgrading to DSL, the family used a dial-up connection to access
the Internet.” A dial-up connection connects to an ISP or another computer
using a modem. It transfers data at up to 56 kbps over conventional analog
phone lines. Dial-up was the only means to connect to the Internet before the
year 2000. Many users currently access the Internet through a DSL or cable
modem connection. Both cable and DSL provide a consistent connection
and data transmission speeds that are more than 100 times quicker than dial-
up modems.

Dialog box
A dialog box, as its name suggests, is used to start a conversation with the
user. It’s a pop-up window on the screen providing options for the user to
choose from. After choosing their option, the user can either click “OK” to
save the modifications or “Cancel” to discard them. When a menu choice
with an ellipsis at the end, such as “Preferences…” or “Save As…,” is
selected, a dialog box is usually opened.
If a user chooses “Internet Options…” from the Internet Explorer
Options menu, for example, a dialog box will appear, allowing the user to
alter the default home page, adjust the security settings, clear the browser
cache, and change a variety of other options. After making their choices,
98 Key Concepts in Computer Science

the user can either click “OK” to use the new settings or “Cancel” to undo
them. The “Apply” option in some Windows programs activates the options
without closing the dialog box.
An “Open dialog box” shows when a user selects “Open…” from the
File menu, allowing the user to browse the hard drive and other drives for
 

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save location. While dialog boxes may not appear interesting, they are
an important feature of today’s computer interfaces because they give an
intuitive way to connect with the computer.

Digital
A string of ones and zeros is used to store digital data. Because computers
can only read information as on or off—1 or 0, they are digital machines.
Although this method of processing, also known as the binary system,
appears to be simple, it may be used to represent enormous amounts of data.
Even though CDs and DVDs are made solely of ones and zeros, they may
be utilized to store and play high-quality audio and video.
Humans, unlike computers, perceive information in analog form. They
record a continuous stream of audio and visual inputs.
Digital instruments, on the other hand, use ones and zeros to estimate
this information. The accuracy of the digital estimation is determined by the
rate of this estimation, known as the “sampling rate,” as well as the amount
of information included in each sample (the bit depth).
A standard CD audio track, for example, is sampled at 44.1 KHz
(44,100 samples per second) with a 16-bit bit depth. This yields a high-
quality analog audio signal estimation that sounds natural to the human ear.
A higher-quality audio format, such as a DVD-Audio disc, might sample at
96 KHz with a bit depth of 24 bits. On the DVD-A, the same song played on
both discs will sound smoother and more dynamic.
An analog signal is more accurate than a digital signal since digital
information simply guesses analog data. Computers, on the other hand, can
only deal with digital data, thus storing data digitally makes more sense.
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without losing quality. Digital information has become the most frequent
technique of storing and reading data due to the advantages it provides.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 99

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E-commerce
Business conducted over the Internet is referred to as e-commerce
(electronic-commerce). Amazon.com, Buy.com, and eBay are all examples
of e-commerce websites. Business-to-Consumer (B2C) and Business-
to-Business (B2B) are the two main types of e-commerce (B2B). While
Amazon.com caters primarily to consumers, other companies specialize in
providing goods and services to other businesses. The terms “e-business”
and “e-tailing” are often used synonymously with e-commerce. They both
refer to the same concept; the difference is that they are intended to confuse
those learning computer jargon.

Figure 49. E-commerce: Business on Internet.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

E-mail Bankruptcy
Most of us receive multiple e-mails per day in this age. Depending on your
employment, you may receive dozens of non-spam mails per day. While
keeping up with the multitude of e-mails received in a single day is difficult
enough, falling behind a few days might be practically impossible to catch
100 Key Concepts in Computer Science

up on. After a while, you may find yourself with hundreds of unanswered
messages in your inbox.
If you’ve become engulfed in an endless stream of e-mail in your inbox,
declaring e-mail bankruptcy may be your only option. E-mail bankruptcy,
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The most diplomatic method to declare e-mail bankruptcy is to combine
all the e-mail addresses from the unanswered messages into a single message.
Then send a message apologizing for not responding and explaining that
you have fallen behind on your e-mail. The quicker, but less considerate,
option is to delete all of the previous communications and start over as if
nothing had happened.
While keeping up with your e-mail is the greatest method to avoid
e-mail bankruptcy, for other people it may be the only option to stay current
with their correspondence. If you’re feeling overwhelmed by the growing
number of messages in your inbox, make sure you respond to the most

  

Email
It’s difficult to recall what life was like before e-mail. E-mail has become
one of today’s basic modes of communication, ranking alongside the Web
as one of the most useful elements of the Internet. Every year, billions of
messages are transmitted.
E-mail is a protocol that is part of the TCP/IP standard. SMTP (Simple
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Protocol 3) or IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is used to receive
them (Internet Message Access Protocol) IMAP is a modern technology
that lets you read and sort messages on the mail server without having
to download them to your computer. Even though e-mail was originally
designed to convey simple text messages, it has become more robust in
recent years.
HTML-based e-mail may now combine styled text, colors, and images
into the message using the same coding as Web sites. Documents can also
   
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mail servers will not enable you to send large documents (over 3 MB, for
example). So, keep your attachments small.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 101

Emoji
Emojis are little images that can be put into text in the same way that ordinary
characters can. Emojis first gained popularity in 2010 when it was used to
depict emotions (჉, მ, etc.). More emojis were created as the popularity
rose, and they now represent a wide range of things, including people,
locations, and items. Emojis also help interpret message tone and context.
A recipient of the message may say: “Because you didn’t use an emoji, I
wasn’t sure if you were serious or not.”

Figure 50. Emoji.

Source: Image by Thenounproject.com.

Emojis are currently supported by most modern operating systems,
including Windows, macOS, iOS, and Android. An “emoji keyboard,” which
is an on-screen keyboard that appears on a computer or mobile device, can
be used to insert an emoji.
Your smartphone generates a Unicode code when you write an emoji,
just like it would a letter, integer, or symbol. There is a binary code for an
“airplane” emoji, or, just as there is a code for the letter “L.”
Because the Unicode character set standardizes the list of available
emojis, the emojis you can use are determined by your device and operating
system version. If your device doesn’t support a certain emoji, it will appear
as an empty box (). When you upgrade your device’s software, you may be
able to see (and use) new emojis that weren’t previously available.
Important: The term “emoji” comes from the Japanese words “e” (⤮)
and “moji” (ᩥᏐ), or “picture character.”
102 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Emoticon
These are the text-based faces and objects you encounter in e-mail and
internet chat all the time. They assist the reader in getting a sense of the
writer’s emotions behind the writing. The traditional =) face, for example,
indicates that the writer is pleased with something or that his message is
humorous. The =P expression is used to express dissatisfaction or to indicate
“Whatever…” Emoticons can be used to make real-life items as well. A @---
--, for instance, is a long-stemmed rose that can be used to express affection.

Emulation
Emulation is derived from the verb “emulate,” which means “to imitate or
reproduce.” As a result, computer emulation is the process through which
one system imitates or reproduces another. This can be accomplished using
hardware, software, or a mix of both. However, because hardware is costly
to replicate, most of the emulation is done through the use of software.
Running various operating systems in a virtual environment is one of the
most prevalent types of software emulation. Windows and other operating
systems can be run on an Intel-based Macintosh computer using tools like
Parallels Desktop, VMware, and Apple’s Boot Camp. Sun Microsystems’
xVM VirtualBox allows multiple operating systems to be run on Windows,
Mac, and Unix platforms. These applications are collectively referred to as
software emulators, since they emulate different computer systems.
Another common sort of software emulation allows console video games,
such as those from Nintendo, Sega, and Sony, to be played on a computer.
ZSNES, for example, lets you to play Super Nintendo (SNES) games on
a Windows or Unix PC. Users can play Game Boy Advance games on
Windows or Macintosh computers using the Visual Boy Advance emulator.
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to save games for these emulators. As a result, video game emulators load
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Encryption
Encryption is the process of coding or scrambling data such that only those
with the correct decoding key can decode and read it. Encryption is used
to keep data safe. Encryption is utilized in secure Web sites and other data
transport methods. They wouldn’t be able to access the information you
supplied through an encrypted connection if it was intercepted by a third
party. So, if you’re sending a message to a co-worker over the workplace
network about how much you despise your job, your boss, and the entire
company, it’s a good idea to transmit it over an encrypted connection.

Figure 51. Encryption: A process of encoding information.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

End User
A software application or hardware gadget is developed for a specific
person. The word comes from the idea that a software or hardware product’s
“ultimate objective” is to be beneficial to the user. The end user might be
compared to the product’s developers or programmers. The installers and
administrators of the product are likewise separated from the end consumers.
To put it another way, an end user is someone who utilizes software or
hardware after it has been fully produced, marketed, and installed. It’s also
the one who continually calling the “IT guy” asking why the product isn’t
working properly. The phrases “user” and “end user” are interchangeable in
most cases.
104 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Ethernet

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Bar,” not “eth” in the sense of Bethany. In a local area network, Ethernet is
the most popular type of connection (LAN). The appearance of an Ethernet
port is similar to that of a standard phone jack, except it is slightly wider.
This port can be used to link your computer to another computer, a local
network, or a DSL or cable modem that is external
Ethernet is divided into two types: 10BaseT and 100BaseT. Through a
copper line, data transfer speeds of up to 10 MBps (megabits per second)
can be achieved in a 10BaseT Ethernet connection. Transfer speeds over a
100BaseT Ethernet connection can reach 100 MBps. There is also a new
technology known as “Gigabit” Ethernet, which allows for data transfer
rates of up to 1000 megabits per second. That’s lightning fast.

Figure 52. Ethernet is used in local, metropolitan, and wide area networks.

Source: Image by Flickr.

Excel
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet application that runs on both Windows
and Macintosh systems. It’s part of the Microsoft Office suite, which also
contains Word and PowerPoint, among other productivity tools.
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version was launched in 1985. Excel was not made accessible for Windows
until 1987, when Microsoft released Windows 3.0. Microsoft has continued
to support the software on both platforms since then, providing upgrades
every two years or so.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 105

Figure 53. Excel Icon.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

IBM Lotus 1-2-3 (for Windows) and the AppleWorks spreadsheet
application are two more prominent spreadsheet apps (for the Mac) Microsoft
Excel, on the other hand, has dominated the spreadsheet industry for many
years and remains the most popular spreadsheet program among businesses
and consumers.

External Hard Drive

Internal hard drives are standard on nearly all personal computers. The
operating system, programs, and other files are all stored on this drive. The
internal hard drive provides enough disk space for most users to keep all of
their programs and information. However, an external hard drive may be
handy if the internal hard drive becomes full or if the user needs to back up
the data on the internal hard drive.

Figure 54. External Hard Drive.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

106 Key Concepts in Computer Science

USB hard drives commonly use the USB 2.0 interface because it supports
    

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the hard disk to be slow because USB 1.1 only permits transfers of up to 12
Mbps. Firewire drives enable data transmission rates of up to 400 and 800
Mbps, respectively, and can use either Firewire 400 or Firewire 800.
Audio and video editors are the most likely users to require external
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be daisy chained, which means they may be attached one after the other and
utilized simultaneously.
This effectively doubles the amount of storage available. External hard
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don’t need extra storage. External hard drives provide excellent backups
because they can hold an exact copy of another hard disk and can be kept
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generate another backup.
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Extranet
You have a good comprehension of computer terminology if you can tell the
difference between the Internet and an intranet. You might be in the upper
tier if you know what an extranet is.
An extranet is a hybrid of the Internet and the intranet. It uses the Internet
to connect an intranet, or internal network, to other users. The majority of
extranets include a Web interface that may be accessed with a Web browser.
Extranets often require authentication for users to access them since safe or
secret information is frequently available within an intranet.
Unlike the Internet, “extranet” is not a proper noun and therefore should

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individuals frequently use extranets. For example, a supplier might use an
extranet to give inventory data to a select group of clients while keeping the
information private. A secure means of communication for the company and
its clients, such as a support ticket system or a Web-based forum, may be
included in the extranet.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 107

Figure 55. Extranet: A controlled private network.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

108 Key Concepts in Computer Science

F
Facebook
Facebook is a social networking website that was originally created for
college students but is now available to anybody who is aged 13 and up.
Facebook users may personalize their profiles by adding photographs,
videos, and biographical information. Friends can look at each other’s
profiles and leave messages on their pages.
A “wall” is a section of a Facebook 
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comments. Wall postings are essentially a public conversation because they
are visible to all of the user’s friends. As a result, it’s generally not a good
idea to write personal notes on your friends’ walls. You can instead send a
person a private message, which will appear in his or her inbox, similar to
an email message.

Figure 56. Facebook icon.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

Each Facebook user can customize their privacy settings, which are
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SuperPoke (which enhances Facebook’s “poke” function) and Fun Wall are
two examples (which builds on the basic “wall” feature).
News feeds and weather forecasts are examples of informational
applications. There are also hundreds of video game programs that allow
users to play mini video games within their accounts, such as Jetman or
Tetris. Friends can compete against each other or millions of other Facebook
members because most game programs save top scores.
Facebook makes it simple for friends to stay in touch and for people
to establish an online presence without having to create a website. Almost

    

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to upload photos and videos. of course, whether you’re a Facebook user or
want to join one day, remember to be cautious about what you write or post
on other people’s accounts. After all, your personal information is only as
public as you make it!

FAT32
The method Windows stores data on your hard disk is referred to by this
unusual moniker. The “File Allocation Table,” or “FAT,” keeps track of all
your files and assists the computer in finding them on the drive. Even if a
file is fragmented (divided up into numerous locations on the disk), the file
allocation table still can maintain track of it. FAT32 is a better version of
the original FAT system since it uses more bits to identify each disk cluster.
This makes it easy for the computer to identify data and allows for smaller
clusters, which increases the hard disk’s performance. FAT32 can store up
to 2 terabytes of data on a hard drive. Unless you’re a heavy power user, it
should be enough of room for you.

Fiber Optic Cable

This is a cable that can convey light beams and is made up of ultra-thin
glass or other transparent filaments. Because fiber-optic cables are made of
light, data may be sent at the speed of light. Ones and zeros are conveyed via
the connection using a laser transmitter that converts frequency signals into
light pulses. The light signals are translated back into data that can be read
by a computer at the receiving end of the transmission.
Fiber optics are less vulnerable to noise and interference than other data-
transfer mediums such as copper wires or telephone lines since they are
based exclusively on light beams. However, because the cables are delicate
110 Key Concepts in Computer Science

and are usually installed underground, installation is laborious and costly.

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they must frequently be replaced in their entirety, which is costly. While
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Figure 57. Fiber Optic Cable.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

FIFO
It stands for First In, First Out. FIFO is a data processing and retrieval
mechanism. The first items input are the first items removed in a FIFO
system. To put it another way, the items are deleted in the same order that
they were added.
To provide a real-life example, consider a vending machine with things
loaded from the back. When a person chooses a Milky Way bar from row
E5, the machine produces the candy bar that is closest to the front. The next
Milky Way in line takes its place at the front of the line. As a result, the
candy bars are dispensed in the order they were placed in the machine using
the FIFO method.
When pulling data from an array or buffer, computers frequently use the
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File
A file is a collection of data kept in a single unit with a unique name. It
can be a paper, a photograph, an audio or video stream, a data library, an
application, or any other type of data collection. A brief description of each
file format is provided below.
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File extension
“Common file extensions include .”txt” for text files and .”jpg” for JPEG
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112 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Figure 58. File extensions.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

File Format
“PNG files store image data in a compressed binary file format,” for example.
The way data is saved in a file is described by the file format. It specifies the
file’s data structure (how the data is organized) as well as the type of data it
contains. Some file formats are “open formats,” which means that they are
freely available to all software developers. Other file types are proprietary or
“closed formats,” which can only be opened by specified programs.
Text and binary data are the two types of data that can be stored in a
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majority of the contents will be distorted and unreadable.

File type
A file type is a specific sort of file, as the name implies. Some file formats
are specific to a single application, whilst others are universal and can be
opened by a variety of programs. A Microsoft PowerPoint presentation
(.PPTX extension) is an example of a proprietary file type that can only
be accessed by Microsoft PowerPoint. Microsoft PowerPoint is the only
program that can open it. Rich text documents (.RTF files) are a universal
file type that can be opened by almost any text editor.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 113

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Filename
A filename is a text string that is used to identify a particular file. Every
file on a computer’s hard drive has a filename that aids in locating the
file within a folder. As a result, each file within a folder must have a
unique name, although files in separate folders can have the same name.
Letters, numerals, and other characters may appear in filenames.
Certain characters cannot be used depending on the operating system
because they contradict with the operating system’s operators or other syntax.
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long as 256 characters, whereas older operating systems only allowed for 8
or 16 characters. of course, 16 characters is usually plenty for most practical
needs.
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Firewall
The term “firewall” originally referred to fire-resistant barriers that were
intended to keep fires from spreading from one room or structure to the
next. They were usually composed of brick, steel, or another inflammable
material that would successfully stop a fire from spreading. Firewalls do
not entail fire or pyrotechnics, but they serve a comparable purpose in the
IT world. A computer firewall restricts the amount of data that may pass
through it and guards against unauthorized users damaging a networked
server or client machine.

Figure 59. Firewall.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

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Firmware
A firmware program or set of instructions is a software program or set of
instructions that is installed on a hardware device. It contains the instructions
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 115

for how the device interacts with the rest of the computer hardware. But
how can you program software into hardware? That is an excellent question.
Firmware is often stored in a hardware device’s flash ROM. While ROM is
“read-only memory,” flash ROM is a sort of flash memory that can be erased
and overwritten.

Figure 60. Firmware.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

Firmware is considered “semi-permanent” since it does not change
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Flash
Flash is a multimedia programming language that may be used to create
animations and interactive websites. Flash is frequently used by web
developers to create dynamic content that is not possible to create using
HTML or other scripting languages. Splash screen animations, YouTube
videos, and interactive music playlists are just a few examples.
The Flash plug-in must be installed in order to view Flash content in
your browser. Because Flash is currently used on so many websites, Adobe
also offers a free download of the standalone Flash Player.

Flash Drive
Jump drives, thumb drives, pen drives, and USB keychain drives are all
names for flash devices. Whatever name you give them, they’re all referring
to the same thing: a compact data storage device with flash memory and a
built-in USB port. Flash drives usually have a length of two to three inches
and a width of less than an inch. They may have the size and form of a
thumb or a little pen (which is where the names “thumb drive” and “pen
drive” come from) Flash drives are also extremely thin, with a depth of less
than a centimeter in many cases.
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store a few megabytes. Flash drives have mostly superseded prior portable
  
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as Zip disks due to their tiny size and enormous storage capabilities. Flash
drives do not require the usage of a dedicated disk drive because they have a
built-in USB connection. They can instead be used on any computer having
a USB port, which almost all recent PCs have.

Flash Memory
Flash memory refers to an electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM). The term derives from the memory’s design, which
allows a chunk of memory cells to be erased in a single operation or “flash.”
The BIOS settings in a computer’s ROM are a frequent use of flash memory.
When the BIOS needs to be updated, the flash memory can be written in
blocks rather than bytes, which makes updating the BIOS much easier. For
the same reason, most modems use flash memory.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 117


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memory’s read/write performance isn’t lightning fast, having a little card to
carry around rather than a large hard drive is convenient.

Floating Point
Floating point numbers, as the name implies, are numbers with floating
decimal points. The numbers 5.5, 0.001, and -2,345.6789, for example,
are all floating-point numbers. Integers are numbers that do not have any
decimal places.
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Floppy Disk
Even though they do not appear to be “floppy,” floppy disks have an intriguing
moniker. When you remove the disk out of the protective covering, you’ll
notice that it’s quite flexible. It’s coated with iron oxide and works similarly
to a hard disk in that it saves data magnetically.
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Internet was launched. These disks were 8 inches in diameter and read-only,
similar to a CD-ROM, meaning the user could not write data to them. The
earliest 8-inch disks could only store 80KB of data, but later versions could
store up to 800KB.
In 1978 a 5.25-inch disk with 360KB of storage capacity was launched.
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desktop computers, such as the Apple IIe, utilized these disks. In 1987, the
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1.44 megabytes after formatting. These disks were a little more robust and

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method of distributing commercial software titles and keeping up personal
data for the next decade.
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preferred method of software distribution. Consumers began switching
118 Key Concepts in Computer Science



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in 1998. Many PC makers soon followed suit, but it took several years.
The majority of software is now provided on CDs and DVDs, and the
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disk will always hold a special place in the hearts and minds of veteran
computer users.

Freeware
Freeware, like shareware, is software that you can download, share, and
distribute without having to pay a fee. Freeware, on the other hand, has the
advantage of never having to pay for it. It’s completely free, with no 30-day
limit, demo versions, or blocked functionality. Freeware is widely used to
distribute minor program updates and small games. Even if freeware is free,
it is still copyrighted, which means that others cannot sell it as their own.

Frozen
While the state of Minnesota is “frozen” from November to March, it also
refers to a computer that is unresponsive. A computer is frozen when it does
not respond to any user input. When a computer system freezes, or “locks
up,” the screen remains unchanged regardless of whatever buttons on the
mouse or keyboard are pressed.
When you move the mouse, the cursor will not move, indicating that
your computer has frozen. A computer usually freezes as a result of a
software bug that causes the operating system to “hang.” This can happen

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something else entirely. A hardware failure, such as a defective RAM chip
or a processor error, can also cause a computer to freeze.
A software crash is frequently caused by a software programming fault
or unrecognized input, as computers are not designed to freeze. Modern
operating systems, such as Mac OS X, are structured in such a way that
if one program fails, it does not affect other programs and the computer
does not freeze. If your computer does freeze, you’ll have to restart it to
get it to work again. By pressing and holding the power button for many
seconds, you can usually force your computer to shut down. Also, because
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 119

most computer freezes happen out of the blue, it’s a good idea to save your
work often!

FSB
The FSB, which stands for “frontside bus,” connects the computer’s processor
to the system memory (RAM) and other motherboard components. The
system chipset, AGP card, PCI devices, and other peripherals are among
these components. Like the processor, the frontside bus’s speed is measured
in Megahertz or Gigahertz. The FSB speed is often a ratio of the processor
speed because most computers’ processors are faster than their system buses.
For example, a Pentium 4 processor with a 2.4 GHz clock speed may only
have a 400 MHz FSB. The ratio of CPU to FSB would be 6:1. A Power Mac
G5 with a 2.0 GHz processor, on the other hand, has a 1.0 GHz frontside
bus. As a result, the CPU-to-FSB ratio is 2:1.
  

   
 
      
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result, quicker front-end bus speeds result in improved overall performance.
When the CPU to FSB ratio is high, the processor must frequently wait for
data to be passed out across the system bus before it can process fresh data.
As a result, the FSB might be a performance bottleneck in a computer. So,
when looking for a fast computer, don’t just look at the processor speed; also
look at the frontside bus speed.

FTP
It stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a widespread means of moving
files from one computer to another via the Internet. “Fetch” for Mac and
“WS FTP” for Windows are two popular FTP apps. FTP servers can also be
accessed using a Web browser such as Netscape or Internet Explorer. To do
so, type the URL into your browser of the server into the location field of
the browser.
For example, “ftp:/ftp.servername.com/” will show you all of the FTP
server’s directories, “ftp:/ftp.servername.com/directory/” will show you

       
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120 Key Concepts in Computer Science

G
Gateway
A gateway is a piece of hardware or software that functions as a link between
two networks, allowing data to flow across many computers. When you send
an e-mail to a friend or log in to a web site, there is a gateway that permits
the connection to happen. Many smaller connections to other servers will be
made along the way while you connect to a web site. A number of gateways
are employed in these situations. Gateway is also the name of a popular
direct-order PC maker in an entirely other narrative.

Gibibyte
A gibibyte is a data storage unit with the value of 2 to the 30th power, or
1,073,741,824 bytes. A gibibyte is specified as exactly 1,073,741,824 bytes,
while a gigabyte is approximated to be 109 or 1,000,000,000 bytes. This
eliminates the ambiguity surrounding the number of gigabytes. A gibibyte is
1,024 mebibytes in size and comes before the tebibyte.

GIF
You don’t have to recall that the initials “GIF” stands for “Graphics
Interchange Format.” A GIF is a compressed picture file format, which you
should be aware of. GIF pictures are compressed using an algorithm created
by CompuServe (which is why you see the term “CompuServe GIF” in
Photoshop, for those of you that care). GIFs use an indexed color palette,
which has a maximum of 256 colors.
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animated graphics, but they lack the color gamut needed for high-resolution
photos.

Gigabyte
A gigabyte is 1,073,741,824 bytes, or 2 to the 30th power. It’s around one
billion (1,000,000,000) bytes, or 10 to the 9th power. A gigabyte is 1,024
megabytes in size, and it comes before the terabyte. The size of a hard disk is
usually expressed in gigabytes, such as a 160GB or 250GB drive. In speech,
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 121

the term gigabyte is frequently shortened as “gig.” For example, if you have
a 250GB hard drive, you could say, “I have 250 gigs of disk space.” The
prefix “giga” comes from the Greek word “gigas,” meaning giant.

Gigahertz
1,000 megahertz (MHz) or 1,000,000,000 Hz equals one gigahertz. It’s a
standard way of determining how fast a computer can process information.
For a long time, computer processor speeds were measured in megahertz,
but as personal computers passed the 1,000-megahertz threshold around the
year 2000, gigahertz became the official measurement unit. After all, “2.4
Gigahertz” is easier to say than “2,400 Megahertz.”
While gigahertz is most usually used to measure processor speed, it can
also be used to measure the speed of other computer components like RAM
    
 
 
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by the speed of these components, as well as other sections of the computer.
When comparing computers, keep in mind that the number of gigahertz isn’t
the only factor to consider.

GIGO
It stands for Garbage In, Garbage Out. It indicates that if erroneous data
is entered into a computer program, the output will be erroneous as well.
So, if a program asked you to enter a letter of the alphabet and you chose
“3.14159” as a joke, there’s a good probability the results you’d get would
be jumbled up, or “junk.” Programmers must take great efforts to prevent
GIGO problems because computer users aren’t always clever enough to
submit proper data.

GNU
GNU (a recursive acronym for “GNU’s Not Unix”) is a Unix-like operating
system that is available in several distributions. The GNU/Linux operating
systems are based on the Linux kernel and are collectively known as GNU/
Linux. gNewSense, Trisquel, and Venenux are some popular examples.
For example – “The developer installed a GNU operating system on his
secondary computer.”
Without requiring a commercial license, all GNU systems and programs
are distributed as free software. Instead, they’re released under the GNU
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122 Key Concepts in Computer Science

freely used and distributed as long as other users have the same rights. While
the GNU General Public License (GPL) While the GNU General Public
License was created with GNU software in mind, it is currently utilized by
a wide range of other free software programs.

Golden master
“The newest release candidate of the software is intended to be the golden
master,” for example. The golden master stage of the software development
process is the last stage. It refers to a software package’s “Release to
Manufacturing” or RTM version, which is submitted to a manufacturing
facility for reproduction. When software achieves the golden master (GM)
version, it has completed development and will shortly be released to the
public.

Goodput
“Network congestion may cause the goodput to drop relative to the
throughput,” for example. The term “goodput” sounds like a golf term
for making a 20-foot birdie putt. Goodput is similar to throughput in the
computer industry, which quantifies the average data transfer speed via a
communications channel.
The amount of data transferred is divided by the time it takes to transport
the data to compute throughput. Packet headers, acknowledgements of
packet receipt, and retransmitted data are all examples of this. The original
data is split by the transmission time to determine the goodput.
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may require 300 kilobytes of header information and acknowledgements.
As a result, the throughput is around 5.3 megabytes divided by the transfer
time. The initial 5 megabytes divided by the transmission time would be the
goodput. As a result, goodput is always less than or equal to the measurement
of throughput.

Google
Google is the most widely used search engine on the planet. Larry Page
and Sergey Brin, two Ph.D. students at Stanford University, started it as a
search project in 1996. They devised a search engine algorithm that rated
Web pages based on how many other Web pages they linked to as well as
their content and keywords.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 123

Google’s Web search market share grew rapidly as a result of this

method, which delivered more helpful results than other search engines. In
September 2001, the Google ranking algorithm was renamed “PageRank”
and patented. Google rose to become the world’s most popular search engine
in a short period of time.
Google’s mission statement is to “organize the world’s information and
make it widely accessible and valuable,” according to the company’s website.
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still its Web search, the corporation also provides a number of additional
services. Here are a few examples:
1. Froogle is a pricing comparison website.
2. Image Search – look for photos on the internet.
3. Google Groups – discussion forums on the internet
4. Google Answers – based on a bidding structure, Google Answers
provides answers to inquiries.
5. Google Maps – directions and maps
6. Google Toolbar Is a search tool that can be downloaded.
7. Blogger is a free blogging platform.
8. Gmail – Web-based e-mail with a storage capacity of several
gigabytes
9. AdWords – Advertisers’ advertising services
10. AdSense – A service that provides advertising to web publishers.
Google has become such a well-known search engine that the phrase
“Google” is now frequently used as a verb to mean “search.” For example, if
you want to learn more about someone, you can use Google’s search engine
to Google that person.

Google Drive
Google Drive is a cloud-based file storage and sharing service provided by
Google. The service, which began on April 24, 2012, offers 5 GB of free
storage. A monthly fee can be paid for additional storage. Google Drive’s
purpose is to give you a central location to store your files online that you
can access from anywhere.
You may also access your Google Drive account from a variety of
devices, as the program is available for Windows, Mac OS X, Android, and
iOS. A web-based interface is also available, allowing you to organize your
124 Key Concepts in Computer Science

   

 



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in your Google Drive. You can also create and edit documents online using
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GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite navigation system that
determines ground position and velocity (location, speed, and direction).
Despite the fact that it was developed and first used by the United States
military, all around the world, GPS is now available to the general population.
A lot of luxury cars now have GPS navigation systems, which include an
LCD map that displays the driver exactly where he is in the world. Advanced
automobile GPS units can speak directions to a specific location and inform
the driver when to turn.

Figure 61. Global positioning system.

Source: Image by Flickr.

 Key Concepts in Computer Science 125

GPU
Stands for “Graphics Processing Unit” It’s a single-chip processor, just like
the CPU (Central Processing Unit). The GPU, on the other hand, is largely
utilized to compute 3D functions. Lighting effects, object modifications, and
3D motion are all examples of this. Because these calculations are heavy on
the CPU, the GPU can aid the computer’s performance. NVIDIA, Inc. was
the first company to develop the GPU.
Its GeForce 256 GPU has around 22 million transistors and can compute
10 million polygons per second. In comparison, the Pentium III chip has 9

 
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The processor also comes in a workstation version called the Quadro, which
is targeted for CAD applications. This processor can perform up to 17 million
polygons per second and execute over 200 billion operations per second.

Graphics
Images shown on a computer screen are known as computer graphics. They
may be two-dimensional or three-dimensional. Raster and vector graphics
are two types of two-dimensional graphics. For example modern video
games have 3D graphics that can appear incredibly realistic.
Raster graphics is the most common type of computer graphics. They are
used to create icons, pictures, and other simple images. Drawings, logos, and
other scalable objects are created using vector graphics. Polygons make up
3D visuals, which can be developed using CAD and 3D modelling software.
Video games and 3D animations are the most popular places where they can
be found.

GUI
It’s pronounced “gooey” and stands for “Graphical User Interface.” It refers
to a computer’s graphical interface, which lets users to click and move items
with a mouse rather than typing commands at a command line. Windows and
Mac OS, two of the most popular operating systems, are GUI-based. Apple
introduced the graphical user interface to the world with the Macintosh in
1984. However, the concept was inspired by a Xerox user interface from
years ago.

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126 Key Concepts in Computer Science

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examples of data that contain GUIDs. GUIDs are commonly written in
hexadecimal format with 32 digits and look like this:
{12345678–9012–3456–7890–123456789012}
The GUID Partition Table is similarly based on globally unique IDs
(GPT). Intel suggested this hard disk partitioning mechanism as part of the
Extensible Firmware Interface. Windows PCs and Intel-based Macintosh
machines both use it. GUIDs are used by GPT to identify the various
 

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partition are just a few examples. Each operating system that supports the
GPT partitioning technique labels each partition with a unique GUID.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 127

H
Hacker
While this phrase used to indicate to a skilled or knowledgeable coder, it is
now more generally used to describe someone who can get unauthorized
access to other computers. A hacker can “hack” his or her way through a
computer systems or network’s security levels.
         
 

   

 
    
 
  
      
 

another computer. Hackers are the reason why software companies provide
“security upgrades” on their products on a regular basis. While the average


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multiple hacking attempts every day.

Figure 62. Hacker: Exploits a computer network or system.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

Halftone
Instead of a continuous tone, a halftone image is made up of a sequence of
dots. These dots can come in a variety of sizes, colors, and occasionally even
forms. Darker, more dense regions of the image are represented by larger
dots, whereas lighter areas are represented by smaller dots.
128 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Newspapers and periodicals utilize halftone graphics because they

  
    
   

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substantially less ink to print than a continuous tone image because it is
made up of discrete dots. The dots look as a continuous image to the human
eye as long as the image resolution (measured in LPI) is high enough. You
should be able to see the dots that make up the halftone image if you look
closely at the photographs printed in a newspaper.

Handle
The name you use in online chat is sometimes referred to as your screen
name, or handle. So, if you wanted to be known as MooCow123, that’d be
your handle. So, if you wanted to be known as MooCow123, that’d be your
handle. Handles are useful because they let you express yourself without
revealing your true identity. The phrase comes from CB radio, where users
use their “handles” to refer to each other.

Hard Copy
A printed document is referred to as a hard copy. It might be a text file,
a photograph, a drawing, or anything else that can be printed. Instead of
sending a business memo by e-mail, it could be sent as a hard copy, or a real
piece of paper carrying the memo.
When you produce a document on a computer, you usually save it as

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it may also be removed. As a result, printing a hard copy of a document is
occasionally done to create a physical backup of the document.

Hard Disk
The information is often written to your hard disk when you save files or
install programs on your computer. The hard disk is a spinning disk with
magnetic platters that record and store data. Information recorded to the
hard disk remains intact after you turn your computer off since it is stored
magnetically. The hard drive differs from RAM, or memory, which is reset
when the computer’s power is turned off.
The hard disk, which reads and writes data to the disk, is located inside
the hard drive. Data is also sent back and forth between the CPU and the disk
via the hard drive. When you save data to your hard disk, thousands, if not
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 129

millions, of ones and zeros must be written to the hard disk. It’s a fascinating
process to contemplate, but it’s also an excellent reason to preserve a backup
of your data.

Hard Drive
All of your data is stored on the hard disk. It houses the hard disk, which
contains all of your files and folders. A normal hard drive is around the size
of your hand, but it can store over 100 GB of data. The information is kept
on a stack of disks that are housed in a solid casing.
These disks spin extremely quickly (usually at 5400 or 7200 RPM),
allowing data to be accessible instantly from any location on the drive.
Because the data is magnetically recorded on the hard disk, it remains on
the drive even when the power supply is turned off. To increase security,
some hard tokens are used in conjunction with other security measures. To
get access to a protected system, for example, a username and password or a
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Another sort of hard token is a hard tag, which is used as a security
device on items like clothing and gadgets. You’ve probably seen these at
a number of retail outlets where they’re employed to prevent theft. The
security system at the doors beeps if someone tries to escape the facility
with items before the hard tag has been deactivated. of course, even though
you paid for the product, if the cashier forgets to disable the hard tag, you
will hear the annoying beeping sound as you left.

Hardware
The actual components of a computer and related devices are referred to
as computer hardware. Motherboards, hard drives, and RAM are examples
of internal hardware devices. Monitors, keyboards, mouse, printers, and
scanners are examples of external hardware.
Components refer to the internal hardware components of a computer,
whereas peripherals refer to external hardware devices. They all fall under the
category of computer hardware when taken together. Software, on the other
hand, is made up of the programs and applications that run on a computer.
Because software operates on computer hardware, it is common for software
programs to include system requirements that specify the minimal hardware
that must be installed in order for the software to function.
130 Key Concepts in Computer Science

HDD
“Hard disk drive” is abbreviated as HDD. A hard disk drive (HDD) is a data
storage device. A hard disk drive, unlike RAM, stores data magnetically
and does not require power to retain its state. As a result, even if the power
supply is switched off or disconnected, the data is retained.
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computer has an internal hard disk drive, for example, when you save a
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installed applications as well as any additional programs you install on your
computer. Most users will never run out of disk space because contemporary
HDDs have storage capabilities of more than one terabyte. You can,
however, connect an external HDD (also known as an external hard drive)
for additional storage or backup purposes if necessary.
Important: The terms “hard disk drive,” “hard drive,” and “hard disk”
are all interchangeable. An HDD and a hard drive are the same thing in
terms of technology; however, a hard disk refers to the magnetic platter
inside the drive enclosure.

HDMI
Stands for “High-Definition Multimedia Interface.” HDMI is a digital
interface that allows audio and visual data to be transmitted via a single
cable. Most HDTVs and associated components, such as DVD and Blu-ray
players, cable boxes, and video gaming systems, support it.
Other forms of A/V connections require separate wires for audio and
video data, whereas HDMI combines the two streams, substantially reducing
cable clutter. A component cable connection, for example, necessitates three
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HDMI cable is required to convey the same data.
HDMI cables are less susceptible to interference and signal noise than
analog connections because they are digital. Furthermore, because most
components, such as DVD players and digital cable boxes, handle data
digitally, HDMI avoids the analog to digital conversion required by traditional
interfaces. As a result, when compared to other types of connections, HDMI
frequently offers the best picture and sound quality.
HDMI cables are often more expensive than analog cables, owing to the
higher manufacturing costs. It’s worth noting, though, that HDMI eliminates
the need for separate audio and video lines. Furthermore, for people who
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 131

dislike dealing with complicated wires and connectors, the single all-
purpose connection may be worth the price difference. Just remember to
double-check that the devices you’re connecting have HDMI ports before
purchasing an HDMI cable.

HDTV
HDTV is a high-definition video standard that was created to replace other
video formats such as SDTV (standard definition television). While the video
quality of HDTV is one of the most visible differences from SDTV, it also
features a number of other significant enhancements. First and foremost,
HDTV is a digital signal. HDTV is always digital, unlike standard NTSC
broadcasts, which use an analog feed. Electrical currents and magnetic fields
generate analog interference, which is eliminated.
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television. HDTV employs a 16:9 ratio, whereas prior broadcasts used a 4:3
ratio (4 units wide for every 3 units tall). The image appears more lifelike
because of the larger aspect ratio, which more closely resembles how people
experience the environment. This aspect ratio is also preferable for watching
widescreen movies, which are also shot in widescreen for the same reason.
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States has a maximum resolution of 525 horizontal lines, an HDTV signal
can handle up to 1080. 1080i (interlaced), 720p, and 1080p are the three
formats used by HDTV (progressive). The higher resolution of HDTV
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HDTV also offers a higher-quality digital audio stream than SDTV, with up
to six audio channels available, as opposed to the two previously allowed.
You’ll need an HDTV-compatible television and a way to receive an HD
signal to watch HDTV. HDTVs are available in both 16:9 and 4:3 aspect
ratios (for backwards compatibility). Some HDTVs come with HDTV tuners
for receiving over-the-air broadcasts, while others require the purchase of a
separate receiver. Most cable and satellite TV companies, fortunately, include
HDTV-compatible equipment as part of their digital service package.

Heat Sink
Every second, a computer’s CPU may do millions of calculations. The CPU
generates heat as it continues to function at a high rate. The processor may
132 Key Concepts in Computer Science

overheat and finally harm itself if this heat is not controlled. Fortunately,
CPUs have a heat sink that dissipates the processor’s heat and prevents it
from overheating. The heat sink is constructed of metal, such as zinc or
copper alloy, and is connected to the CPU by a thermal substance that draws
heat away from the processor and towards the heat sink. Heat sinks can
be as little as just covering the processor to as large as several times the
processor’s size if the CPU necessitates it.
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attach to the heat sink’s base. These extra pieces of metal help to dissipate
heat by distributing it across a broader area. A fan is frequently used to cool
the air around the heat sink, preventing it from becoming excessively hot.
A heat sink and fan (HSF) combo is the name for this setup. Heat sinks
are used in almost all computer CPUs, and they have also become prevalent
in visual card processors, or GPUs.

Hertz
The standard unit of measurement for frequency is the Hertz (abbreviated
as Hz). A hertz equals one cycle per second since frequency is measured in
cycles per second.
Sound, light, and radio waves are all measured in Hertz. Sound waves
between 20 and 20,000 Hz, for example, are detectable by the typical human
ear. Sound waves with a frequency of less than 20 Hz are referred to as
“bass” frequencies because they have a low pitch. Above 5,000 Hz, sound
waves have a frequency.
Hertz is a unit of measurement that can be used to measure wave
frequencies as well as the speed of computer processors. Each CPU, for
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instructions cycles the CPU can complete in a second. Clock speeds are
often measured in megahertz or gigahertz since current processors may run
millions or even billions of instructions per second.

Hexadecimal
A base-16 number system is hexadecimal. It’s a different way of representing
numbers than the base-10 system that we’re used to. In base-10, people
count in multiples of 10 before adding another digit. “8 – 9 – 10 – 11 – 12…”
and “98 – 99 – 100 – 101 – 102…” are two examples. When the number 10
is reached, a new digit is added, then another digit is added to indicate 100.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 133

(10x10). Each digit in the base-16, or hexadecimal, number system can have
sixteen values instead of ten. A hexadecimal digit can have the following
values:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X,
As a result, in hexadecimal notation, the number 12 (in the standard
base-10 format) would be written as “C.” The sum of the numbers 18 (16+8)
equals 24. In hexadecimal, 100 equals 64 (16x6 + 4) and 1000 equals 3E8
(256x3 + 16x14 + 8).
While computers use the base-2, or binary, system to analyze numbers,
it is often more effective to visualize the numbers in hexadecimal format.
This is due to the fact that four binary digits are represented by only one
hexadecimal digit. Because a byte contains eight binary digits, only two
hexadecimal digits are required to represent one byte.

HFS
It stands for “Hierarchical File System.” The HFS file system is used to
organize files on Macintosh hard drives. The hierarchical file system is
used to establish a directory that can expand when new files and folders are
added to the drive when a hard disk is formatted for a Macintosh computer.
Windows machines do not recognize HFS-formatted drives because it is
a Macintosh format. WIN32 or NTFS file systems are commonly used to
format Windows hard disks.
Because HFS was not meant to handle huge hard disks, such as the
100GB+ hard disks that are prevalent today, Apple released Mac OS 8.1 with

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allows journaling.

Hibernate
It is a good idea to put your computer to sleep (also known as standby mode)
if you are not intending to use it for a few hours. It is normally advisable to
turn off the computer if you are not intending to use it for more than a day.
However, certain Windows computers have a feature called “Hibernate” that
combines the benefits of sleep mode and turning down the machine.
134 Key Concepts in Computer Science

When you choose Hibernate, the computer stores the current state of the
system to the hard disk before shutting down. Instead of going through the
standard boot procedure, the previously saved state is automatically loaded
into RAM when the computer is restarted. The open windows and apps
from your previous session display just as they did when the computer went
into Hibernate mode. Hibernate mode is similar to Standby mode, except
that the machine can be totally shut off. This is especially useful for laptop
computers, which, if left in sleep mode, will gradually lose their battery
charge.
Select “Turn Off Computer” from the bottom of the Windows Start
Menu to put your computer to sleep. When the dialog box displays, hit, and
hold the Shift key. “Standby” should be replaced with “Hibernate.”
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is loaded. This is due to the fact that the browser must send six requests to
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Hit
A hit is a metric which is used in website analytics. “Hits” and “visits” are
used interchangeably, at times, but they are two different things. A visit is
recorded when a user visits a webpage. while, on the other hand, a hit is
recorded for each resource which is downloaded from a web server. Thus,
it is common for hits to outnumber visits, usually by a ratio of more than 10
to 1.
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as a hit, together with the webpage itself. Hence, if a page consists of eight
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would record 14 hits each time a visitor views the page. As website hits can
differ based on how many resources each page contains, the metric is hardly

   

Horizontal Markets Software

A horizontal market is one that sells to multiple industries rather than just
one. As a result, horizontal market software is software that may be applied
to a variety of industries. Word processing and spreadsheet programs, for
example, are horizontal market applications since they are employed by a
wide range of enterprises and consumers. A business owner might use word
processing software to send notes to his staff, while a student might use the
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 135

same tool to complete a class paper. Developers of software for horizontal

markets often have a large audience, but they also face a lot of competition.
Vertical market software is the opposite of horizontal market software, as it
is solely produced for a single industry.

Home Page
A website’s beginning point, or first page, is this. This page normally has a
table of contents and frequently outlines the site’s aim. Apple.com’s home
page, for example, is http://www.apple.com/index.html. When you write in
a simple URL, such as http://www.cnet.com, you are usually taken to the
site’s main page. Many people have a “personal home page,” which is a
different phrase for “home page.”

Hyperlink
A hyperlink is a word, phrase, or image that can be clicked to take you to a
different document or area within the current one. Hyperlinks can be found
on practically every Web page, allowing users to go from one page to the next
by clicking on them. Text hyperlinks are commonly blue and highlighted,
but they aren’t required. The arrow should transform to a little hand pointing
at the link when you move the cursor over a hyperlink, whether it’s text or an
image. When you click it, it will open a new page or a section of the current
page.
Hyperlinks, often known as “links,” are commonly seen on Web pages,
although they can also be found in other hypertext documents. Certain
encyclopedias, glossaries, dictionaries, and other hyperlinked references
fall under this category. The links function similarly to those found on the
Internet, allowing the user to go from one page to the next. Hyperlinks, in a
nutshell, allow individuals to peruse information at breakneck speed.

Hypermedia
Clicking text-based links that open new pages in a Web browser is how
most people navigate the Internet. These hypertext connections, which are
frequently blue and underlined, allow the user to jump from one page to
the next. Hypermedia is a type of hypertext that allows you to link images,
movies, and Flash animations to other content.
An image link is the most prevalent sort of hypermedia. On the Internet,
photos and graphics are frequently linked to other pages. Clicking on a
136 Key Concepts in Computer Science

small “thumbnail” image, for example, may launch a larger version of the
image in a new window. You may be directed to an advertiser’s website by
clicking on a promotional graphic. By integrating one or more links that
appear during playback, Flash animations and movies can be turned into
hyperlinks.
Moving the cursor over an image or video will reveal whether it is a
hyperlink. The image or video is connected to another page if the cursor
transforms to a little hand. When you click on the text, image, or video, it will
take you to a new page on your browser. As a result, only click a hypertext or
hypermedia link when you’re ready to exit the current page. You can usually
right-click the link and choose “Open Link in New Window” to open it in a
new window.

Hypertext
Hypertext is text that contains hyperlinks to other sources of information. A
user can swiftly go to different material by clicking on a link in a hypertext
document. Though most people equate hypertext with Web sites, the
technology has been present since the 1960s. Dictionary and encyclopedia
software packages have long included hypertext in their definitions so that
users can easily learn more about specific words or topics. Hypertext was
also employed in Apple Computer’s HyperCard application, which allowed
users to create multi-linked databases. Today, hypertext reigns supreme on
the Internet, with practically every page containing links to other pages and
both text and graphics capable of linking to other content.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 137

I
I/O
I/O is an abbreviation for “Input/Output,” and it’s pronounced “eye-oh.”
Computers are built on the premise that every input produces an output.
If you input a sentence on your keyboard while using a word processor
program, the text will show on the screen. The screen is an output device,
while the keyboard is an input device. Another output device is a printer,
which you can use to print the text. All I/O activities are handled by the
computer’s CPU, which sends the data it receives to the relevant path.
The path could lead to the video card, the hard drive, or the RAM, to
mention a few possibilities. Because they connect input and output devices to
the computer, the ports on the outside of a computer are commonly referred
to as “I/O ports.” I/O is a term used by software developers to explain how
a program will behave depending on what a user enters. For example, in
the game “Super Jumper Man,” if the user clicks the space bar key, the
character on the screen will jump. Multiply that by thousands of other user
input scenarios, and you’ve got yourself a computer game.

I/O Address
Each I/O (Input/Output) device attached to your computer has its own I/O
(Input/Output) address. Every I/O port on your computer, including USB,
Firewire, Ethernet, VGA, and DVI connectors, as well as any other ports
your machine may have, is given one of these addresses.
Each port has its own unique address, which helps your computer to
recognize and locate devices connected to it. The computer can identify a
keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, or any other device by its I/O address.
I/O addresses do not consume any system memory or RAM because they are
managed by the computer’s motherboard.

IBM Compatible
Apple and IBM computers dominated the personal computer industry in
the early 1980s. Apple’s computers used a proprietary operating system
designed by Apple, whereas IBM’s computers used PC-DOS. IBM chose to
license the DOS operating system to other manufacturers as the demand for
personal computers grew. These businesses began manufacturing personal
computers known as PC clones or IBM compatibles.
138 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Supplies rose as more manufacturers began to produce PCs, and prices

began to fall. As a result, more individuals could afford personal computers,
and IBM compatibles began to dominate the market. It wasn’t long until
the quantity of computers sold directly by IBM was surpassed by the new
manufacturers. When Microsoft released the Windows 95 operating system
in 1995, sales of IBM compatibles skyrocketed once more. By that time,
however, the name “IBM compatible” had practically become obsolete,
as most PCs ran Microsoft Windows as their primary operating system.
Furthermore, PC manufacturers had been constructing their own computers
for many years, and IBM’s own PCs and IBM compatibles had little
similarities.
IBM ceased production of personal computers in 2005. The company
that pioneered the personal computer revolution is no longer in business. As
a result, the term “IBM compatible” is a little out of date, yet it can still be
used to denote computers that run on Windows.

ICS
“Internet Connection Sharing” is what it stands for. Multiple PCs can
connect to the Internet using the same Internet connection and IP address
thanks to ICS. A router, for example, can connect multiple computers in
a household to the same cable or DSL modem. Every computer linked to
the router is connected to the Internet as long as the router is connected to
the modem. The machines can share the same IP address thanks to network
address translation (NAT).
Software can also be used to perform ICS. Internet connection sharing
is available in Windows 98 and later, as well as Mac OS X. This allows you
to change the network settings on a single computer, thereby turning it into a
gateway. The Internet connection of that computer can then be used by other
computers on the same network. Users of Windows may achieve the same
outcome with apps like WinGate and WinProxy. While software can be used
to share an Internet connection, using hardware (such as a router) for ICS is
the simplest and most convenient option.

ICT
ICT is short for “Information and Communication Technologies.” It’s
comparable to IT (Information Technology), but it’s more focused on
telecommunications technologies like the Internet, cell phone networks, and
satellite technology. Users all around the world can now speak with one
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 139

other in real time on a daily basis thanks to modern types of ICT. Examples
include instant messaging, video-conferencing, online multiplayer gaming,
and social networking websites. For example: “Thanks to ICT, users can
access information from all over the globe.”

IDE
IDE can refer to either “Integrated Device Electronics” or “Integrated
Development Environment,” with the former being a hardware name and
the latter being a software phrase. Both terms are highly technical, and
understanding them will impress even the most nerdy of your friends.

Integrated Device Electronics

The IDE interface is one of the most extensively used hard disk interfaces.
The fancy term alludes to how the technology incorporates the drive’s
electronics controller. While the old IDE standard could only support hard
drives with a capacity of up to 540 MB of data, the new EIDE (Enhanced-
IDE) standard can accommodate hard drives with capacities of up to 250
GB. It also offers data transfer speeds that are more than twice as fast as the
original IDE.
SCSI, which is quicker than EIDE but normally costs more per megabyte,
is another common hard drive interface. Newer hard drives may also employ
a SATA (Serial ATA) connection, which outperforms both SCSI and IDE in
terms of speed and power consumption.

Integrated Development Environment

Computer programming is a time-consuming and difficult undertaking.
As a result, software development programs strive to make the software
development process as painless as feasible. When creating a software
program, an IDE program includes a source code editor, compiler, and, in
most cases, a debugger. The IDE manages all project files and provides a
centralized interface for authoring source code, connecting files together,
and debugging applications.
A runtime environment (RTE) for testing the software may be included in
IDE programming software. When a program is run in the RTE, the software
can keep track of every event that occurs. This can be a very useful tool while
troubleshooting a software. It is simple to make rapid changes to the code,
recompile it, and run the program again since the IDE software provides a
140 Key Concepts in Computer Science

common interface for authoring and testing the program. Programming is

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IEEE
The “Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers” is a non-profit
organization that creates, defines, and evaluates standards in electronics and
computer science. Despite the fact that the IEEE is established in the United
States, its standards frequently become international norms. The IEEE 1284
interface (a.k.a. Parallel Port), which is used by many printers, and the IEEE
1394 interface (a.k.a. Firewire), which is a super-fast connection for digital
video cameras, hard drives, and other peripherals, are two examples of
commonly-used devices standardized by the organization.

IMAP
It’s pronounced “eye-map” and stands for “Internet Message Access
Protocol.” It’s a way of getting to e-mail messages on a server without
having to download them to your computer. This is the primary distinction
between IMAP and another widely used e-mail protocol known as “POP3.”
Before reading messages, POP3 users must download them to their hard
drive. The Benefits of Using IMAP Mail server is that users can check their
mail from multiple computers and always see the same messages
Most email clients, such as Microsoft Outlook and Mac OS X Mail,
let you choose the protocol your mail server uses. If you utilize your ISP’s
mail service, inquire as to whether their mail server supports IMAP or POP3
mail. Your e-mail program will not be able to send or receive mail if the




 



Inbox
The main folder where your incoming mail is stored is called an inbox. Each
downloaded message is saved in your inbox, whether you use a webmail
interface or an application like Outlook or Mac OS X Mail to check your
mail. When you use an e-mail client to check your mail from a POP3 account,
the messages are downloaded to the inbox on your local hard drive. If you
use an IMAP mail server, however, your inbox is generated on the server,
and your messages are also saved there.
Because most people receive more mail than they can handle in a single
folder, it’s typical to create additional folders to hold your messages. You
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 141

may either move your messages to other folders you’ve made (such as
“Family,” “Friends,” “Business,” and so on) or trash them by moving them
to the Trash once you’ve read them. It’s a good idea to keep the number
of messages in your inbox from growing too enormous, regardless of how
you manage your mail. Otherwise, you may be forced to declare E-mail
Bankruptcy.

Figure 63. Inbox.

Source: Image by Flickr.

Install
Before you can use most software packages, you must first install them on
your computer. If you purchase Microsoft Office, for example, you must first
install it on your computer before using any of the associated products, such
as Word or Excel. Software can be installed using a CD or DVD, an external
hard drive, or a networked computer. You can also use a file downloaded
from the Internet to install an application or software update.
Software installation is usually a simple procedure. When the license
agreement opens up, double-click the installer icon, and then click “I Agree.”
You may have to select a directory on your hard drive in which to install
the software, but the installer will frequently do so for you. You can install
certain applications by dragging a folder or application program onto your
hard drive. Installing software is a relatively easy process that should not be
142 Key Concepts in Computer Science

daunting in any case. You can install your own software if you can make a
meal in the microwave.

Integrated Circuit
A little chip called an integrated circuit, or IC, can be used as an amplifier,
oscillator, timer, microprocessor, or even computer memory. An integrated
circuit (IC) is a compact silicon wafer with hundreds to millions of
transistors, resistors, and capacitors. These extremely small devices can use
either digital or analog technology to make calculations and store data.
Logic gates, which only work with ones and zeros, are used in digital
ICs. A low signal given to a digital IC component will result in a value of 0,
while a high signal will result in a value of 1. Digital ICs are the type you’ll
 
 
 
Analog, or linear, ICs work with continuous values. This means that
a component on a linear IC can accept any value and output any value.
Because the output value is a linear function of the input, the term “linear”
is employed. A component on a linear IC, for example, might multiply an
incoming value by 2.5 and output the result. Audio and radio frequency
 
 

  

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Intellectual Property
The ownership of intangible and non-physical goods is referred to as
intellectual property. It also refers to digital media that may be downloaded
via the internet, such as audio and video clips.
  
  
  
   
  

property since it is intangible. If tangible property, such as a car, is stolen,
    
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intellectual property if it is stolen. Let’s say someone comes up with a
brilliant idea for a new invention. If someone else takes the concept, the
>

 
 
 
Similarly, if a digital recording of a new song gets “leaked” on the
Internet, thousands of people may download it and resell it. If this occurs,
  
 
  
Intellectual property is frequently used as a legal phrase to protect the
rights of creators and innovators because of its monetary consequences. It’s



> 
 





their digital material’s distribution. Innovators and creators can obtain
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 143

legal protection for their ideas and creations by identifying and creating
intellectual property rights.

Interface
“Most digital cameras link to a computer over a common USB interface.”
A physical device’s interface is a port that allows it to communicate
with another device. USB, Firewire, and Ethernet connections are examples
of common computer hardware interfaces. Other electronic devices, such
as a TV’s HDMI ports or a digital piano’s MIDI ports, may use various
interfaces. A user interface can alternatively be described as a “interface.”

Internal Hard Drive

“All of his programs and files are saved on the internal hard drive of the
computer,” for example.
An internal hard drive is one that is located inside a computer, as the
name suggests. Almost every computer has an internal hard drive that serves
as the system’s primary storage device. The operating system, software
 
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While most computers have only one internal hard drive, some system
units and servers feature numerous hard drive slots. Additional internal
hard drives can be added to these systems to expand the amount of storage
available. If a computer (such as a laptop) only has one internal hard drive
bay, additional storage can be added using an external hard drive.

Internet
The Internet, believe it or not, was established by the United States military in
1969, during the Cold War. It was meant to be a “nuke-proof” communication
system. Today, the Internet is a global network of thousands of networks and
computers that allows millions of people to share information. Long-distance
data on the Internet is sent across a network of massive lines known as the
Internet backbone. Major Internet service providers such as MCI Worldcom,
Sprint, GTE, ANS, and UUNET today sustain the Internet. Because these
companies make a lot of money off the Internet, they’re compelled to keep
their connections stable and quick, which benefits regular Internet users like
you and me.
Majority of people believe that the Internet and the World Wide Web are
the same thing. They’re not! The World Wide Web is what you are browsing
144 Key Concepts in Computer Science

right now. It is one of the many features of the Internet. E-mail, FTP, and
Instant Messaging are also features of the Internet.

Intranet
This isn’t just a typo of “internet,” contrary to popular assumption. “Intra”
means “internal” or “within,” so an Intranet is an internal or private network
that can only be accessed within the confines of a company, university, or
organization. The difference between the Internet and an Intranet is that
“inter” denotes “between or among.”
Most organizations employed local networks comprised of pricey
proprietary hardware and software for internal communications until
recently. Intranets have made internal communication much easier and less
expensive by utilizing simple Internet technology. Intranets, like the Internet,
use a TCP/IP connection and allow Web browsing. Web sites served within
the intranet, on the other hand, can only be accessible by computers linked
to the local network. You can go about telling people on the street what you
know now that you know the difference between the Internet and an intranet
and wow them.

IP (Internet Protocol) Address

This is a code made up of integers separated by three dots that identifies
a specific computer on the Internet and is also known as a “IP number”
or simply a “IP.” To connect to the Internet, any computer, whether it’s a
Web server or the computer you’re using right now, needs an IP address.
IP addresses are made up of four groups of numbers ranging from 0 to 255
that are separated by three dots. “66.72.98.236” or “216.239.115.148,” for
example.
Your Internet Service Provider (ISP) will either assign you a static IP
address (which will never change) or a dynamic IP address (which will
change) (which changes every time you log on). Dial-up users are often
assigned a dynamic IP address each time they log on, reducing the number
of IP addresses they must register. If you access the Internet via a network
or broadband connection, however, you are more likely to have a static IP
address.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 145

IPv4
IPv4 is the fourth edition of the Internet Protocol, and it is now the most widely
used version. It uses 32-bit addresses in the format “111.111.111.111.” Each
sector can have a number between 0 and 255, giving a total of 4,294,967,296
(232) potential addresses. For example: “Most computers display their IP
address in the IPv4 format.”
Because each machine connected to the Internet requires a unique IP
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unique IP addresses (nice planning guys). As a result, IPv6 is now being
developed to replace IPv4, which provides 128-bit IP addresses.

IPv6
An IP address identifies every computer system and device connected
to the Internet. IPv4 is the current system for distributing IP addresses.
Each machine in this system is given a 32-bit numeric address, such as
120.121.123.124. However, as the number of computers linked to the
Internet grows, the number of IP addresses available is expected to run out
in a few of years. IPv6 was created to address this issue.
IPv6, often known as IPng (or IP Next Generation), is the IP address
system’s next planned iteration. (IPv5 was a test version that was primarily
utilized for streaming data.) IPv6 employs 128-bit addresses instead of 32-
bit addresses, increasing the number of exponential amounts.
For example, IPv4 allows 4,294,967,296 addresses to be used (2^32).
IPv6 allows for over 340,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,0
00 IP addresses. That should be enough to last awhile.
Because IPv6 allows for substantially more IP addresses than IPv4, the
addresses themselves are more complex. They are typically written in this
format:
Hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh
Each “hhhh” segment has a four-digit hexadecimal number, with digits
ranging from 0 to 9 and A to F. This is an example of an IPv6 address:
F704:0000:0000:0000:3458:79A2:D08B:4320
The new system also gives extra protection to machines connected to
the Internet due to the complexity of IPv6 addresses. Because there are so
many IP address possibilities, guessing the IP address of another computer
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146 Key Concepts in Computer Science

systems today, the new Internet protocol has yet to be fully adopted.
Computers are frequently allocated both an IPv4 and an IPv6 address during
this changeover period. By 2008, the US government has enforced the
adoption of IPv6 addresses for all government services, which should hasten
the changeover.

Iteration
In a computer program, iteration is the repetition of a function or process.
Iterations of functions are common in computer programming because they
allow for the processing of several blocks of data in a sequential manner.
A “while loop” or “for loop” is commonly used to accomplish this (see
the examples below). These loops will keep repeating a process until they
reach a given number or case. Iteration is also used in recursive functions,
however instead of repeating a process, the entire function is repeated.
While loop: while (x < 30) { … x++; }
For loop: for (x=0; x<30; x++) { … }
A PHP Web page that lists data from a database table is a realistic
example of how iterations are employed. The function may write each row
in HTML using data from the database until the last row of data is reached
in order to show the table on the Web. An iteration of the PHP code would
be used to build each row of the table in this example.
Both Web scripts and software programs routinely use iterated functions.
They can be simple functions, such as the one shown above, or sophisticated
loops with nested loops that may invoke further functions. Even these
intricate loops take a fraction of a second to complete, which is incredible.

IVR
It stands for “Interactive Voice Response.” IVR stands for interactive voice
response, and it is a telephone system that can interpret a mix of touch tone
and voice input. It allows people to use their phones to access a database
of information. The caller can select from multiple menus of pre-recorded
alternatives in a typical IVR system.
While many alternatives are as simple as dialling a phone number, others
   

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or account number. This information is read by the IVR system and utilized
to retrieve the necessary database information.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 147

For example, a bank may have an interactive voice response (IVR)

system that allows customers to check their balance or recent transactions
by dialling a number. IVR systems are frequently used by credit card issuers
and stock brokerage organizations to provide users with account information.
Other applications for the technology include phone surveys, checking
movie timings, and contact center forwarding. Using an IVR system is
almost like talking to another human being because the caller can audibly
respond to pre-recorded messages.
148 Key Concepts in Computer Science

J
Java
Java refers to a programming language produced by Sun Microsystems.
Java’s syntax is similar to that of C/C++, but it is object-oriented and
organized around “classes” rather than functions. Java can also be used to
create applets, which are little programs that can be inserted into Web pages.
Because it is efficient and simple to use, the language is gaining popularity
among Web and software developers.
Java is a “simple, object-oriented, distributed, interpreted, resilient,
secure, architecture-neutral, portable, high-performance, multithreaded,
dynamic, buzzword-compliant general-purpose programming language,”
according to Sun Microsystems. It also works like magic when it comes to
removing stains.

Figure 64. Java: the most demanded language in IT sector.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

JavaScript
This is a programming language that, like Java, was created by Sun
Microsystems in collaboration with Netscape and can be embedded into
regular HTML sites. Even though JavaScript is based on the Java syntax, it
is a scripting language that cannot be used to develop standalone programs.
Rather, it’s mostly utilized to make dynamic, interactive Web pages.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 149

JavaScript can be used to validate form input, produce image rollovers, and
open those pesky pop-up windows.

JPEG
The acronym stands for “Joint Photographic Experts Group,” which is the
name of the group that created the format. But you don’t have to remember
that because mentioning what JPEG stands for will make even computer
specialists think you’re crazy. Instead, keep in mind that JPEG is an image
file format that is compressed. JPEG images, unlike GIF images, are not
confined to a set amount of color.
While JPEG images can include vivid, high-resolution image data, it is
a lossy format, meaning that when the image is compressed, some quality
is lost. The graphics become clearly “blocky” and some detail is lost if the
image is compressed too much. JPEGs, like GIFs, are crossplatform, which
    

  
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JRE
It stands for “Java Runtime Environment,” and “Java RTE” is another
spelling. Java is a programming language in the same vein as C. However,
because it is a newer language, not all operating systems support it natively.
As a result, Java applets and Java programs may require the installation of a
Java Runtime Environment on your computer.
Sun Microsystems (the inventor of Java) developed the JRE, or Java
Runtime Environment, which includes the Java Virtual Machine (JVM),
code libraries, and components required to run Java programs. The Java
Runtime Environment (JRE) is available for a variety of computer platforms,
including Mac, Windows, and Unix.
Java programs may not be recognized by the operating system and will
not operate if the JRE is not installed. The JRE software creates a runtime
environment in which Java programs can be run in the same way that
software that has been completely built for the computer’s processor can.
JRE software is available as a standalone environment and as a Web browser
plug-in, allowing Java applications to run in any browser.

JSP
Stands for “Java Server Page.” Sun Microsystems created this standard as an
alternative to Microsoft’s active server page (ASP) technology. JSP pages,
150 Key Concepts in Computer Science

like ASP pages, are compiled on the server rather than in the user’s browser.
After all, they’re called “server pages” for a reason. JSP, on the other hand,
is based on Java, whilst ASP is based on Visual Basic. JSP pages can be
used to create dynamic Web sites and to access database information stored
on a Web server. Even though JSP pages may include Java interleaved with
HTML, the server parses all Java code. As a result, once the page reaches the
browser, it’s just HTML. JavaScript, on the other hand, is normally parsed
before being used.

Jumper
This is a small metal connector that is used to change hardware configurations
and works as an on/off switch. A jumper is made up of two wires and a little
metal component. The jumper is turned on after the wires are linked by the
metal piece, completing the circuit. The jumper is turned off when the cables
are separated. Multiple jumpers, together referred to as a jumper block, are
frequently used to tell the computer how to setup a certain device, such
as a hard drive or a modem. Motherboards, sound cards, graphics cards,
I/O cards, CD-ROM interface boards, modems, and hard drive controller
boards, among other things, contain them.
Because manually programming jumpers might be confusing, most gear
comes with the appropriate jumpers pre-programmed. If the jumper settings
aren’t pre-set, there should be documentation with a clear illustration given
with the device. Thankfully, a lot of today’s plug-and-play technology
doesn’t require any jumpers. A user-friendly interface on your computer can


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 Key Concepts in Computer Science 151

K
Kbps
Stands for “Kilobits Per Second.” This is not to be confused with kilobytes
per second (which is 8 times more data per second). This is a phrase that is
frequently used to describe data transfer speeds. 33.6 Kbps and 56 Kbps are
two popular modem speeds, for example.

Kernel
Proceed at your own peril because this is a term used by the computing elite.
To comprehend what a kernel is, you must first comprehend that today’s
operating systems are constructed in layers. Serial port access, disk access,
memory management, and the user interface are all functions of each layer.
The kernel is the operating system’s base layer, or the operating system’s
foundation. The kernel manages memory and offers the most basic “low-
level” services, such as hardware-software interface. The operating system
will run more efficiently if the kernel is more efficient.

Figure 65. Kernel.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

Keyboard
A keyboard is, as the name implies, a board of keys. The keyboard, along
with the mouse, is one of the most common computer input devices. The
design of the keyboard is based on the original typewriter keyboards, which
organized letters and numbers in such a way that the type-bars did not jam
152 Key Concepts in Computer Science

when typing swiftly. The QWERTY keyboard layout gets its name from the
first six letters across in the upper-left-hand corner of the keyboard.
While typewriters inspired the design of computer keyboards, today’s
keyboards include a variety of different keys. Control, Alt/Option, and
Command (Mac) or the Windows key (Windows) can be used as “shortcuts”
in conjunction with other keys to accomplish certain functions. For example,
pressing Command-S (Mac) or Control-S (Windows) saves a document or
project currently open.
A row of function keys (F1 through F16) runs along the top of most
modern computer keyboards, together with arrow keys organized in an
upside-down T and a numeric keypad on the right-hand side. Some keyboards
feature even more buttons, allowing you to adjust the loudness of the system
eject a CD, or open programs such as your e-mail or Web browser.

Keyboard Shortcut
A keyboard shortcut is a set of keys that performs a specific action, such as
dismissing a window or saving a file. For instance, in a Windows software,
pressing “Control-S” or “Command-S” on a Mac is the typical shortcut for
saving an open document. On the Mac, you can normally close a window by
pressing “Command-W” or in Windows, “Alt-F4.” Control-C (Windows)
or “Command-C” (Mac) is the shortcut for copying data, and “Control-V”
(Windows) or “Command-V” (Mac) is the shortcut for pasting data (Mac).
The majority of keyboard shortcuts are for commands found in a
program’s menu bar. Most of the commands in the File and Edit menus have
standard shortcut. When a command has a keyboard shortcut, the shortcut
is normally listed next to the command in the menu. In most Windows
programs, the Save option will contain the text “Ctrl+S” next to it, indicating
that pressing Control and S simultaneously will save the document.

Keylogger
A keylogger is a computer application that records keystrokes. It accomplishes
this by tracking a user’s input and preserving a record of all keys hit. The
log can be saved to a file or even delivered via a network or the Internet to
another system. Keylogger programs are frequently referred to as spyware
because they operate without the user’s knowledge. Hackers can install
them maliciously in order to eavesdrop on what a user is typing. It may



 
 
   
  

combination by looking through the key log data. As a result, if keyloggers
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 153

are placed on a computer without the user’s knowledge, they can pose a
serious security concern.
Installing anti-virus or security software that informs you when new
programs are installed is the greatest approach to protect yourself against
keylogger programs. You must also ensure that no unauthorized individuals
gain access to your computer. You may also check the current processes
running on your computer on a regular basis to ensure there are no keyloggers
or other malware apps operating. Although it is improbable that you have a
keylogger program installed on your computer, it is worth checking.

Keywords
Words or phrases that characterize content are referred to as keywords.
Images, text documents, database entries, and Web pages can all benefit
from metadata. A user can “tag” images or text files with keywords related
to their content. These files can later be searched using keywords, making
discovering files much easier. A photographer, for example, could use a
program like Extensis Portfolio or Apple iPhoto to categorize his nature
images with phrases like “nature,” “trees,” “flowers,” “landscape,” and so
on. He can later find all the photos of flowers by simply searching for the
phrase “flowers” after tagging them.
On the Internet, keywords are used in two ways: (1) as search terms for
search engines, and (2) as words that identify the website’s content.
‹ Search Engine Search Terms
When you use a search engine to look for something, you enter
keywords that tell the search engine what to look for. For example, if you’re
looking for used vehicles, you may use the keyword “used cars” as your
search term. After that, the search engine will return Web pages with content
that is related to your search criteria. The more precise (and valuable) your
keywords are, the more precise (and useful) the results will be. As a result,
 
 

 
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Accord used car” to get more precise results.
Many search engines additionally allow Boolean operators, which can be
used in conjunction with keywords to narrow down the results. For example,
if you just want results about Apple products and not the kind of apples that
grow on trees, you might search for “Apple AND computers NOT fruit.”
‹ Web Page Description Terms
154 Key Concepts in Computer Science

The keyword meta tag can also be used to describe the content of a
Web page. This tag is found in the HTML head > section of a page and
contains words that describe the page’s content. The keywords meta tag’s
aim is to assist search engines in identifying and organizing Web pages, such
as the photographs example above. Because webmasters have been known
to utilize erroneous tags to boost their search engine rankings, many search
engines now assign the keywords meta tag little to no weight when crawling
pages.

Kibibyte
A kibibyte is a data storage unit equivalent to 2 to the 10th power, or 1,024
bytes.

Kilobyte
Because it is measured by 210, which equals 1,024, a kilobyte is theoretically
1,024 bytes. Kilobytes, on the other hand, are frequently calculated as 10 to
the third power, or 1,000 bytes. While this makes adding kilobytes easy,
greater measures can be thrown off by guesswork. This is because one
megabyte is equal to 1,024 kilobytes, and one gigabyte is equal to 1,024
megabytes, and so on.
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computer. Thumbnail images, for example, may only take up 5 to 10KB
of space. A larger JPEG image with 900x600 pixels can take up 250KB

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documents you store on your computer should be between 1 and 1,024 KB
in size. Megabytes are used to measure anything larger than 1,024KB.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 155

L
LAN
A local area network, or LAN, is a computer network that is limited to a
small area, such as an office building, university, or even a private residence.
LANs are used in most mid- to large-sized enterprises nowadays, making
it easy for employees to share information. Ethernet-based LANs, which
employ Novell or Oracle software, are currently the most common type of
LAN. Wireless LANs, on the other hand, have become a popular alternative
with the introduction of wireless networking.

Latency
This is the time it takes for a data packet to travel over a network connection.
There is “latent” time when a packet is sent, while the computer that sent the
packet waits for confirmation that it has been received. The two parameters
that govern the speed of your network connection are latency and bandwidth.

LCD
“Liquid Crystal Display” is the abbreviation for “liquid crystal display.”
LCDs are ultra-thin displays seen in laptop computers and flat panel
monitors. Handheld TVs, PDAs, and portable video game devices all use
smaller LCDs. An electrically reactive material is sandwiched between two
electrodes to form the image on an LCD panel. Increasing or decreasing the
electrical current can modify the color of this material. Due to the fact that
LCD panels are based on the principle of blocking light (rather than emitting
it), they use up much less power than standard CRT (Cathode-Ray Tube)
monitors.

LDAP
Stands for “Lightweight Directory Access Protocol.” This is the method to
use if you wish to make directory information available via the Internet.
LDAP is a condensed version of the previous X.500 directory standard. The
fact that LDAP operates well over TCP/IP networks (unlike X.500) means
that information can be accessible by anybody with an Internet connection.
It’s also an open protocol, meaning that directories can be stored on any
machine (i.e., Windows 2000, Red Hat Linux, Mac OS X).
156 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Here are the several layers of a simple LDAP tree hierarchy to give you
an understanding of how an LDAP directory is organized:
‹ The top-level directory
‹ Countries
‹ Organizations
‹ Divisions, departments, and so forth
‹ Individuals
‹ 
 
 
The majority of LDAP communication happens behind the scenes; thus,
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important technology to be aware of. At the very least, it’s a new term to
impress your folks with.

Leaf
What do a computer’s hard disk and a towering oak have in common? While
the hard drive may not appear to be organized in the same way as a tree from
the outside, it is. On a hard drive, files and folders are divided into branches,
with each directory acting as a branch with files and folders. The branches
are made up of folders, and the leaves are made up of files. As a result, a leaf
is a file that is contained within a directory on your hard disk.
A leaf is a node in a tree that has no child nodes in technical terms.
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leafs. A leaf can also be referred to as a leaf node when referring to a tree
structure.

LED
“Many modern cars have LED brake lights,” for example.
The term “Light-Emitting Diode” refers to an electronic light source that
is turned on by an electrical current. LEDs save a lot of energy and last a
lot longer than traditional light bulbs. Indicator lights, clock displays, street
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displays and televisions, LEDs have begun to replace conventional bulbs as
the backlight source.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 157

LIFO
LIFO stands for “Last In, First Out,” a data processing method in which the
most recent items input is the first to be discarded. FIFO (First In, First Out)
is the polar opposite of LIFO, in which objects are deleted in the order they
were entered. Imagine stacking a deck of cards by laying one card on top
of the other, starting at the bottom, to better comprehend LIFO. You begin
removing cards from the top of the deck after it has been entirely stacked.
Because the last cards to be placed on the deck are the first to be removed,
this procedure is an example of the LIFO approach.
When pulling data from an array or data buffer, computers sometimes
employ the LIFO approach. The LIFO method is used when a computer
needs to access the most recent data entered. The FIFO approach is utilized
when data must be retrieved in the order it was entered.

Link
When you’re surfing the web and come across a highlighted word or phrase,
it’s likely that you’re looking at a link. You can “jump” to a new web page
or an entirely different Web site by clicking on a link. Text links are usually
blue and underlined, but they can be any color and do not have to be. Images
can also be used to direct visitors to other websites. When you hover your
mouse over a link on a Web page, the arrow transforms into a small hand,
indicating that it is a link. The term “hypertext” refers to how links can
swiftly redirect you to another Web page.

Linux
“The Linux operating system is extensively used on web servers.”
Linux is a Unix-like operating system that is free and open source.
CentOS, Debian, Ubuntu, and Red Hat are just a few of the distributions that
offer it. Linux can run on a variety of hardware platforms and can even be
used as the operating system for devices other than computers. Despite the
fact that Linux is not frequently installed on personal computers, it is widely
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LISTSERV
This phrase appears to be missing a “e,” although it is spelled correctly. A
listserv, often known as a list server, is a simple application that delivers
158 Key Concepts in Computer Science

messages to several e-mail addresses automatically. When someone joins a

mailing list, the listserv adds their address to the list and sends future e-mail
messages to that address as well as all the others on the list. When a person
unsubscribes, the address is simply removed from the listserv. That is, at
least, how it is meant to function. Unfortunately, unsubscribing from some
SPAM lists merely adds you to new lists.

Load Balancing
It is a term used to describe the process of balancing. Computer networks are
sophisticated systems that handle hundreds, thousands, or even millions of
data packets per second. As a result, it is critical that data be routed efficiently
in order for networks to handle massive amounts of data. For instance, if a
network has ten routers and two of them are is not working very efficiently
because they are doing 95% of the work. If each router handled around 10%
of the traffic, the network would run substantially quicker.
Similarly, if a website receives hundreds of views per second, splitting
   
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single server to manage the entire load. Load balancing improves network
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network to ensure that no single device is overburdened. Load balancing
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multiple servers, as shown in the example above. This allows them to use the
available bandwidth more effectively, and therefore provides faster access
to the websites they host.
Load balancing, whether on a local network or on a large Web server,
  
  

 

 
among the available servers. One or more servers may be dedicated to
balancing the load among the other servers and devices in a network that
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which is not surprising.
Load balancing is also used by clusters, or multiple computers that work
together, to distribute processing duties across the available systems.

Localhost
The term “localhost” refers to the machine on which a software is running. If
you’re using a Web browser on your computer, for example, your computer
is considered the “localhost.” When utilizing a single computer, the localhost
does not need to be supplied; however, when using multiple computers, the
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 159

localhost must be specified. A network administrator, for example, might

start a Web server on one system while using a remote access tool on another.
These applications would be executed on machines other than the localhost.
  
 
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by their IP addresses. The local machine’s IP address is 127.0.0.1, which is
 
 
 
 

   
to the local machine, making it a “loopback” address. When indicating what
server, the code should run on or where a database is hosted, localhost is
frequently used in Web scripting languages like PHP and ASP.

 
“The list of installed files is kept in a log file,” for example. A log file is a
file that keeps track of events that are generated by software or output by
hardware. The majority of log files are saved in plain text format, which
may be read using a simple text editor.

Logic Gate
Logic gates are the essential building blocks of digital integrated circuits,
performing basic logical tasks. The majority of logic gates take two binary
values as input and output a single value of 1 or 0. Some circuits have only a
few logic gates, while others, like microprocessors, have millions. There are
seven different types of logic gates, as shown in the diagram below.
Except for the NOT gate, each logic gate in the following examples has two
inputs, A and B, which can be either 1 (True) or 0 (False) (False). If the result
is positive, the output is a single value of 1; if the result is false, the output is a
single value of 0. In the following examples, each logic gate except the NOT
gate has two inputs, A and B, which can either be 1 (True) or 0 (False). The
resulting output is a single value of 1 if the result is true, or 0 if the result is false.
AND – True if A and B are both True
OR – True if either A or B are True
NOT – Inverts value: True if input is False; False if input is True
XOR – True if either A or B are True, but False if both are True
NAND – AND followed by NOT: False only if A and B are both True
NOR – OR followed by NOT: True only if A and B are both False
XNOR – XOR followed by NOT: True if A and B are both True or both
False
160 Key Concepts in Computer Science

It is feasible to conduct extremely complicated operations by merging

thousands or millions of logic gates. The size of the chip divided by the
size of the logic gates determines the maximum number of logic gates
on an integrated circuit. Smaller transistors mean more sophisticated and
quicker processors since transistors make up the majority of the logic gates
in computer processors.

Login
You are being asked to submit your login information if you are ever
requested to enter your username and password. A login is a collection
of information that confirms your identity. This could be a username and
password or a security code and ID number. Many secure websites employ
login information to verify visitors’ identities before granting them access to
restricted areas. This term, unlike “brush” and “comb,” should not be used
as a noun and a verb at the same time. It should only be used as a noun (you
log in to a server, not into it).

Lossless
Lossless compression reduces the size of a file without sacrificing quality.
Both image and audio files can benefit from this seemingly magical approach
of file compression. Newer compression methods, such as JPEG 2000 and
Apple Lossless compression, can be used to create lossless compressed
files, whereas JPEGs and MP3s employ lossy compression.
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to half its original size.

Lossy
Data and quality from the original version are lost when files are compressed
in a lossy manner. Lossy compression is most commonly linked with picture
files like JPEGs, but it can also be employed with audio files like MP3s or
AACs. The “lossiness” of an image file might be a problem.
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Both of these compression methods have a number of “quality parameters”
that control how well the data is compressed. The quality option is a trade-

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compression. Some image and music formats support lossless compression,
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LPI
It stands for “Lines Per Inch.” LPI is a metric for determining the resolution
of halftone images. Due to the fact that halftone images are produced as
a series of dots, the higher the LPI value, the more dense the dots can be,
resulting in finer resolution. Newspapers have an average resolution of 85
lpi, but magazines might have a resolution of 133 lpi or greater. You’re more
likely to see halftone dots in newspaper print than in magazines because the
naked eye can identify them up to 120 lpi. of course, if you look closely
enough, the dots in photographs printed at 150 lpi or above may be visible.
However, even at 85 lpi, it is reasonable to regard the dots as a continuous
image in normal viewing.
162 Key Concepts in Computer Science

M
MAC
Address stands for “Media Access Control Address” and it has nothing to do
with Apple computers. A MAC address is a hardware identifying number that
allows each device on a network to be uniquely identified. Every network
card, such as an Ethernet or Wi-Fi card, comes with a unique MAC address
that cannot be modified.
Because there are millions of networkable devices, each of which requires
its own MAC address, there must be a large number of potential addresses.
MAC addresses are therefore composed of six two-digit hexadecimal digits
separated by colons. A MAC address of 00:0d:83:b1:c0:8e, for example,
might be assigned to an Ethernet device. Fortunately, you won’t need to
know this address because most networks will detect it automatically.

Figure 66. Media access control address.

Source: Image by Wikimedia Commons.

Macro
Macro has two computer-related definitions, both of which entail improving
the efficiency of your computer experience.
‹ A Shortcut on the Keyboard
The terms “macro” and “keyboard shortcut” are frequently interchanged.
Keyboard shortcuts are key combinations that accomplish tasks like saving
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 163

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pages below for a list of keyboard shortcuts for Mac and Windows:
1. Keyboard Shortcuts for Mac OS X; and
2. Keyboard Shortcuts for Windows XP.
‹ A Small Program
A macro is a short program (or script) that automates repetitive processes.
Scripts are typically run within programs and can be written by the user.
For instance, a user may program a macro in Microsoft Word to insert his

    
 
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Excel user could create a macro to format data in a spreadsheet’s selected
column.
Although Word and Excel make it simple to build custom macros,
numerous other programs also allow users to do so. Not all applications,
however, refer to automated commands as macros can save you a lot of
  
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thing over and over again when using a certain program, you may want to
simplify the process by recording a macro.

Mainframe
A mainframe computer is a supercomputer designed for high-volume,
processor-intensive computation. Large corporations and research institutions
are the most common users. A mainframe is unlikely to be found in any home.
Mainframes are just behind supercomputers, the world’s most powerful
computers, in the computer hierarchy. (They’re called “supercomputers”
for a reason.) A mainframe, on the other hand, can normally run multiple
applications at once at fast speeds, whereas supercomputers are meant for
a single task. Currently, IBM and Unisys are the two largest mainframe
manufacturers.

Malware
Malware, short for “malicious software,” refers to computer programs that
are designed to cause harm or do other undesirable behaviors. “Mal” is a
prefix in Spanish that meaning “bad,” therefore the word “badware” is an
excellent way to remember it (even if you don’t speak the language).
Viruses, worms, trojan horses, and spyware are all types of malware.
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computer’s hard disk. Spyware can collect information from a user’s
164 Key Concepts in Computer Science

computer without the user’s knowledge. This can range from the Web pages
that a user accesses to sensitive information like credit card numbers.

Figure 67. Types of malware.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

It’s sad that there are malicious software programmers out there, but it’s
good to be aware of the possibility. You may use anti-virus and anti-spyware
software to discover and remove harmful apps from your computer. So join
       
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computer!

MANET
Stands for “Mobile Ad Hoc Network.” A MANET is an ad hoc network that
can move around and reconfigure itself as needed. Because MANETs are
movable, they link to numerous networks via wireless connections. This
could be a normal Wi-Fi connection or another type of transmission, such as
cellular or satellite.
Some MANETs are restricted to a local area of wireless devices (such as
a group of laptop computers), while others may be connected to the Internet.
A VANET (Vehicular Ad Hoc Network), for example, is a sort of MANET
that allows cars to communicate with roadside infrastructure. While the
vehicles may not have a direct Internet connection, the wireless roadside
equipment may be, allowing data from the vehicles to be transferred over
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dynamic nature, it is critical to be vigilant about what data is transferred
across them.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 165

Markup Language
A markup language is a syntax for specifying elements within a document,
such as a web page or a data file. Tags are used to designate the start and end
of each element. The code in markup files can be read and updated in a text
editor because they are saved as plain text files. For example: “HTML is a
markup language used to define the content of webpages.”
HTML, SGML, and XML are popular markup languages. The layout of
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which is a subset of SGML (the Standard Generalized Markup Language). A
section on an HTML page often has a title, metadata, and references to one


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be used as sub-elements. XML is a popular choice for transferring structured
data across programs because of its ease and versatility.

Mashup
The term “mashup” can refer to a variety of things. It was first used to
describe songs that combined two different musical styles into a single song.
A mashup, for example, could be a classic rock song set to a well-known
hip-hop beat. It’s also used to describe videos that were put together from
a variety of clips from various sources. A video mashup, for example, is a
skating film made out of numerous different skateboard films discovered
online.
A mashup is also a term for a Web application that integrates numerous
services into one. For example, a Web forum might have a mashup that
uses Google Maps to show where users are posting from around the world.
Yahoo! Pipes, a mashup that aggregates RSS feeds into a single page that
can be accessed using a graphical interface, is available.
The basic goal of most Web mashups is to combine data into a user-
friendly interface. The possibilities of mashups are as endless as the

 

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mashups on your favorite websites as they continue to expand.
166 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Maximize
When you maximize a window, it expands. On a Mac, a maximized window
spans the entire screen, whereas on Windows, it just takes up as much space
as is required. In Windows, the maximize button is adjacent to the close
button in the upper-right corner of the window. When you double-click the
title bar, the window will be maximized as well. On a Mac, the maximize
button is three green buttons located next to the red and yellow buttons in
the upper-left corner of the window. For example: “If you need to view more
of the window’s contents at one time, try maximizing the window.”
To hide an open window, you can click the minimize button, which
is located next to the maximize button on both Macintosh and Windows
computers.

Mbps
Stands for “Megabits Per Second.” One megabit (1,000 kilobits) is
equivalent to one million bits. While the terms “megabit” and “megabyte”
sound similar, a megabit is roughly one eighth the size of a megabyte (since
there are eight bits in a byte). Data transmission speeds of high bandwidth
connections, such as Ethernet and cable modems, are measured in megabits
per second (Mbps).

MBR
An MBR, or “master boot record,” is a particular region of a hard disc that
holds the boot code and defines the disc partitions. It is only 512 bytes in
size and is found in the first sector of the disc. For example: “Microsoft’s
Fdisk utility can be used to create and update the master boot record.”
Master boot records (MBRs)    _`'{ 
have been utilized by DOS-compatible systems for more than two decades.
MBRs, on the other hand, can only designate up to 2TB of space, therefore
they can’t be used with storage devices greater than that. As a result, most
computers today use the GPT (GUID partition table), which has no limit of
two terabytes.

MCA
Stands for “Micro Channel Architecture.” It’s an IBM-designed expansion
bus that was utilized in the company’s PS/2 desktop computers. An
expansion bus connects additional cards to the computer’s motherboard,
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 167

increasing the number of I/O ports available. SCSI, USB, Firewire, AGP,
and DVI connectors, among others, are available.
The MCA standard was created to replace the AT and ISA buses that
had previously been used in IBM PC/AT compatible computers. Despite the
fact that the MCA bus architecture was smaller and faster than AT and ISA,
IBM kept it as a proprietary standard. Other manufacturers were hesitant
to adopt the standard because the MCA architecture was incompatible with
other standards. Most PC companies incorporated the more universal PCI
and AGP expansion buses into their computers, which are both widely used
today.

Mebibyte
A mebibyte is a unit of data storage that equals 2 to the 20th power, or
1,048,576 bytes. While a megabyte can be estimated as 10^6 or 1,000,000
bytes, a mebibyte is exactly 1,048,576 bytes. This is to avoid the ambiguity
associated with the size of megabytes. A mebibyte is 1,024 kibibytes and
precedes the gibibyte unit of measurement.

Media
In general, the term “media” refers to a variety of communication methods.
Television, radio, and newspapers, for example, are all diverse sorts of media.
The phrase can also be used to refer to the press or news organizations as
a whole. “Media” is also used as a collective term in the computer sector;
however, it refers to several forms of data storage possibilities.
Hard drives, portable drives (such as Zip discs), CD-ROM or CD-R discs,
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computer media. If you wish to take pictures from your digital camera to a
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camera or are they on a CD or USB drive? For this and many other reasons,
it is helpful to have a basic understanding of what the different types of
media are.

Megabyte
A megabyte is 2 to the 20th power, or 1,048,576 bytes. 10 to the 6th power, or
one million (1,000,000) bytes, is an estimate. A megabyte is 1,024 kilobytes
in size and comes before the gigabyte. Megabytes are the standard unit of
168 Key Concepts in Computer Science

measurement for large computer files. A high-quality JPEG photo taken

with a 6.3 megapixel digital camera, for example, takes up around 3MB of
space. CDs can carry up to 700MB of data, thus a four-minute CD-quality
audio clip takes up around 40MB of space.

Megahertz
One million cycles per second is one megahertz. It’s used to determine how
fast electronic gadgets transmit data. This is the most common spot you’ll
come across. Megahertz is a unit of measurement for CPU clock speed. For
example, an 800 Mhz Pentium III processor.
It’s vital to understand that megahertz simply refers to the processor’s
clock speed (the number of cycles it can manage per second). not the ultimate
achievement Because megahertz only measures a particular component of the
CPU, it’s possible that a processor with a slightly higher megahertz reading
is faster. A Mac with a 500 MHz PowerPC G4 processor, for example, can
execute some calculations faster than a PC with an 800 MHz Pentium III
processor. Because the G4 can process more instructions per clock cycle
than the Pentium, it outperforms the Pentium. This is a point that Mac users
frequently emphasize, however it is no longer relevant because Macintosh
machines now employ Intel processors as well.

Megapixel
One million pixels make up to a megapixel. It’s a term that’s widely used to
define how high a digital camera’s resolution is. A 7.2 megapixel camera,
for example, can capture around 7,200,000 pixels. The more megapixels a
camera has, the more detail it can record. As a result, while purchasing a
digital camera, the megapixel count is an important feature to consider.
The number of vertical pixels captured by the camera’s sensor, or CCD,
is multiplied by the number of horizontal pixels captured by the camera’s
sensor, or CCD. The original Canon Digital Rebel, for example, had a total
of 6,291,456 pixels, with 2048 vertical by 3072 horizontal pixels (2048 x
3072). As a result, it’s thought to feature a 6.3 megapixel camera. The Sony
T10 has a resolution of 3072 x 2304 pixels, for a total of 7,077,888 pixels,
making it a 7.2 megapixel camera (because not all the pixels are used).
Megapixels are useful in selling digital cameras since “6.3 megapixels”
is easier to say than “6,291,456 pixels.” It’s also a little simpler to recall.
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camera’s performance.
After all, it makes little difference how many megapixels your camera
has if all of your photos are blurry and have terrible color. As a result, while
you should examine the megapixel count on a camera before purchasing it,


 


  
  


Memory
Computers, like humans, rely heavily on memory. They must handle and
store data in the same way that people do. On the other hand, computers
save data in digital format, which implies that the information can always
be retrieved in the same format as it was saved. The computer’s memory,
unlike ours, does not deteriorate with time.
While memory can refer to any type of data storage device, it is most
commonly associated with RAM, or random-access memory. When your
computer turns on, it loads the operating system into RAM, or random-
access memory. Because the event handlers are all loaded into RAM, your
computer can access system operations like managing mouse clicks and
keystrokes. Whenever you open a program, the interface and functions used
by that program are also loaded into RAM.

Memory Module
A RAM chip is also known as a memory module. It is frequently used as a
catch-all word for SIMM, DIMM, and SO-DIMM memory. While memory
modules come in a variety of shapes and sizes, they all serve the same
purpose: to store temporary data while the computer is functioning.
Memory modules are available in a variety of sizes and pin layouts.
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connect to the motherboard). However, modern SIMM chips contain 72 pins.
DIMMs generally come in 168-pin layouts, while some DIMMs contain as
many as 240 pins. SO-DIMMs have a smaller form factor than standard
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terms “RAM,” “memory,” and “RAM chip” are also acceptable. But keep in
mind that while memory words are interchangeable, memory is not. Because
most computers only accept one type of memory, this is the case. As a result,
170 Key Concepts in Computer Science

if you decide to update your computer’s RAM, ensure the memory modules
you purchase are compatible with your machine.

Memory Stick
Sony created the Memory+[  

 
  
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Stick is a Sony-only device, it is used by practically all of the company’s
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compatible with the vast majority of non-Sony products.
Memory Stick cards are available in two versions: Memory Stick PRO
and Memory Stick PRO Duo. Memory Stick PRO cards are 50 mm long by
21.5 mm wide and are 2.8 mm thick. Memory Stick PRO Duo cards are 31
mm long by 20 mm wide and are only 1.6 mm thick. High-speed versions of
Memory Stick media support data transfer rates up to 80 Mbps, or 10 MB/
sec, which is fast enough to record high-quality digital video.

Meta Search Engine

Scan engines that search other search engines are known as meta search
engines. Confused? Simply put, a meta search engine sends your query to a
number of different search engines and then offers a summary of the results.
As a result, the search results you see are a compilation of many queries.
While this method broadens the breadth of your search compared to
using a single search engine, the results are not necessarily superior. This
is because the meta search engine must choose the best results from several
search engines using its own algorithm. A meta search engine’s results are
frequently less relevant than those of a traditional search engine.

Metadata
Other data is described through metadata. It gives details about the contents
of a specific object. An image may contain metadata that defines the size
of the image, the color depth, the image resolution, the date the image
was made, and other information. The metadata of a text document may
include information such as the document’s length, author, date of creation,
and a brief summary. Metatags are commonly used to include info on web
pages. Meta tags for description and keywords are often used to describe
the content of a Web page. When adding pages to their search index, most
search engines use this information.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 171

MIDI
Stands for “Musical Instrument Digital Interface.” It’s a connection standard
that allows musicians to link musical instruments (such keyboards and
synthesizers) to computers. A musician can easily produce and alter digital
music tracks using MIDI. The notes played, the length of the notes, the
dynamics (volume changes), the tempo, the instrument being played, and
hundreds of other factors, known as control changes, are all recorded by the
MIDI system.
Because each note is digitally recorded in MIDI, editing a track of MIDI
       
      
 
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compatible devices or software.

Mnemonic
A mnemonic (pronounced “nemonic”) is a pattern that can be used to help
people remember things. This pattern is usually made up of letters or words.
To help music students recall the notes of the staff, such as E, G, B, D, and F,
the slogan “Every Good Boy Does Fine” might be utilized. The name “Roy
G. Biv” is often used to memorize the order of colors in a rainbow (or other
light spectrum) – Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet.
While word initials are frequently used as mnemonic devices, rhyming
words and poems can also be utilized to remember information. Furthermore,
visuals can be linked to words or phrases to aid with their recall. Mnemonics
help people categorize information better, which makes it simpler to recall,
because the human brain organizes information in “chunks.”

   
When two keys are pressed together, a modifier key changes the operation
of the other key. Shift, Control, Alt, Command, Option, and Function are all
common modifier keys. On Windows keyboards, the Control (Ctrl) and Alt
keys are commonly seen, whereas on Mac keyboards, the Command (Cmd)
and Option keys are commonly found.
All computers have a Shift key that is used to capitalize letters and
enter symbols (such as the ones found above the number keys). Keyboard
172 Key Concepts in Computer Science

shortcuts are commonly entered using the Control and Command keys. For
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Monitor
The terms “monitor” and “computer screen” or “display” are frequently
interchanged. The monitor shows the user interface and open programs on
the computer, allowing the user to interact with it using the keyboard and
mouse.
Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) were utilized in older computer displays,
which made them quite hefty and took up a lot of desk space. The majority



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displays. These slim monitors take up a fraction of the space of previous
CRT displays. This means people with LCD monitors have more desk space
to clutter up with stacks of papers, pens, and other objects.

Figure 68. Monitor or a computer screen.

Source: Image by pixnio.com.

It’s also possible to use “monitor” as a verb. A network administrator
  

 
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sources are seeking to connect to the network. Software packages can keep
track of the system’s CPU, RAM, and hard drive use.
Finally, speakers utilized for sound monitoring are referred to as
monitors. To listen to recordings, audio engineers generally use “studio
monitors.” Engineers can correctly mix and master audio records with these
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 173

high-end speakers. So, a sound mixer may be visually viewing a recording

on a computer monitor while also monitoring the sound on audio monitors.
As you are aware, “monitor” serves as a rather multipurpose word.

Moodle
Stands for “Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment.”
Martin Dougiamas created Moodle, which is an open-source course
administration system. Thousands of educational institutions all over the
world utilize it to provide an organized interface for e-learning, or online
learning.
Educators can use Moodle to develop online courses that students can
access as a virtual classroom. A typical Moodle home page will have a list
of participants (including the teacher and students), as well as a calendar
with the course schedule and assignment list. Online quizzes, forums where
students can post comments and ask questions, glossaries of terminology,
and links are some of the other Moodle features.

Motherboard
The motherboard, often known as the mainboard or logic board, is the main
circuit board of your computer. The motherboard is the largest piece of
silicon visible when you open your computer. The CPU, ROM, memory
RAM expansion slots, PCI slots, and USB ports are all attached to the
motherboard. Controllers for devices such as the hard disc, DVD drive,
keyboard, and mouse are also included. Basically, the motherboard is what
makes everything in your computer work together.
The chipset is a collection of chips and controllers found on each
motherboard. New chipsets are frequently used in the development of new

 
 

  
  

and quicker than their forerunners. The bad news is that new chipsets
frequently do not operate with older components. of course, it may be more
cost-effective to just buy a new computer if you are planning on upgrading
multiple components.

MySQL
MySQL is an open-source relational database management system that is
pronounced “My S-Q-L” or “My Sequel.” It is built on the structured query
language (SQL), which is used to add, delete, and alter data in databases.
174 Key Concepts in Computer Science

MySQL supports standard SQL commands like ADD, DROP, INSERT, and
UPDATE. MySQL is a database management system that can be used for
a variety of purposes, but it is most typically seen on Web servers. Web
pages that access information from a database may be found on a MySQL-
powered website. The content of these websites is frequently referred to as
“dynamic,” which means that the material is created from a database as the
page loads. Database-driven websites are those that make extensive use of
dynamic web pages.
Many MySQL-powered websites additionally make use of a Web
scripting language like PHP to access data from the database. MySQL
commands can be implemented into PHP code, enabling the generation
of part or all of a Web page from database data. Since both MySQL and
PHP are both open source (meaning they are free to download and use), the
PHP/MySQL combination has become a popular choice for database-driven
websites.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 175

N
Name Server
A name server is a computer that converts domain names into IP addresses.
This allows users to access a website by entering in the domain name rather
than the website’s real IP address. When you input “www.microsoft.com,”
for example, the request is forwarded to Microsoft’s name server, which
provides the Microsoft website’s IP address.
Each domain name must have at least two name servers listed when
the domain is registered. These name servers are usually named ns1.
servername.com and ns2.servername.com, where “server name” is the name

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Domain Name System (DNS) relies heavily on name servers. They
enable websites to utilize domain names rather than IP addresses, which are
 

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Netmask
A netmask is a set of IP addresses that is used to specify a range of addresses.
It is similar to a subnet mask but it is used to define classes of IPs rather than
a range of IPs that may be used within a network. Class B IP addresses, for
instance, have a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0. This means that the IPs must
all have the same first two sections, but the second two sections may have
different numbers. For example: “Class A IP addresses have a netmask of
255.0.0.0.”
Due to a scarcity of IP addresses, most IP ranges are assigned to Class
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range of 256 addresses.

Network
A network is created when two or more computers are connected to each
other. The goal of a network is to make it possible for various systems to
share files and information. Internet is a worldwide network of networks. It
176 Key Concepts in Computer Science

is possible to connect computer networks through cables (Ethernet cables or

phone lines) or through wireless networking cards that send and receive data
in a wireless manner.

Network Topology
The arrangement of systems on a computer network is referred to as network
topology. It specifies how the network’s computers, or nodes, are grouped
and connected to one another. Star, ring, line, bus, and tree layouts are some
of the most prevalent network topologies. The following are the topologies:
‹ Star – One central node is connected to each of the other nodes on
a network. Similar to a hub connected to the spokes in a wheel.
‹ Ring – Each node is connected to exactly two other nodes, forming
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are not connected as if they were in a ring.
‹ Bus – Each node is connected to a central bus that runs along the
entire network. All information transmitted across the bus can be
received by any system in the network.
‹ Tree – One “root” node connects to other nodes, which in turn
connect to other nodes, forming a tree structure. Information
from the root node may have to pass through other nodes to reach
the end nodes.
‹ When putting together a network, a network administrator should
be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of various network



   
 

 
 
 


 

  

  
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 177

Figure 69. Star topology: A type of network topology.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

Node
A node is any system or device that is connected to a network. There are
eight nodes on a network if it connects a file server, five PCs, and two
printers, for example. Every network device has a network address, such as
a MAC address, that uniquely identifies it. This makes it easier to keep track
of where data is being transported on the network.
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to as a node. A node, also known as a nodal point, is a point in physics where
numerous waves converge to create a net amplitude of zero.

NTFS
NTFS is the abbreviation for “New Technology File System.” Microsoft
debuted the NTFS file system with Windows NT, and it is supported by
later versions of Windows, such as Windows 2000 and Windows XP.
Over the previous file system, FAT32, NTFS has a lot of improvements
(File Allocation Table). One of the most significant advantages of NTFS is
that it has features that enhance reliability. Fault tolerance, for example, is
included into the new technology file system, which automatically repairs
hard drive defects without presenting error warnings. It also maintains
thorough transaction logs for tracking hard disc problems. This can assist
178 Key Concepts in Computer Science

prevent hard disc failures while also allowing you to recover files if your
hard drive does fail.
Permissions (such as read, write, and execute) can also be adjusted for
 
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hard drives. The only reason you wouldn’t want to format your hard disc
using NTFS is if you want slow, obsolete technology or if you need to run
an older operating system like Windows 95 or MS-DOS. of course, if you’re
still using DOS, there’s a decent chance you enjoy archaic technology.

Null
A variable is deemed null when it has no value. Because 0 is a real value,
having a null value is not the same as having a value of 0. In a Boolean
test, however, both null and zero provide a FALSE result. Boolean tests are
commonly used by programmers to determine whether a variable has been
assigned a value.

Null Character
A null character is one in which all bits are set to zero. As a result, it has a
numeric value of zero and can be used to indicate the end of a sequence of
letters, such as a word or sentence. This aids programmers in determining
string length. Null characters are utilized as space fillers in practical
applications such as database and spreadsheet programs.

Num Lock
Num Lock is a toggle key that changes the numeric keypad’s input. The
keypad can be used to enter numeric values when Num Lock is turned on.
For example, the keys provide different input when Num Lock is turned off.
4 is a left arrow, 6 is a right arrow, 8 is an up arrow, and 2 is a down arrow.
For example: “To use the numeric keypad as arrow keys, turn Num Lock
off.”
The Num Lock is rarely utilized since most keyboards have arrow keys.
However, the Num Lock feature is still available on some keyboards. If
you’re having trouble entering digits on the numeric keypad, you might be
able to solve the problem by pressing the Num Lock key.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 179

Nybble
A nybble, sometimes known as a “nibble,” is a four-bit set. Because a byte is
made up of eight bits, a nybble is half of a byte. While it may take numerous
nibbles to equal one bite of a cookie for the ordinary person, two nybbles
always equal one byte in the computer world.
A nibble has 16 potential values thanks to its four bits, which is the
same as one hexadecimal digit. As a result, a nybble is also known as a “hex
digit.” Because of the four bits that make up each nybble, nybbles are also
referred to as “quadbits” in data transfers.
180 Key Concepts in Computer Science

O
ODBC
Stands for “Open Database Connectivity.” With so many various types of
databases to choose from, such as Microsoft Access, Filemaker, and MySQL,
it’s critical to have a common manner of transferring data to and from each.
The SQL Access group produced the ODBC standard in 1992 to address
this issue. Any application that supports ODBC can access information from
an ODBC-compatible database, regardless of what database management
system the database uses.
An ODBC database driver is required for an ODBC database to be
ODBC compatible. This enables other apps to connect to the database
and access data using a standard set of commands. The driver converts
conventional ODBC commands into commands that the database’s
proprietary technology can understand. ODBC allows a single application
(such as a web server program) to access data from multiple databases with
a single set of commands.


A computer or other device is “offline” if it is not turned on or connected
to other devices. This is the opposite of “online,” which refers to a device’s
ability to communicate with other devices. If you try to print to your printer
and receive one of those annoying warnings that says “The specified printer
could not be located,” your printer is most likely offline. Make sure that the
printer is connected properly and is turned on as well.
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programs, such as Web browsers and e-mail clients. This option stops
the program’s network connection, preventing data from being sent to or
received from the computer. When most people utilized dial-up connections,
this option was more useful. They didn’t want their computer to dial their
ISP every time a software attempted to connect to the Internet. However,
most people today have “always on” connections such as DSL and cable

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 Key Concepts in Computer Science 181

OLAP
Stands for “Online Analytical Processing.” Users can use OLAP to evaluate
data from many database systems at the same time. While relational databases
are thought to be two-dimensional, OLAP data is multidimensional, which
means it may be compared in a variety of ways. For instance, a company
might compare their computer sales in June with sales in July, then compare
those results with the sales from another location, which might be stored in
a different database.
To use OLAP to process database information, you’ll need an OLAP
server to arrange and compare the data. Clients can use the OLAP server’s
built-in functionalities to examine various sets of data. Oracle Express Server
and Hyperion Solutions Essbase are two popular OLAP server software
products. OLAP processing is frequently used for data mining, which tries
to identify new links between disparate sets of data using its extensive data
analytic skills.

OLE
Stands for “Object Linking and Embedding.” It can be pronounced as
“O-L-E,” or “Oh-lay!” if you are feeling Spanish. OLE is a Microsoft
foundation that allows you to take items from one application and place
them in another. It was first introduced in Windows 3.1. For example, you
might be able to use OLE to transfer an image from a photo editing program
to a word processing document.
Object linking between “compound documents,” or documents that
support several sorts of data, was the original goal of the OLE technology.
Since then, Microsoft has expanded OLE into a broader standard known
as the Component Object Model (COM). Although COM is compatible
with Mac, Unix, and Windows platforms, it is most commonly utilized with
Microsoft Windows. The COM framework is the foundation of ActiveX,
which allows developers to create interactive content for the Web.

Online
A machine is “online” when it is switched on and connects to other devices.
When a network printer is online, for example, computers on that network
can print from it. When scanners, video cameras, audio interfaces, and other
devices are running and connected to a computer system, they are said to be
online.
182 Key Concepts in Computer Science

However, recently, “online” mainly refers to being connected to the

Internet. A phone line with a dial-up or DSL modem, a cable line with a cable
modem, or a wireless connection can all be used to connect. A computer can
also be connected to a computer network and so be online. Even if they are
not linked to the Internet, machines on a network are technically online.
Most networks, however, are already routed to a T1 line or other Internet


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connected to the internet.

OOP
Stands for object-oriented programming and refers to a programming
methodology based on objects, instead of just functions and procedures.
Individual objects can be grouped together thanks to the organization of
these things into classes. Object-oriented programming languages include
Java, C/C++, and PHP, as well as many earlier programming languages that
now have object-oriented variants.
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the structure of characters in a video game, for example, may be included
in the source code of the game. Characters can be designed as objects,
allowing them to have a variety of appearances, talents, and abilities. They
can also carry out various jobs in the game, which are carried out utilizing
the procedures relevant to each object.
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of software programs for programmers. It is also easier to update and change
programs written in object-oriented languages since individual objects can
be changed without affecting other components of the program. OOP has
made designing massive software programs more manageable as software
programs have become larger over time.

Opacity
Opacity (pronounced “o-PASS-ity”) refers to the opaqueness of an object.
In computing, opacity is often used in graphics software to define how “non
transparent” an image is. In other words, the more transparent an image or
image layer is, the lower its opacity.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 183

You may modify the opacity of an image layer with an Opacity slider
in Adobe Photoshop and other graphics editors. This option usually has a
range of 0 to 100. The opacity of a layer can be set to 0 to make it fully
transparent or invisible. When you set it to 50, it becomes half transparent,
or “see-through.” If you give a layer an opacity of 100 (which is normally
the default), it will be completely transparent. In a multi-layer image, all
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completely hidden.

Open Firmware
Open Firmware is a type of firmware that is used by some computer systems
to start up. Before the operating system is loaded, it regulates the CPU
and performs system diagnostics. Open Firmware also creates the “device
tree,” which organizes all of the computer’s internal and external devices.
Each device is then given its own address, allowing it to be used after the
computer has booted up.
Open Firmware is used on a variety of computers, including Macintosh
PowerPC systems, Sun Microsystems SPARC-based workstations, and
IBM POWER systems. (The BIOS serves the similar job on most Windows-
based PCs.) Devices that support Open Firmware can often be utilized in
multiple Open Firmware-based systems because it is an “open” standard.
For example, identical PCI cards could be used in both Sun and Macintosh-
based computer systems.
Press and hold “Command-Option-O-F” during start-up on a PowerPC-
based Macintosh to access the Open Firmware interface. The Open Firmware
interface appears at start-up on Sun systems and can be accessed at any time
by hitting “L1-A” (or Stop-A) while the computer is operating.

Open Source
The term “open source” refers to a software program whose source code
is freely available to the public. Open-source software, unlike commercial
software, can be modified and distributed by anyone, and it is frequently
produced by a community rather than a single business. As a result, the term
“open-source community” is frequently used to characterize open-source
software development projects.
Because anyone can modify the source code of an open-source program,
it only makes sense that the software is also free to download and use. The
GNU General Public License, which acts as the software license agreement
184 Key Concepts in Computer Science

(SLA) for many open-source programs, is frequently used to establish the

terms of use. Donors with an interest in the project, user donations, and
marketing are all common sources of funding for open-source software
development initiatives. Some software developers also make money by
selling documentation and help manuals. Other projects are supported only
by the desire of developers to make a fantastic program.

OpenGL
OpenGL, or the Open Graphics Library, is a 3D graphics language developed
by Silicon Graphics. Prior to the release of OpenGL, software developers
had to create custom 3D graphics code for each operating system platform
and graphics hardware. OpenGL, on the other hand, allows developers
to create visuals and special effects that will look nearly identical on any
operating system and hardware that supports the technology. This makes it
much easier for developers of 3D games and programs to port their software
to multiple platforms.
So how exactly does OpenGL work? When writing OpenGL code,
programmers specify a series of commands. Each command performs a
drawing activity or generates a unique effect. Programmers can create 3D
landscapes with unique effects like texture mapping, transparency (alpha
blending), hidden surface removal, antialiasing, fog, and lighting effects
by using hundreds or even thousands of these OpenGL instructions. An
unlimited amount of viewing and modelling transformations can be applied

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Operating System
Also referred to as “OS,” this is the software that communicates with
computer hardware on the most basic level. Without an operating system,
no software programs can run. The OS is what allocates memory, processes
tasks, accesses disks and peripherals, and serves as the user interface.
Developers can use a standard programming interface, or API, to write
code on operating systems like Windows, Mac OS, and Linux. To achieve
the same outcomes without an operating system, programmers would have
to write ten times as much code. of course, the operating system must be
programmed by some computer wizards.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 185

Figure 70. Operating system placement.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

Optical Drive
“Optical” relates to eyesight, or the ability to see, in the real world. Lasers,
which can “see” and read data on optical discs, are referred to as “optical” in
the computer world. CDs and DVDs, for example, are made up of millions
of little bumps and dips. Lasers in optical drives convert these bumps and
dips into ones and zeros that the computer can understand.
CD-ROM, CD-RW, DVD-ROM, DVD-RW, and Blu-ray drives are all
common types of optical drives. A laser is used in CD and DVD writers, such
as CD-R and DVD-R drives, to read and write data on the discs. Because
it “burns” the bumps and dips into the disc, the laser used to write the data
 

   
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optical drives may spin discs at high speeds, they are still far slower than
hard drives, which use magnetic storage to store data. Optical media, on
the other hand, is the most used medium for distributing computer software
because it is inexpensive and removable.

OSD
OSD is short for “On Screen Display.” An OSD is an onscreen menu
found on most monitors that allows users to change the display’s settings.
Brightness, contrast, and color calibration adjustments are all common OSD
settings. Positioning and tilt control are also available on some monitors.
The OSD can be accessed by pushing the MENU button on the monitor’s
186 Key Concepts in Computer Science

side. Once the OSD appears, you can navigate through the menu options
and adjust plus (+) and minus (–) buttons. For example, you can adjust the
brightness of your display using your monitor’s OSD.

OSPF
Stands for “Open Shortest Path First.” It is a method of finding the shortest
path from one router to another in a local area network (LAN). The OSPF
algorithm will calculate the most efficient way for data to be transmitted if
the network is IP-based.
If a network has multiple routers, OSPF creates a table (or topography)
of the router connections. When data is transported from one site to another,
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Outbox
Outgoing e-mail messages are temporarily stored in an outbox. Most email
programs automatically save a draught of your message in the outbox as
you’re writing it. The message is then saved in the outbox until it is delivered
to the intended recipient. Most e-mail programs move the message to the
“Sent” or “Sent Messages” folder once it has been sent. Although the terms
“Outbox” and “Sent Messages” are frequently used interchangeably, they
have distinct meanings.
Unlike the inbox, which is frequently packed with e-mail, the outbox
is frequently empty. Because all messages that have been sent have already
been moved to the Sent Messages folder, this is the case. You can think of
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dispatched right away (unless a connection to the outgoing SMTP mail
server is not available).

Output
Output refers to the data produced by a computer. Data produced at a
software level, such as the result of a calculation, or at a physical level, such
as a printed document, falls under this category. A calculator program that
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 187

produces the result of a mathematical operation is a fundamental example

of software output. A more complex example is the results produced by a
search engine, which compares keywords to millions of pages in its Web
page index.
Output devices are devices that allow the computer to generate physical
output. The monitor, which shows data on a screen, is the most often used
output device. Other often used output devices include printers and computer
speakers.
The opposite of output is input, which is data that is entered into the
computer. Input and output devices are collectively referred to as I/O devices.
Overwrite
In computing, overwriting refers to replacing old data with new data.
There are two primary types of overwriting: 1) replacing text, and 2)
 

1) Replacing text
Most word processing systems insert characters where the cursor is currently
placed by default. Some programs, on the other hand, allow you to modify
the default behavior from insert to overwrite (or “overtype”). When an
application offers both insert and overwrite modes, the Insert (INS) key is
frequently used to switch between them. As new text is input in insert mode,
the text to the right of the cursor is relocated to the right. For example, in the

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Overwriting also refers to the process of replacing old files with fresh ones.
You may be asked if you wish to overwrite an existing document if you try
to save a document with the same filename. The previous document will
be overwritten by the new one if you click OK. When you move files to a
folder, the operating system may ask if you want to overwrite existing files
with the identical filenames. If you select Overwrite, the old files will be
overwritten with the new ones.
188 Key Concepts in Computer Science

P
Packet
This is a small bit of computer data that is transferred across the internet.
When you get data from the Internet, it arrives in your computer as a series
of little packets. Each packet contains the origin and destination addresses,
as well as information that links it to the other packets being transmitted.
“Packet-switching” is the process of sending and receiving packets.
Multiple places can send packets over the same lines, which are then
sorted and directed to different routes by various computers along the way.

 
 

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transmitted every day and most arrive in less than a few seconds. Even
FedEx same-day delivery pales in comparison.

Page Orientation
The way a document is printed or shown on a screen is referred to as page
orientation. “Portrait,” in which the height is more than the width, and
“Landscape,” in which the width is greater than the height, are the two basic
types. The default setting on most printers is portrait mode, which means
the page is printed vertically from top to bottom. Some programs allow the
user to change the orientation to landscape mode within the “Page Setup”
window. For example: “He changed the page orientation from portrait to
landscape when creating the sign.”

Page View
A page view is the number of times a user accesses a web page. Website
monitoring software track page views, also called “pageviews,” to record
a website’s traffic. The higher the number of page views on a website, the
more traffic it receives. However, because each time a Web page is loaded, a
page view is logged, a single user might accumulate a large number of page
views on a single website. As a result, unique page views are frequently
recorded to keep track of how many different visitors a website receives
over time.
The terms “page views” and “website hits” are frequently interchanged.
While the term “hit” is commonly used to describe a page view, a hit is

 

  
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visit, for example, will record four hits if it comprises HTML, two pictures,
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 189

and a JavaScript reference. One-page view will record over two hundred
photographs if a page includes over two hundred images.
Page views are more similar to impressions, which are used by online
advertisers to track their performance. If one advertisement is displayed on
each page, page views and impressions may be identical. When many ads
are placed on each page, however, the number of ad impressions exceeds the
number of page views.

Parallel Port
This interface, which can be found on the back of older PCs, is used to
connect external devices like printers and scanners. It has a 25-pin connector
(DB-25) and is larger than most modern interfaces. Because Centronics
established the initial parallel port standard, the parallel port is also referred
to as a Centronics interface. Because the printer is the most popular device
connected to the parallel port, it is often known as a printer port.
The Enhanced Parallel Port is the most recent parallel port standard,
and it supports the same connectors as the Centronics interface (EPP). This
standard allows for bidirectional communication and can transport data ten
times faster than the Centronics interface. However, since the parallel port
is a rather dated technology, don’t be startled if you see USB or Firewire
interfaces completely replace parallel ports in the future.

Password
A password is a string of characters that is used to verify a user’s identity
on a computer system. You may, for example, have a computer account that
requires you to log in. You must give a valid username and password to gain
access to your account. A login is a term used to describe this combination.
While usernames are normally available to the public, passwords are unique
to each user.
The majority of passwords are made up of multiple characters, which
can include letters, numbers, and most symbols, but not spaces. While it’s
important to create a password that’s easy to remember, don’t make it so
easy to guess that others may guess it. The safest passwords are made up of
a combination of letters and numbers rather than actual words.
190 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Figure 71. Passwords are used for the security purpose.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

You can paste data into a computer document in the same way you can
paste a note on a page of paper. The paste function allows you to paste
copied data into text documents, pictures, Web browser address boxes,
and almost any other location where data may be entered. To paste data,

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the data you wish to copy and then selecting “Copy” from the Edit menu of
the program.
You can paste data copied to the Clipboard into the same document or
a different document in the same program once it has been copied to the
Clipboard. You can even paste copied data into a separate program’s page.
However, you can usually only paste data into a document that contains data

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the address area of your Web browser.
To paste a copied piece of data, go to the Edit menu in the program
you want to paste it in and pick “Paste.” Data is usually pasted wherever
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paste the data, use the keyboard shortcut “Control-V” for Windows or
“Command-V” for Mac OS. Because the “P” key is normally reserved for
the “Print” shortcut, and “V” is immediately next to the “C” key, which is
used for copying, the “V” key is used. So, while it may not seem sensible at
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 Key Concepts in Computer Science 191

Payload
Each unit of data transferred over the Internet contains both header
information and the actual data being conveyed. The header specifies the
packet’s source and destination, whereas the payload refers to the actual
contents. Because header information, also known as overhead data, is only
utilized during transmission, it is removed from the packet once it arrives
at its destination. Therefore, the payload is the only data received by the
destination system.

PCI
Stands for “Peripheral Component Interconnect.” It is a hardware bus
designed by Intel and used in both PCs and Macs. Most add-on cards such as
SCSI, Firewire, and USB controllers, use a PCI connection. Some graphics
cards use PCI, but most new graphics cards connect to the AGP slot.
PCI slots are around 3.5” long and 0.5” high and are located at the back
of your computer. So, before you run out and buy that Firewire extension
card, double-check that you have at least one PCI slot.

PDF
Stands for “Portable Document Format.” Adobe Systems created the PDF
file format, which is a multi-platform file format. The text, fonts, graphics,
and even formatting of documents from a number of apps are all captured in
a PDF file. Even if he has a Mac and you have a PC, you can e-mail a PDF
document to your friend and it will look the same on his screen as it does
on yours. Since PDFs contain color-accurate information, they should also
print the same way they look on your screen.

Peripheral
Any external device that offers input and output for the computer is referred
to as a computer peripheral. Input peripherals, such as a keyboard and mouse,
are input peripherals, and output peripherals, such as a monitor and printer,
are output peripherals. Because they offer input and output for the computer,
computer peripherals, or peripheral devices, are frequently referred to as
“I/O devices.” Some peripherals, such as external hard drives, provide both
input and output for the computer.
192 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Perl
Perl actually stands for “Practical Extraction and Report Language.” It is a
scripting language which uses a syntax similar to C/C++. Perl is commonly
used by Web programmers to create scripts for Web servers. Perl is especially
good at parsing text, so programmers often use it for reading and searching
through text files.

Permalink
Short for “permanent link,” a permalink is a URL that links to a specific
news story or Web posting. Permalinks are most commonly used for blogs,
which are frequently changed and updated. They give a specific Web address
to each posting, allowing blog entries to be bookmarked by visitors or linked
to from other websites.
Because most blogs are published on dynamic, database-driven Web
sites, they do not come with a URL. A blog entry may appear on a user’s
home page, but it may not have its own Web page with the extensions
“.html,” .”asp,” .”php,” and so on. As a result, once the posting has become
obsolete and is no longer visible on the front page, there may be no way to
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blog entries from fading off into oblivion.

PHP
Stands for “Hypertext Preprocessor.” (It is a recursive acronym, if you can
understand what that means.) PHP is an HTML-embedded Web scripting
language. This means that PHP code can be put into a Web page’s HTML.
When a PHP page is accessed, the server that the page is hosted on reads or
“parses” the PHP code. The output from the PHP functions on the website
are normally returned as HTML code, which can be read by the browser.
Users cannot see PHP code on a page because it is translated into HTML
before the page is loaded. This makes PHP pages secure enough to access
databases and other secure information.
PHP borrows a lot of its syntax from other languages like C, Java, and
Perl. PHP, on the other hand, has a variety of unique features and capabilities.
The language’s purpose is to make it simple and quick for Web developers to
create dynamically generated pages. PHP can also be used to build database-
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 Key Concepts in Computer Science 193

Primary Key
A primary key is a database record’s unique identifier. One of the fields of
a table is usually designated as the primary key when it is constructed. The
primary key is frequently a number, but it could also be a text field or another
type of data. If a database contains definitions of computer terminology, for
example, it would make sense if each phrase was only mentioned once. By
defining the “Term” field as the primary key, it would ensure that no term is
listed more than once in the database.
While the primary key of a table is normally associated with a single
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for example, might employ both the title and date columns to identify each
entry. The main key would be made out of the “Title” and “Date” values,
ensuring that no two entries have the same title on the same day.
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database management system to search, sort, and access the data. It also aids
in the linking of records across several tables. As a result, while a table can
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Processor
The heart of a computer is this tiny chip. The processor, sometimes known
as a “microprocessor,” does all calculations such as adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing. The Intel Pentium chip is the most popular CPU in
PCs, while the PowerPC chip is utilized in Macintosh computers (developed
by Motorola, IBM, and Apple).
Megahertz, or cycles per second, is the unit of measurement for a
computer’s CPU speed. Higher megahertz, on the other hand, does not
automatically imply better performance. Even while a 600-MHz chip has
double the clock speed of a 300-MHz chip, this does not imply that the
computer with the 600-MHz chip will run twice as quickly. This is because

  
   

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194 Key Concepts in Computer Science

clock speeds. This is why the PowerPC chip is typically faster in comparison
to Pentium chips that are clocked at higher megahertz.

Protocol
When computers communicate with one another, each computer must adhere
to the same set of rules and instructions. The term “protocol” refers to a set
of communication regulations. There are many distinct protocols because
there are so many different methods for computers to communicate with
each other — far too numerous for the ordinary person to remember. Some
examples of these different protocols include PPP, TCP/IP, SLIP, HTTP, and
FTP. Can you guess what the last “P” in each acronym stands for? If you
guessed “protocol,” send yourself a congratulations e-mail.

Proxy Server
A proxy server is now used by almost all significant corporations,
organizations, and universities. Before accessing information on the Internet,
all computers on the local network must pass via this server. An organization
can improve network performance and filter what people connected to the
network can access by utilizing a proxy server.
A proxy server uses a caching technology to increase Internet connection
speeds from a network. Caching caches recently seen Web pages, photos,

 
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from the Internet. A proxy server caches anything accessed through the
network, unlike your Web browser, which may save recently seen stuff on
your machine. That means that if Bob views a news report on CNN.com at
1:00 p.m. and Jill views the same page at 1:03 p.m., Jill will almost certainly
obtain the page directly from the proxy server’s cache. While this provides
users with lightning-fast access to Web pages, it also implies that viewers
may not be seeing the most recent update to each page.
A proxy server
   
  
      

 
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HTTP is the most prevalent. The proxy server can control which websites
users on the network have access to. Many businesses prefer to ban access
to websites that contain unacceptable content, such as hacking information
and pornography, but other websites can also be screened. If an employer
discovers that employees are spending too much time on sites like eBay or
Quicken.com, the proxy server can also ban those sites.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 195

Pseudocode
Many software programs are written in a programming language such as
C++ or Java. When writing computer source code, these languages have
a specific syntax that must be followed. Pseudocode, on the other hand,
is an informal means of describing a program rather than a programming
language. It has no strict syntactic requirements and instead serves as a
generic representation of a program’s functions.
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each programming language has its own grammatical structure. Pseudocode

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English phrases. For example, a line of PHP code may read: if ($i < 10) {
i++; }
This could be written in pseudocode as: if i is less than 10, increment i
by 1.
By describing a program in pseudocode, programmers of all types of
languages can understand the function of a program.
Because pseudocode is an informal language, it is mostly used to create
a program overview or rough draught. Pseudocode cannot be turned into an
executable program because it is not a programming language. As a result,
if pseudocode is to become a usable application, it must be transformed into

   

Python
Python is a popular programming language for building Web applications
and software plug-ins. It has an uncluttered visual appearance and is designed
to be extremely readable. Python is similar to other scripting languages such
as Perl and PHP, except it makes more use of English words and has less
punctuation. Programs written in Python can be saved as basic scripts (with
a .py file extension) or compiled programs (with a .pyc extension).
Python is available for use from the terminal on practically all Unix-
based platforms, including MacOS.
196 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Figure 72. Python: a highly demanded programming language.

Source: Image by Wikimedia.

 Key Concepts in Computer Science 197

Q
QBE
Stands for “Query By Example.” QBE is a user-friendly technique of
conducting database queries that comes standard with many database
programs. A user must typically create input commands using correct SQL
(Structured Query Language) syntax without QBE. Almost all database
programs support this standard language. However, if the syntax is slightly
incorrect the query may return the wrong results or may not run at all.
Query By Example tool offers a user-friendly interface for entering
’   ’  
 
or selecting items rather than crafting a whole SQL command. For instance,
a user might want to choose one entry from the table “Table1” with the ID
123. Using SQL, the user would need to input the command, “SELECT *
FROM Table1 WHERE ID = 123.” The QBE interface may allow the user to
„
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Most database packages have QBE, albeit the interface varies depending
on the application. For example, Microsoft Access includes a totally graphical
QBE interface called “Query Design View.” Users can pick a query operator
               ‚"  
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which is utilized with MySQL. Whatever QBE implementation is provided
with a program, the purpose is the same – to make it easier to run database
queries and to avoid the frustrations of SQL errors.

Quad-Core
Four processing cores are found in quad-core CPUs. These cores function
as distinct processors, yet they are all housed in the same chip. A quad-core
CPU can execute instructions utilizing all four cores at the same time, but to
do so successfully, the computer’s software must support multiprocessing.
For example: “Apple’s Mac Pro workstations have quad-core CPUs.”

Queue
To avoid any misunderstanding, this phrase is pronounced in the same
way as the letter “Q.” Some folks appear to think it’s pronounced “kay”
or “kyoo-ee,” but it’s not. A queue is a list of jobs that have been queued
for processing. A job is simply added to the list of jobs when it is sent to a
queue. Queues are frequently used in computer programs to organize tasks.
198 Key Concepts in Computer Science

For example, when the CPU finishes one computation, it will process the
next one in the queue.
A printer queue is a collection of documents awaiting printing. A
document is sent to the printer queue when you decide to print it. The
document will be printed right away if there are no other tasks in the queue.
If there are existing tasks in the queue, the new document will be added
to the list and printed once the others have been completed. Most printers
nowadays come with software that allows you to sort, cancel, and add tasks

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multiple individuals use a single printer.

QWERTY
This term is used to describe a standard (Latin alphabet-based) keyboard. It
is called so because the first six keys in the upper-left part of the keyboard
spell out Q-W-E-R-T-Y. You can even call it a QWERTYUIOP keyboard,
but since QWERTY is a lot easier, people prefer it more. In case you are
wondering why the QWERTY keyboard is arranged like it is, the original
reason was to reduce the jamming of typebars in typewriters as they moved
to strike the paper.
August Dvorak 

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<  
goal of establishing an alternate rhythm between the right and left hands.
Even if the keys on the Dvorak keyboard were more effectively placed,
switching from the familiar QWERTY arrangement was and still is too
much of a pain for most people. So, it appears like we’ll have to make do
with what we’ve got. Please accept my apologies, Dvorak.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 199

R
RAM
Stands for “Random Access Memory,” and is pronounced like the male
sheep. It is made up of small memory chips that form a memory module
and then these modules are installed in the RAM slots on the motherboard
of your computer.
Every time you open an application, it is loaded into RAM from the hard
disc. Because reading data from RAM is far faster than reading data from
a hard drive, this is the case. The ability to run programs directly from the
computer’s RAM eliminates any lag time. The more RAM your computer
has, the more data it can load from the hard drive into the RAM, allowing
your computer to run faster. In fact, boosting RAM to your computer may
be more useful to its performance than upgrading the CPU.
Open the “System” Control Panel to see how much RAM a Windows
computer has. By right-clicking “My Computer” and selecting “Properties...,”
you may accomplish this. Select “About This Mac” from the Apple Menu to
see how much RAM is installed in a Macintosh computer.

Refresh Rate
A “maximum refresh rate” is frequently included in the technical
specifications of computer monitors. This value, which is expressed in hertz
(Hz), indicates how many times the screen is repainted every second. CRT
monitors typically have refresh rates of 60, 75, and 85 Hz. Over 100 Hz
refresh rates are supported by some monitors.
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Flicker is visible when the refresh rate is less than 60 Hz, which means you
can know the screen is being updated instead of viewing a steady image.
  [ might be taxing on your eyes and lead them to weary fast if
the refresh rate is too sluggish. As if sitting at a computer for several hours
wasn’t hard enough!

 >
 [, adjust your monitor’s refresh rate to the highest
feasible. This option can be found in Windows’ Monitors control panel
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reasonable refresh rate, some users will discover that 85 Hz is far superior.
The maximum refresh rate is determined by three factors: 1) The rate your
200 Key Concepts in Computer Science

video card supports, 2) the rate your monitor supports, and 3) the resolution
your monitor is set at. Lower resolutions (i.e., 800x600) typically support
higher refresh rates than higher resolutions (i.e., 1600x1200).
You may not be able to modify the refresh rate on an LCD monitor.
Because most LCD monitors have a standard refresh rate that is considerably

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than CRT monitors because the pixels on an LCD screen stay light for longer
before dramatically fading than CRT monitors.

Registry
This is a database that Microsoft Windows uses to keep information about
the applications installed on a computer’s settings. The desktop backdrop,
program settings, and file extension affiliations are all part of this data.

Remote Access
As the name suggests, remote access is the ability to access your computer
from a remote location. Users can operate faraway computers from their local
workstation using programs like PC Anywhere (Windows), Remote Access
(Mac), and Timbuktu (Windows and Mac). The remote client software must
be installed on the local machine, and the remote server software must be
installed on the remote machine, in order for a remote access connection to
be established. Authenticating the connecting user nearly always necessitates
the usage of a username and password.
Remote access is more than just being able to connect to a remote
machine – it is the ability to control the machine once the connection has
been made. A remote access program can turn your local computer into the
remote computer to which you connect. This is ideal for folks who work
from home on occasion, as well as server managers who need to update and
replace their servers periodically. Most remote access systems also allow
 
     
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people, you should only allow it on your machine if you absolutely need it.
You’ll have to cope with yet another security issue as a result of this.

Resolution
Resolution can describe either how many pixels a monitor can display or
how fine a printer can print.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 201

1. Monitors: A small monitor’s resolution can be 640 x 480, which

implies there are 640 pixels horizontally and 480 pixels vertically
across the screen. 800 x 600, 1,024 x 768, and 1,280 x 1,024 are
some more typical monitor resolutions. The more pixels that can
be displayed on the screen, the higher the resolution.
2. Printers: 


 

 
print. Dots per inch, or “dpi,” is the unit of measurement. The
higher the dpi, the more clear the image. The resolution of a
scanner is also measured in dpi.

RFID
RFID is short for “Radio-Frequency Identification.” Small integrated
circuits that can be scanned with a radio transmitter are known as RFID tags.
This implies that, unlike a credit card or a UPC label, they can simply be
passed into the range of the transmitter rather than being swiped or scanned
immediately. Inventory tracking, retail loss prevention, electronic toll booth
payments, and keyless entry are just a few of the uses for these tags. For
example: “RFID tags are often placed inside the retail packaging of small
electronic devices.”

RGB
Stands for “Red Green Blue.” It refers to the three light colors (yes, red,
green, and blue) that can be mixed to create any color. White light is formed
when the greatest intensities of each color are combined. When each hue’s
intensity is set to zero, the result is black. The vibrant visuals you see on
TVs and computer monitors are created using RGB. However, in print, the
4 colors – cyan, yellow, magenta, and black (CYMK) – are used to create
color images.

ROM
Stands for “Read-Only Memory.” Please don’t get this term mixed up
with RAM or a hard drive, as many people do. Before the system software
loads, the computer employs ROM, which is memory carrying hardwired
instructions. The instructions are read from a little program called the BIOS
(Basic Input/Output System) in the ROM of PCs.
202 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Root
The top level of a file system is referred to as root, or “root node.” The root
node is also known as the root directory since file systems are organized
by directories. The root directory can be thought of as the top of an upside-
down tree, with folders and files stretching beneath it. For example: “On a
Unix system, system files can only be accessed by the root user.”
The “root user,” commonly known as “root,” is a user account with
administrative privileges on a computer system. The root user, unlike other
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performing system updates and account alterations is frequently delegated
to the root user of a Unix system.

Router
This is a physical device that sends data from a local area network (LAN)
to another network connection (thus the name). A router works in the same
way as a coin sorter, allowing only authorized machines to connect to other
computer systems. Most routers additionally store log files of network
activities on the local network.

Figure 73. A wireless router.

Source: Image by Flickr.

 Key Concepts in Computer Science 203

Runtime
A program is said to be in runtime while it is running or executing. The phrase
is most commonly used by software developers to describe when a program
has faults. A “runtime error” is an error that occurs during the execution of a
program. A runtime error would be, for example, if a program told you that
2 Plus 2 equaled 5000. A memory leak occurs when a software consumes
an excessive quantity of system memory. This is sometimes referred to as
a runtime error. A compile-time error is another common sort of program
error, in which the application fails to compile into an executable program.
Syntax problems in computer code and file linking issues are examples of
compile-time errors.
204 Key Concepts in Computer Science

S
Safe Mode
Safe Mode is a feature of the Windows operating system that allows it to
run with the bare minimum of system files. Because it uses a general VGA
display driver rather than a vendor-specific driver, you’ll probably only be
able to operate with 16 colors and a 640x480 resolution. All third-party
drivers for additional peripherals such as mouse, keyboards, printers, and
scanners are also disabled under Safe Mode. Networking files and settings
are not loaded in basic safe mode. This means that you won’t be able to
connect to the Internet or other computers on a network.
After an unexpected crash, Windows may not fully start, and the only
way to get the machine to boot is to utilize Safe Mode. You can use a disc








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successfully booted the computer in Safe Mode. When you see a “Sync Out
of Range” notice on your screen, you can also reboot into Safe Mode to see
your display.
It’s possible that your computer will become sluggish and annoyingly
slow at times. Safe Mode will allow you to diagnose the issue and determine
         
 
 
 
 ]  
 
 
technical support, you may be asked to boot into Safe Mode to begin
troubleshooting. To boot your Windows computer into Safe Mode, hold
down the F8 key while the computer is starting up. Then select Safe Mode
from the list of boot options.

SATA
Stands for “Serial Advanced Technology Attachment,” or “Serial ATA.” It’s
a connector that connects ATA hard drives to the motherboard of a computer.
SATA transfer rates start at 150MBps, which is substantially quicker than
even the best ATA/100 drives, which are limited to 100MBps. Serial ATA
is anticipated to replace the previous standard, Parallel ATA (PATA), which
has been around since the 1980s for this and other reasons.
The SATA interface has various advantages over the PATA interface,
in addition to quicker transfer speeds. For one thing, unlike Parallel ATA,
SATA drives each have their own independent bus, so there is no competition
for bandwidth. They also employ smaller, thinner cables, which improves
ventilation within the computer. SATA cables can be up to one meter long,
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 205

but PATA cables are limited to 40cm. This allows computer makers more
freedom when it comes to designing the internal arrangement of their
machines. Finally, Serial ATA only has seven wires, but Parallel ATA has
40. This means that electromagnetic interference with SATA devices is less
likely.


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the obsolete PATA standard. Make sure your computer has a SATA interface
if you want to buy one that will handle fast hard drives for years to come.

Schema
A schema is a model or outline that specifies the organization of a specific
type of data in computing. Schemas are most commonly used to describe
XML files and databases, but they can also be used to define a variety of
other data types.
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documents have the same syntax and don’t contain any unknown data. XML
    

  

 
schema.
Database schemas are frequently used to create a visual representation
of a database’s tables and information. Tables are represented by boxes,
  
  
  
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include labels that identify primary and unique keys within each table.

Script
A computer script is a set of instructions that a program or scripting engine
follows. Scripts can be used to automate tasks on a local computer or to
generate Web pages on the Internet. DOS scripts and VB Scripts, for example,
can be used to automate tasks on Windows machines, whilst AppleScript
scripts can be used to automate work on Macintosh computers. Web servers
are frequently used to generate dynamic Web page content using ASP, JSP,
and PHP scripts.
+     „ = 
   
  

written in a certain scripting language. This means most scripts can be
opened and edited using a basic text editor. However, when opened by the
206 Key Concepts in Computer Science

appropriate scripting engine, the commands within the script are executed.
VB (Visual Basic) scripts, for example, will run when double-clicked, using
Windows’ built-in VB scripting support. Since VB scripts can access and


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unknown e-mail attachment.

Server
A server, as the name suggests, provides information to computers that
connect to it. When users connect to a server, they can access the server’s
applications, files, and other data. Web servers, mail servers, and LAN
servers are all common types of servers. Several distinct server programs
can be run on a single computer.

Snippet
A snippet is a brief piece of source code or text that can be pasted into a
program or a Web page. HTML snippets frequently contain tables, forms,
and other HTML data, whereas program snippets typically comprise simple
functions. Some snippets may come packaged with software development
tools, but they can also be written by the programmer. Snippets can save
developers a lot of time by allowing them to reuse the same block of code
in multiple places. For example: “The Web developer saved the form as an
HTML snippet so he could use it in several different Web pages.”

Spreadsheet
A spreadsheet is a type of document that uses a grid of horizontal rows and
vertical columns to contain data. Numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.) are commonly used
to identify rows, while letters are used to label columns (A, B, C, etc). Cells
relate to individual row/column locations, such as C3 or B12. Each cell has
the capacity to hold a single instance of data. Information can be recorded in
a more structured fashion than plain text by entering data into a spreadsheet.
The data can also be studied using formulas and calculations thanks to the
row/column structure.
Each row of a spreadsheet, for example, may include information about


   
  
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address, phone number, favorite foods, and so on. The spreadsheet program
may use this information to count the number of individuals who live in a
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 207

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other computations. A spreadsheet is analogous to a database in this regard.
Spreadsheets, on the other hand, are more streamlined than databases
and are particularly useful for dealing with numbers. Spreadsheets are
 ~        
  
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spreadsheet, for example, might record bank account data such as balances
and interest rates. A column containing the account balances of numerous
clients may be easily totalled to get the total value of all the clients’ balances.
To calculate the worth of the accounts in a year, multiply these amounts by
the interest rate from another cell. After you’ve built the formula, changing
the value of just the interest rate cell will change the anticipated value of all
the other accounts.

SQL
Stands for “Structured Query Language,” and can be pronounced as either
“sequel” or “S-Q-L.” It is a query language that is used to retrieve and
modify data in a database. “Insert,” “update,” and “delete” are some popular
SQL commands. SEQUEL stands for “Structured English Query Language,”
and it was first developed by IBM in 1975. It has experienced a number of
changes since then, many of which are due to Oracle products.
SQL is now widely used for developing and managing Web databases.
Despite the fact that SQL is currently regarded as a standard language,
there are still a number of SQL variants, such as mSQL and mySQL. SQL
commands can be run when a Web page loads using a scripting language like
PHP. This enables the creation of dynamic Web pages that display different
information each time they are loaded.

SRAM
Stands for “Static Random Access Memory.” It might seem tempting to
pronounce this term as “Sram,” but it is correctly pronounced “S-ram.”
SRAM is a sort of RAM that stores data in a static manner, meaning that
the data remains constant as long as the memory chip is powered. This is
in contrast to DRAM (dynamic RAM), which stores data dynamically and
requires refreshing the data stored in the memory on a regular basis. SRAM
is faster and uses less power than DRAM because it stores data statically.
SRAM, on the other hand, is more expensive to produce than DRAM
due to its more complex structure. Because of this complexity, the amount
of data that can be stored on a single chip is limited, hence SRAM devices
208 Key Concepts in Computer Science

cannot hold as much data as DRAM chips. As a result, DRAM is frequently

employed as the primary memory in personal computers. SRAM, on the
other hand, is frequently employed in smaller applications like CPU cache
memory and hard drive buffers. Other consumer electronics, ranging from
major appliances to little children’s toys, employ it as well.

Syntax
Each spoken language has a set of general principles for the construction
of words and sentences. The language syntax is the collection of these
rules. Syntax is used in computer programming languages to define how
declarations, functions, instructions, and other statements should be
organized.
The syntax of each computer programming language is different. Many
languages have similar syntactic rules, whereas others have their own set
of rules. C and Java, for example, have a very similar syntax, yet Perl has
several properties that neither C nor Java have.
Regardless of the constraints, a program’s source code must have the
proper syntax in order to compile and run correctly. In reality, if the syntax
is incorrect, the program will fail to compile and produce a “syntax error.”
Something as simple as a missing parenthesis or a forgotten semicolon can
also be a syntax error at the end of a statement. Even these small errors will
keep the source code from compiling.
Fortunately, most software development products come with a debugger
that can help locate syntax mistakes in the source code. Consider a program
with nearly 10,000 lines of code in which a syntax mistake is generated by
a single missing semicolon. Manually locating the error would be preferable

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debugging procedure for the programmer.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 209

T
Tag
On clothes, tags usually indicate the brand, size of the garment, fabrics used,
and the washing instructions. Tags on Web pages specify what should appear
on the screen when the page loads. In HTML (hypertext markup language)
and other markup languages, such as XML, tags are the most fundamental
formatting tool. The <table> element, for example, is used to build a table
on a Web page. The table’s data is contained within the <table> tag, and the
table is closed with the </table> tag.
If you want something to show up in bold on a Web page, you
fundamentally use the bold tag. For example, the line:
This site is the <b>best website</b> ever!
would show up as: This site is the best website ever!
Since there is often a need to format content within more general tags,
the tags can be “nested,” meaning one tag can enclose one or more other
tags. For example:
<font=“Times”>This is the Times font, and <i>this is in italics</i>.
Pretty exciting, huh? </font>
would should up as: This is the Times font, and this is in italics. Pretty
exciting, huh?
Tags are a basic component of HTML and are rather straightforward to
comprehend. You can either develop your own Web site from scratch (using
a text editor and inputting your own tags) or use a layout application like
Macromedia Dreamweaver, which will generate the tags for you. Tags used
in markup languages don’t irritate or chafe your neck, which is a plus.

TCP/IP
Stands for “Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.” The US
military developed these two protocols in the early days of the Internet.
The goal was to make it possible for computers to communicate over large
distances. The TCP section is responsible for validating packet delivery.
The IP element of the protocol refers to the transmission of data packets
between nodes. Since then, TCP/IP has become the Internet’s foundation.
TCP/IP software is included in all major operating systems, including Unix,
Windows, and Mac OS.
210 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Telnet
This is an application that lets you use a text-based interface to log into a
Unix computer. You can access specific resources on a Telnet server if you
have a Telnet account, such as your home directory, e-mail account, FTP
files, and so on. The disadvantage of Telnet is that it requires the usage of
Unix commands, which can be difficult to learn.

Terabyte
A terabyte is 2 to the 40th power, or 1,099,511,627,776 bytes.
10 to the 12th power, or 1,000,000,000,000 bytes, is an estimate. A
terabyte is 1,024 gigabytes in size, and it comes before the petabyte. Web
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consumer hard drives are normally measured in gigabytes. A 500GB hard
disc is also referred to as a half-terabyte drive.

Text Editor
Any word processing tool that allows you to type and edit text is referred
to as a text editor. It’s not called a text editor for nothing, after all...
Common text editors include WordPad and Notepad for Windows, as well
as SimpleText and TextEdit for Mac. Larger programs like Microsoft Word
and WordPerfect are text editors as well, but they come with a lot more
functions.

Third Party
Third-party software refers to applications created by firms other than the
operating system’s creator. It could also refer to third-party plug-ins created
by companies other than the original application’s developer.
Computer hardware made by companies other than the original
manufacturer is referred to as third-party hardware. Hard drives, video
cards, memory modules, and peripheral devices are examples of third-party
components. For example: “Several third-party disk utilities are available
for both Mac and Windows computers.”

TIFF
Stands for “Tagged Image File Format.” It is a graphics file format that
was developed in the 1980s to serve as the universal image format for a
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 211

variety of computer platforms. Color depths ranging from 1-bit to 24-bit are
supported by the TIFF format. Since the introduction of the original TIFF
standard, several incremental enhancements have been made to the format,
resulting in around 50 different TIFF formats. So much for the concept of a
universal format. Because of its modest file size and Internet compatibility,
JPEG has recently become the most preferred global format.
212 Key Concepts in Computer Science

U
UDP
Stands for “User Datagram Protocol.” It’s a data-transfer protocol that’s part
of the TCP/IP stack. UDP is a “stateless” protocol, which means it does not
recognize that the packets it is sending have been received. As a result, the
UDP protocol is commonly used for streaming video. While you may see
video skips or hear some fuzz in audio recordings, UDP transmission keeps
the playback from totally halting.

UML
Stands for “Unified Modeling Language.” This is a programming language
for the creation of object-oriented software. Programmers frequently
establish “objects,” which are collections of structured data within programs,
to better organize program code. UML was created for this purpose and has
been standardized by the Object Management Group (OMG). The language
has gained enough support that it has become a standard language for
visualizing and constructing software programs.

Undo
Most programs provide an Undo command in the Edit menu, with the key
“Ctrl+Z” (PC) or “Cmd-Z” (Mac). It’s used to reverse the most recent action
in a program. Typing or deleting text in a word processing program, drawing,
or moving images in an image editor, and trimming media in a video or
audio editing program are all examples of events that can be undone. Most
actions can be immediately reverted by selecting “Undo.” Many programs
also enable “multiple undo,” which allows you to undo multiple actions at
the same time. For example: “If you accidentally delete a section of text,
select ‘Undo’ to bring it back.”

Unix
UNIX is another name for it, albeit the letters don’t stand for anything.
Bell Labs was the first to develop the Unix operating system in the 1960s.
It became popular for high-level computing in the 1970s, but not for
consumer computing. Unix achieved enormous popularity in the 1990s as
a result of the fact that many Internet services were originally housed on
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 213

Unix workstations. It still leads the industry as the most common operating
system for Web servers.
Even so, because there are so many various versions of Unix, it remains
a bit of a muddled operating system. Ultrix, Xenix, Linux, and GNU are just
a few examples, all of which run on a variety of hardware platforms, further
complicating things. Most people will never need to use Unix, but computer
nerds seem to have a strong desire to do so.

UPS
Stands for “Uninterruptible Power Supply.” In the technology world, UPS
is not just limited to a brown shipping company, it is also a type of power
supply that uses battery backup to maintain power during unexpected power
outages.
A surge protector with a high-capacity rechargeable battery is a typical
consumer UPS. Smaller UPSs resemble bulky power strips, whereas larger
UPSs can stand upright and resemble mini computers. Uninterruptible
power supply!‘+” 
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in the event of a power outage. While a UPS may only keep a computer
operating for 15 minutes after the power goes off, this is usually enough time
to save all your important documents and shut down the computer correctly.
If you’re working on a critical document or project that hasn’t been saved
recently, that extra time can be vital.

URL
Stands for “Uniform Resource Locator.” A URL is the Internet address of
a certain Web site or file. It employs forward slashes to designate separate
folders and cannot contain spaces or certain other characters. http://www.
cnet.com/, http://web.mit.edu/, and ftp:/info.apple.com/ are some examples
of URLs. As you can see, not all URLs start with the letter “http.” The first
portion of a URL identifies the type of resource it refers to.

User Interface
A user interface is the way by which a user interacts with a piece of software
or hardware. A software interface, for example, may consist of windows,
icons, menus, and buttons that enable the user to interact with the application.
A graphical user interface, or GUI, is another name for this. A remote control
or a video game controller are examples of hardware interfaces. It could
214 Key Concepts in Computer Science

also refer to a camcorder, digital camera, or iPod’s controls. The majority

of today’s user interfaces are created with a combination of hardware and
software. For example: “The Apple iPhone has a touchscreen user interface.”
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 215

V
VCI
Stands for “Virtual Channel Identifier.” The VCI (virtual path indicator)
is used in conjunction with the VPI (virtual path indicator) to determine
where an ATM cell will go over a network. Many ISPs (Internet Service
Providers) employ ATM, or asynchronous transfer mode, to transfer data
to client computers. Because ATMs deliver packets via fixed channels, data
sent over the conventional TCP/IP protocol is more difficult to follow.
Œ  "‚%$  =  
>        
packet should be delivered. In comparison to the VPI, which is just 8 bits, it
 _¤Zƒ     >  

which each packet belongs, it prevents other data from interfering with it as
it travels through the network.

Vector
A vector is a quantity characterized by both magnitude and direction in
mathematics. A vector, for example, could be represented by a 1-inch arrow
pointing at a 30 degree angle. Another vector might be 2.5 inches long and
angled at 160 degrees. Vectors are used to specify routes in specific types of
pictures, such as EPS files and Adobe Illustrator projects, in the computer
world. These visuals are sometimes referred to as vector graphics since they
are made up of vectors, or routes, rather than dots. Vector drawings may be
resized up and down without sacrificing quality.
In computer science, a vector may refer to a type of one-dimensional
array|
= < >
 
  
 => 

 |
 ’
 


fibonacci [0] = 0, fibonacci [1] = 1, fibonacci [2] = 1, fibonacci [3] = 2,
fibonacci [4] = 3, fibonacci [5] = 5
Arrays and vectors are comparable, but vectors have their own memory
management algorithms. Arrays are limited to the memory structure provided
by the programming language in which they are written, which is usually
referred to as a stack. Vectors have a more dynamic structure, sometimes
referred to as a heap, which allows them to use memory more freely. While
  ’ = 


< 
~ >

can grow or shrink as more or less elements are added or removed.
216 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Virtual Memory
Memory is the hardware that allows your computer to run programs and
load the operating system. It is made up of one or more RAM chips, each
with several memory modules. A computer’s real memory is constrained
by the amount of RAM installed. 256MB, 512MB, and 1GB are the most
common memory sizes.
Because your computer’s RAM is limited, it’s possible that you’ll
run out of memory if you run too many programs at once. This is where
the concept of virtual memory comes into play. Virtual memory expands
your computer’s accessible memory by expanding the “address space,”
or memory locations where data can be stored. It accomplishes this by
allocating more memory from hard disc space. However, because the hard
    
     ›"‚< >  
     
transferred back to real memory before it can be used.

Virtual Reality
While the word “virtual” is typically overused in the computer world, it is
aptly placed in the phrase “virtual reality.” Virtual implies “being or resulting
in essence or effect but not in actual fact, shape, or name,” according to
the American Heritage Dictionary. It can also refer to something that is
“produced, mimicked, or carried out by a computer or computer network.”
As a result, virtual reality is best described as a computer-generated illusion
of reality.
ƒ
    
 
 
 
computer system running the virtual reality program, a person can experience
a virtual reality world. These technologies immerse the user in the virtual
world’s sights and sounds. Some virtual reality systems allow users to wear
gloves equipped with electronic sensors that can be used to manipulate
virtual objects. As the user moves their head or hands, the computer moves
the virtual world accordingly in real-time.

Virtualization
Virtualization allows many operating systems to operate on a single
computer. A Mac OS X computer, for example, can run Windows while a
Windows computer can run Linux using virtualization software. Multiple
operating systems can operate at the same time and even communicate with
each other thanks to virtualization software. A virtual machine is a computer
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 217

that runs an alternative operating system (OS) on top of the original OS via
virtualization. For example: “Virtualization allows a Macintosh computer to
run Mac OS X and Windows at the same time.”

Virus
A computer virus, like a real virus, is something you don’t want to get.
Computer viruses are little programs or scripts that can harm your computer’s
performance. These malicious small programs can generate, move, and
delete files, as well as waste your computer’s memory and cause it to
malfunction. Viruses can replicate, attach to programs, and spread across
networks. In reality, the most frequent way to obtain a virus is to open an
infected e-mail attachment.
] 


 




even when it is in good health, let alone when it has been infected with a
virus. As a result, preventing an attack is preferable to attempting to heal

     > 

 >      
  

viruses before they can harm your computer. Norton AntiVirus, McAfee
VirusScan, and Virex are a few of these apps. To avoid a virus attack, it is
a good idea to have one of these apps installed on your computer. It’s also
  
   
 > 
    
  
  
  
your antivirus software can keep up with the current threats. It’s similar to
drinking an orange juice every morning in that it strengthens and protects
your computer’s immune system.

VoIP
Stands for “Voice Over Internet Protocol,” and is often pronounced “voip.”
VoIP, or Voice over Internet Protocol, is essentially a telephone connection
over the Internet. Instead of using analog telephone lines, the data is
transferred digitally over the Internet Protocol (IP). This allows users to
communicate great distances and across the globe without incurring long
distance or international phone expenses.
You’ll need a computer, an Internet connection, and VoIP software to
use VoIP. A microphone, analog telephone adapter, or VoIP phone are also
required. You can use a basic microphone and speaker setup with many VoIP
apps. Others require VoIP phones, which look and function like conventional
phone handsets but connect to your computer through USB. You can use
normal phones with your computer thanks to analog telephone adapters. IP
phones, which connect to a router via Ethernet or wirelessly, are another
218 Key Concepts in Computer Science

alternative. These phones are equipped with essential VoIP software and do
not require the use of a computer.
Vonage is the largest provider of VoIP services, but there are several
other companies that offer similar services. While Vonage charges a monthly
service fee, programs like Skype and PeerMe allow users to connect to
each other and talk for free. However, these free services may offer fewer
connections, lower audio quality, and may be less reliable than paid services
like Vonage.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 219

W
WAN
Stands for “Wide Area Network.” It resembles a Local Area Network (LAN),
but it is much larger. WANs, unlike LANs, are not constrained to a single
place. Many wide area networks use telephone lines, fiber optic cables, or
satellite links to connect over great distances. They can also be made up of
smaller, interconnected LANs. The Internet can be thought of as the world’s
largest WAN. You could even call the Internet a Super WAN BAM if you
wanted to.

Web 2.0
Web 2.0 is a word that was coined in 2004 to describe the World Wide
Web’s second generation. The name “2.0” derives from the software
industry, where incremental version numbers are assigned to new versions
of software products. The new generation of the Web, like software, contains
new features and capability that were not previously available. Web 2.0, on
the other hand, does not relate to a single version of the Internet, but rather
to a set of technological advancements.
Some examples of features considered to be part of Web 2.0 are listed
below:
Blogs – also known as Web logs, these allow users to post thoughts and
updates about their life on the Web.
Wikis – sites like Wikipedia and others enable users from around the
world to add and update online content.
Social networking – sites like Facebook and MySpace allow users to
 
~ 

 
  
Web applications – a broad range of new applications make it possible
for users to run programs directly in a Web browser.
Web 2.0 technologies enable users to interact in ways that were
previously unavailable. Websites have grown considerably more dynamic
and interconnected, resulting in “online communities,” and making
information sharing on the Internet even easier. Because most Web 2.0
capabilities are available for free, sites like Wikipedia and Facebook have
grown at breakneck speed. More features are added to the sites as they
220 Key Concepts in Computer Science

evolve, drawing on the technologies already in place. While Web 2.0 may
 =
  
 <  


evolving and changing.

Web Browser
You’re probably reading this in a browser right now. The program that
individuals use to access the World Wide Web is known as a web browser,
or simply “browser.” It recognizes text, graphics, hypertext links, Javascript,
and Java applets in HTML code. The browser displays a well formatted
page after rendering the HTML code. Common browsers include Firefox,
Chrome, or Safari.

Web Host
A web host is required to publish a website online. The web host saves all
your website’s pages and makes them accessible to computers with Internet
access. The domain name, such as “sony.com,” is associated with an IP
address that identifies a particular computer. The IP address is found and
the web site is loaded from your web host when someone types your domain
name into their browser’s address box.
Web hosting software, such as Apache, OS X Server, or Windows Server,
can be installed on anywhere from one to thousands of computers. The
majority of websites you visit are accessed through a “shared host,” which
is a single machine that can host hundreds of websites. A “dedicated host,”
which is a single machine that solely hosts one website, is frequently used
 +  

 , like apple.com and microsoft.
com, use multiple machines to host one website.
You’ll need to join up for a “Web hosting service” if you wish to publish


  ƒ     
  

<   
]
 
   +      ] > 

select provides excellent technical support and minimal or no downtime.
Typically, you’ll be charged a monthly price that changes based on how
much disc space and bandwidth your site will consume. So, before you sign

 ]
><


 

  
=

Web Page
The World Wide Web is made up of web pages. These papers are written
in HTML (hypertext markup language), which your browser will translate.
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 221

Static and dynamic web pages are both possible. Each time a static page is
browsed, it displays the same content. The content of dynamic pages might
change each time they are accessed. Scripting languages like PHP, Perl,
ASP, and JSP are commonly used to create these pages. The scripts in the
pages call server functions that return data such as the date and time, as well
as database information. All of the data is returned as HTML code, so all
your browser has to do when it receives the page is translate the HTML.

Figure 74. Web Page.

Source: Image by Pixabay.

Website
A website, sometimes known as a web site, is distinct from a web page.
Even though the two terms are frequently used interchangeably, they should
not. So, what’s the difference between the two? A website is a collection of
web pages, to put it simply. Amazon.com, for example, is a website, yet it is
made up of millions of web pages.

Wi-Fi
The Wi-Fi Alliance has trademarked Wi-Fi as a wireless networking protocol.
All networking equipment that adheres to one of the IEEE 802.11 standards
is referred to as IEEE 802.11. Wi-Fi enables computers and other devices to
connect to wireless routers and, as a result, other network systems. Devices
connected to the wireless access point may have Internet access if the router
is connected to the Internet. Nowadays many coffee shops offer customers
Internet access through a Wi-Fi connection.
222 Key Concepts in Computer Science

X
X86
Intel processors released after the original 8086 processor are referred to
as x86. The 286, 386, 486, and 586 processors are among them. The “x” in
x86, as you can see, stands for a range of conceivable values. The complete
names of the processors are 80286, 80386, 80486, and 80586, hence x86 is
short for 80x86. To prevent repetition, the “80” is usually shortened.
]   
     
     
   ='¤
architecture, that suggests it’s powered by an Intel CPU (not AMD or
PowerPC). Newer x86 processors can run all of the programs that older
processors could run because Intel’s x86 chips are backwards compatible.
Older CPUs, on the other hand, may be unable to run software designed for
newer x86 processors.

XHTML
Stands for “Extensible Hypertext Markup Language.” Yes, here “Extensible”
starts with an “X.” XHTML is a spinoff of the hypertext markup language
(HTML) used for creating web pages. It is based on the HTML 4.0 syntax,
but has been modified to follow the guidelines of XML, the Extensible
Markup Language.
Web developers can construct their own objects and tags for each web
page they make since XHTML is “extensible.” Developers have more
control over the appearance and arrangement of their web pages as a result

  
 
  
   
 

!##” that the XHTML page references.
In addition, XHTML pages must follow a stricter syntax than conventional
HTML pages. While HTML syntax is more tolerant and forgiving in web
browsers<¡*‚Ÿ
 > =  
markup language has no missing quotes or erroneous capitalization. While
the tight syntax necessitates more careful web page construction, it also
assures that Web pages seem consistent across browser platforms.

XML
Stands for “Extensible Markup Language.” (Yes, technically it should be
EML). XML is a standard format for defining documents that may be read by
 Key Concepts in Computer Science 223

any XML-compatible application. Although XML can be used with HTML

pages, it is not a markup language in and of itself. It’s a “metalanguage”
that can be used to construct markup languages for certain applications.
It can be used to define elements that can be accessed when a web page
loads. Essentially, XML allows you to establish an information database
without needing to use a database. XML documents are often used in web
applications, but they can also be utilized in a variety of other programs.
224 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Z
Zip
Using a tool like WinZip, you may archive and compress several files into
a single smaller file. It’s a convenient approach to compress files before
sending them over email.
 Bibliography 225

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Index

Symbols archaic technology 178

archive 15
3D graphics language developed by Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
Silicon Graphics 184 5
A Audio Interchange File Format 7
August Dvorak 198
abnormal end 1 Automatic Document Feeder 5
Accelerated Graphics Port. 7
Access Point 1 B
Active-Matrix 2 Backside Bus 21
actual components of a computer Backup 21
129 baseband signal 24
Ad Hoc Network 3 base station 23
Adware 5, 6 Basic Input/Output System 31
Algorithm 9 BAT 26
American National Standards Insti- Batch File 25
tute 11 Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic
amount of data 22, 34 Instruction Code 25
analog perception 10 bespoke 28, 30
Analog-to-Digital Converter 3 binary large object (BLOB) 33
apologies 198 Bing 29, 30
Apple computers 162 Biometric authentication 30
applets in HTML code 220 Biometrics 30
Application Program Interface (API) biometric scan 31
12 Bit 32
232 Key Concepts in Computer Science

BitTorrent 33 Computers utilize ASCII 16

Blind Carbon Copy 27 computer system 189
Blogs 219 computer virus 217
Bluetooth 36 computer wizards. 184
Blu-ray 35 computing elite 151
browser 124 convenient approach 224
build database-driven websites 192 conventional phone handsets 217
Business-to-Business (B2B) 99 CRT monitors 199, 200
Business-to-Consumer (B2C) 99 customers Internet access 221
cyan, yellow, magenta, and black
C
(CYMK) 201
cable modem 48
D
Cache 49
Captchas 51 Dashboard 86
Carbon Copy 53, 54 Database applications 89
Card Reader 52 database information 221
casual photography 51 database management system
Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) 172 (DBMS) 89
CD-ROM interface boards 150 data library 111
CD-ROM machines 55 data structure 15

Z 
 _˜— Data type 88
CMD 26 DDR2 RAM 91
Code Division Multiple Access 55 Debug 92
Command-S 152 debugging procedure 208
Common browsers include Firefox declare E-mail Bankruptcy 141
220 degauss 94
$
 [  !$|”<œ— desktop 87, 95, 96
compile-time errors 203 Developers 222

> ˜˜ž digital cameras 50, 53, 54, 68, 78,
Computer-Aided Design 50 143
Computer data 87 digital to analog converter (DAC)
computer graphics. 125 10
computer hardware 184 diplomatic method 100
computer jargon 95 direction in mathematics 215
computer monitors 85 disc cache 49
computer networking. 3 documents awaiting printing 198
computer or mobile device 101 
  
 !##”
computer programmers 9, 16 222
computer’s software 197
 Index 233

DOS scripts 205 Flash Drive 116

Dvorak keyboard 198 Flash memory 116
# *
$
 


- [ `˜
col 96, 97 [_``<˜{{
Floating Point 117
E Floppy Disk 117
E-commerce 99 [
_œ—
Edit menu 212 friend’s laptop 3
e-mail attachment 206 frustrations of SQL errors 197
e-mail bankruptcy 100 FSB 119
e-mail communications 54
G
Emojis 101
employment, 99 Garbage In, Garbage Out 121
Emulation 102 gateway 120
enable data transmission 106 Gibibyte 120
Encryption 103 Global Positioning System (GPS)
entire network 176 124
e-tailing 99 GNU General Public License (GPL)
Ethernet-based LANs 155 122
Extensible Hypertext Markup Lan- Golden master 122
guage 222 golden master (GM) version 122
Extensible Markup Language 222 Google 122, 123, 124
External Hard Drive 105 GPT (GUID partition table) 166
Extranet 106, 107 Graphics Interchange Format 120
eye-map 140 Graphics Processing Unit 125
F H
Facebook 108, 109 Hacker 127
Fiber Optic Cable 109, 110 Halftone 127
FIFO 110 Handle 128
_{`<__{<___<__˜<__—<__` Hard Disk 128
File extension 111 hard drive 49, 60, 64, 69, 70
Filename 113 haystack 208
File type 112 heart of a computer 193
    ·œ¤ Heat Sink 131


_¤_ heat sink and fan (HSF) 132
 __ž Hexadecimal 132
Firewire drives 106 hexadecimal digit 179
Firmware. 115 Hierarchical File System 133
234 Key Concepts in Computer Science

high bandwidth connections 166 J

 Z
!*#”>
—œ
jamming of typebars 198
* Z#
 ‚  -
Java 148, 149
face 130
Java applets 220
hit 134
JavaScript 148, 150
Horizontal Markets Software 134
JPEG 149, 160, 161
HTML (hypertext markup language)
JPEG image 160
209
JRE 149
HTML pages 222, 223
Jumper 150
hyperlink 135, 136
Hypertext 136 K
Hypertext Preprocessor 192
Kernel. 151
I Keyboard Shortcut 152
Keylogger 152
ID number 160
Keywords 153
IEEE 802.11 221
Kilobits Per Second 151
Individuals 156
kilobytes 151, 154
Information and Communication
Technologies 138 L
Input/Output 137
Integrated Development Environ- Last In, First Out 156
ment 139 Latency 155
Intellectual Property 142 LCD monitors 200
Intel processors 222 LDAP 155, 156
Internet Connection Sharing 138 Leaf 156
Internet marketing 6, 7 Link 157
Internet Protocol 144 Linux 184
Intranet 144 Linux enthusiasts 8
introduction of computers 96 Liquid Crystal Display 155
I/O Address 137 LISTSERV 157
 >
 local area network (LAN) 3, 15
system 145 local backbone 21
IPv6 145 Localhost 158
Iteration 146 Logic Gate 159
IT sector 30 Login 160
IVR 146, 147 Lossy compression 160


 ˜˜{
LPI 161
 Index 235

M network backbone transports 21

Network Topology 176
MAC address 162
newer x86 processors 222
Mac and Windows 163
newspaper. 128
Macro 162
New Technology File System 177
magnitude 215
node 176, 177
Malware 163
Novell Netware systems 1
Markup Language 165
Null 178
Mashup 165
Null Character 178
Master boot records (MBRs) 166
number of instructions cycles 132
Mbps 166, 170
number system 132
MCA 166, 167
Nybble 179
measurement of data transfer speed
27 O
Mebibyte 167
Object Linking and Embedding 181
Media Access Control Address 162
Object Management Group (OMG
Megabytes 154
212
Megahertz 168
object-oriented programming 182
Memory 169, 170

[_'{<_'˜
memory management algorithms
one-dimensional array 215
215
Online Analytical Processing 181
metal component 150
Opacity 182, 183
Meta Search Engine 170
Open Database Connectivity 180
Micro Channel Architecture 166
Open Source 183
millions of web pages. 221
operating system 121, 126, 216, 217
Minnesota 118
Organizations 156
Mnemonic 171
organize program code 212
Mobile Ad Hoc Network 164
organize tasks 197
modes of communication 100
original 8086 processor 222
Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic
original size. 160
Learning Environment 173
mouse 204 P
MP3 compression eliminate data
161 Page Orientation 188
muddled operating system 213 Parallel Port 189
Passwords 190
N Payload 191
PCI 191
name server 175
peer-to-peer (P2P) 33
Netscape Communicator 93
performing system 202
236 Key Concepts in Computer Science

Peripheral Component Interconnect schema is a model 205

191 scripting language like PHP 207
Perl 192, 195 search engine 153, 154
Permalink 192 secure digital (SD), 53
permanent link 192 security purpose. 190
pesky pop-up windows 149 Server 206
Portable Document Format 191 signal modulation 24
power supply 213 small bit of computer data 188
printer queue 198 Snippet 206
Processor 193 Social networking 219
program 152, 153 social networking website 108
programming language 148, 149, software application 103
212 software consumes 203
Protocol 194 software developers 203
proxy server 194 software expansion 4
Pseudocode 195 software packages 141
Python 195, 196 software program 28, 33, 40, 43, 45
source code 206, 208
Q
spoken language 208
Quad-Core 197 Spreadsheet 206
quantity of system memory 203 Static and dynamic web pages 221
Query By Example 197 store digital data 98
Query Design View 197 Structured Query Language 207
quicker transfer speeds 204 Sun Microsystems. 148
syntax 205, 208
R Syntax problems 203
Random Access Memory 199 systems administrator 87
recording a macro. 163 T
relational database management sys-
tem 173 TCP/IP 209
Remote Access 200    



Resolution 200 monitors 199
RFID tags 201 technical support 204
root 202 technique of conducting database
row of function keys 152 queries 197
runtime 203 Telnet 210
Terabyte 210
S Text Editor 210
Safe Mode 204 the International Electrotechnical
 Index 237

Commission (IEC) 11 Virtual Reality 216

TIFF 210, 211 >
   _˜
transient network connection 3 Viruses 163
translate the HTML 221 Visual Basic 150
Transmission Control Protocol/In- Vonage. 218
ternet Protocol 209
trees 153
W
typical consumer UPS 213 Web 2.0 219
Web applications 219
U
web browsers 222
UDP transmission 212 Web Host 220
Undo 212 Web pages 205, 206, 207
Uninterruptible Power Supply 213 Website 221
Unix 121 WHOIS lookup tool 175
Unix workstations 213 Wide Area Network 219
upgrading the CPU 199 Wi-Fi Alliance 221
upgrading to DSL 97 Wi-Fi connection 221
URL 213 Wi-Fi enables computers 221
User Datagram Protocol 212 Wi-Fi standard. 23
User Interface 213 Windows key 152
Windows stores 109
V ]
]"%Œ'
VANET (Vehicular Ad Hoc Net- WinZip 224
work) 164 wireless routers 221
VB scripting support 206 ]
?[_'{
VB Scripts 205 World Wide Web’s 219
%$˜_œ
X
% $ ˜_œ
Virtualization 216 XHTML pages 222
virtual memory 216