Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 1–12

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hazardous Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhazmat

Review

Pesticide use and application: An Indian scenario

P.C. Abhilash, Nandita Singh ∗
Eco-Auditing Group, National Botanical Research Institute, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Agricultural development continues to remain the most important objective of Indian planning and pol-
Received 24 April 2008 icy. In the process of development of agriculture, pesticides have become an important tool as a plant
Received in revised form 9 July 2008 protection agent for boosting food production. Further, pesticides play a significant role by keeping many
Accepted 10 October 2008
dreadful diseases. However, exposure to pesticides both occupationally and environmentally causes a
Available online 1 November 2008
range of human health problems. It has been observed that the pesticides exposures are increasingly
linked to immune suppression, hormone disruption, diminished intelligence, reproductive abnormalities
Keywords:
and cancer. Currently, India is the largest producer of pesticides in Asia and ranks twelfth in the world
Pesticide
Agriculture
for the use of pesticides. A vast majority of the population in India is engaged in agriculture and is there-
Application technology fore exposed to the pesticides used in agriculture. Although Indian average consumption of pesticide is
Residue far lower than many other developed economies, the problem of pesticide residue is very high in India.
Pesticide residue in several crops has also affected the export of agricultural commodities in the last few
years. In this context, pesticide safety, regulation of pesticide use, proper application technologies, and
integrated pest management are some of the key strategies for minimizing human exposure to pesticides.
There is a dearth of studies related to these issues in India. Therefore, the thrust of this paper was to review
the technology of application of pesticides in India and recommend future strategies for the rational use
of pesticides and minimizing the problems related to health and environment.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Pesticide usage in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Factors related to pesticide safety in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4. Methods of pesticide application and application equipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5. Factors affecting proper application of pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5.1. Operator knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5.2. Equipment design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.3. Service conditions of equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.4. Weather conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6. Regulations in pesticide application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6.1. Indian scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6.2. International scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7. Problems related to improper pesticide application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
8. Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Abbreviations: BHC, Benzenehexachloride; BIS, Bureau of Indian Standards; CIL, Central Insecticide Laboratory DDT, Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; DPPQS, Direc-
torate of Plant Protection Quarantine & Storage; ILO, International Labor Organization; FAO, Food and Agricultural Organization; FFSs, Farmers Field Schools; GDP, Gross
Domestic Production; GM, crops Genetically Modified crops; HCHs, Hexachlorocycloheaxnes; ICM, Integrated Crop Management; IPM, Integrated Pest Management; KVK,
Krishi Vigyan Kendra; MoH&F, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare; MRL, Maximum Residue Limit; NAMP, National Anti Malaria Program; NIC, National Information
Centre; NPPTI, National Plant Protection Training Institute; PCP, Pentachlorophenol; PCBs, Polychlorinated Biphenyls; RUP, Rational use of Pesticides; SAUs, State Agricultural
Universities; SDoA, State Department of Agriculture; ULV, Ultra Low Volume; UT, Union Territory; WTO, World Trade Organization.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 522 2205831–35x302; fax: +91 522 2205847.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P.C. Abhilash), [email protected] (N. Singh).

0304-3894/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.10.061
2 P.C. Abhilash, N. Singh / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 1–12

8.1. Rational use of pesticides (RUP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

8.2. Integrated pest management (IPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8.3. Continuous monitoring of pesticide residues in agricultural commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8.4. Organic farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8.5. Farmers awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8.6. Additional recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1. Introduction mental compartments. Such residues may be comprised of many

substances, which include any specified derivatives such as degra-
dation products, metabolites and congeners that are considered to
Chemical pesticides have contributed greatly to the increase
be of toxicological significance. According to the Food and Agricul-
of yields in agriculture by controlling pests and diseases and
ture Organization (FAO) inventory [17], more than 500,000 tons of
also towards checking the insect-borne diseases (malaria, dengue,
unused and obsolete pesticides are threatening the environment
encephalitis, filariasis, etc.) in the human health sector [1,2]. The
and public health in many countries. Public concern over pesti-
need to increase world food production for the rapidly growing
cide residue has been increasing during the last decade. Recovering
population is well recognized [3,4]. One of the strategies to increase
from the euphoria of green revolution, India is also now battling
crop productivity is effective pest management because more than
from residual effects of extensively used chemical fertilizers and
45% of annual food production is lost to pest infestation. In tropi-
pesticides such as HCH, DDT, endosulfan, phorate, etc. [2,4,11].
cal countries, crop loss is even more severe because the prevailing
India is predominantly an agrarian society. GDP for agriculture
high temperature and humidity are highly conductive to rapid mul-
and allied sector during 2005–2006 was estimated at Rs. 61 Tril-
tiplication of pests [5,6]. Thus, the application of a wide variety of
lion at current price (USD 130 Billion), which was 19% share in GDP
pesticides on crop plants is necessary in the tropics to combat pests
of total economy [11]. After independence, agriculture in India has
and vector borne diseases. However, the sporadic use has been lead-
undergone significant transformation [18]. The agricultural produc-
ing to significant consequences not only to public health but also
tion increased tremendously due to introduction of high-yielding
to food quality resulting in an impact load on the environment and
varieties, use of agro-chemicals and improved irrigation facilities
hence the development of pest resistance [7]. Through over use
[4]. However, there are several constraints for further increase in
and misuse there is considerable waste, adding to the cost and con-
agricultural production. One of the limiting factors is the increased
tributing to the adverse environmental and health consequences.
incidence of pests and diseases. On the other hand, increased use
Inappropriate application of pesticides affects the whole ecosys-
of chlorinated non-degradable pesticides leave residue in various
tem by entering the residues in food chain and polluting the soil,
living systems for prolonged periods of their span and are presum-
air, ground and surface water [7–9].
ably responsible for a variety of toxic symptoms [19]. Therefore, the
Humans are exposed to pesticides (found in environmental
thrust of this discussion was to review the technology of applica-
media such as soil, water, air and food) by different routes of
tion of pesticides in India and recommend future strategies for the
exposure such as inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact [2].
rational use of pesticides and minimizing the problems related to
Exposure to pesticides results in acute and chronic health problems.
health and environment due to inappropriate application of pesti-
Pesticides being used in agricultural tracts are released into the
cides [12].
environment and come into human contact directly or indirectly
[1]. Increasing incidence of cancer, chronic kidney diseases, sup-
pression of the immune system, sterility among males and females, 2. Pesticide usage in India
endocrine disorders, neurological and behavioral disorders, espe-
cially among children, have been attributed to chronic pesticide The use of synthetic pesticides started in 1948–49 with the use
poisoning [7]. Human health hazards vary with the extent of expo- of DDT for malaria control and BHC for locust control [12,19–23].
sure. Moderate human health hazards from the misapplication of The Indian pesticides production industry started with the setting
pesticides include mild headaches, flu, skin rashes, blurred vision up of a BHC technical plant at Rishra near Kolkata in 1952. Shortly
and other neurological disorders while rare, but severe human after, Hindustan insecticides Ltd. set up two units to manufacture
health hazards include paralysis, blindness and even death [8]. Pes- DDT. In 1969, Union Carbide set up a small plant (Union Carbide
ticide pollution to the local environment also affects the lives of India Ltd (UCIL)) in Bhopal, the capital city of Madhya Pradesh,
birds, wildlife, domestic animals, fish and livestock [10]. The use to formulate pesticides. The Bhopal facility was part of India’s
of un-prescribed pesticides in inappropriate doses is not only dis- green revolution aimed to increase the productivity of crops. The
turbing the soil conditions but is also destroying the healthy pool industry produced various pesticides, mainly sevin brand carbaryl
of bio-control agents that normally co-exist with the vegetation. insecticide and temikcbrand aldicarb pesticide. All the pesticides
These biocontrol agents are the friends of agriculture and hence produced at UCIL were sold in the Indian market. The Union Carbide
need to be nurtured, cared and developed by reducing the reliance continued pesticide production till 1984 Bhopal disaster. Today, the
on chemical’s use in agriculture [11]. Indian pesticides industry comprises of more than 125 basic pro-
Orgnochlorine insecticides, such as DDT, hexachlorocyclohex- ducers of large and medium scale and more than 500 pesticide
ane (HCH), aldrin and dieldrin, are among the most commonly formulations. The pesticide formulation produced in the country
used pesticides in the developing countries of Asia because of their are mainly of the conventional type currently, dusting powder has
low cost and versatility against various pests [3,12,13]. Neverthe- a major share (85%) in the market followed by water-soluble dis-
less, because of their potential for bioaccumulation and biological persible powder (12%) and emulsification concentrates (2%.) The
effects, these compounds were banned in developed nations two use of granules, which are advantageous in terms of lower drift,
and half decades ago [14–16]. Their resistance to degradation has ease of application and safety to operate is still in infancy. Most of
resulted in contamination universally found in many environ- the units are in small scale industry (SSI) sector [19].
 P.C. Abhilash, N. Singh / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 1–12 3

Table 1
Annual pesticide consumption in different countries.

S no. Country Ton a.i. Ton product US$ ‘000 value

1 Bangladesh 3635 22100 75000

2 Cambodia 42 198 226
3 China 258000 1000000 5670000
4 DPR Korea 3000 12000 60000
5 India 41020 164080 820400
6 Rep. of Korea 26610 100000 842638
7 Lao PDR 10 40 200
8 Malaysia 51065 204260 85020
9 Myanmar 758 3030 15095
10 Nepal 145 580 2100
11 Pakistan 32500 129589 172300
12 Philippines 7934 31735 158675
13 Sri Lanka 1696 6329 49000
14 Thailand 49108 132509 253537
15 Vietnam 24473 50000 159000
Fig. 1. Comparison of pesticide use in India and worldwide.

India is one of the few remaining countries still engaged in the ment for insects coupled with shorter life cycle and higher hatching
large scale manufacture, use and export of some of the toxic chlo- rate. Organophosphorous compounds have overtaken organochlo-
rinated pesticides, such as p,p -dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane rine compounds as the most used insecticides in the recent decade
(DDT), hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and pentachlorophenol [26]. Phorate is amongst several systemic compounds, which is
(PCP). Even in the 1990s more than 70% of the gross tonnage generally applied near to roots of seedling plants to give protec-
of pesticides used in agricultural applications in India consisted tion against aphides and viral disease. Carbamate and pyrethroid
of formulations which are banned or severely restricted in the insecticides are frequently employed to control insects. These pes-
east and west [20–24]. According to a Green Peace Report, ticides are particularly useful for dealing with aphides and other
India is now producing 90,000 metric tons of pesticides as the pest, which have developed resistance to organophosphorus com-
largest industry in the whole of Asia and twelfth largest in the pounds. Permethrin is a pyrethroid insecticide with a high level
entire world (http://www.greenpeaceindia.org.nopesti.htm). The of activity against lepidopterous pests. It is also effective against a
cumulative consumption of the pesticide, hexachlorocyclohexane wide range of Hemiptera, Diptera and Coleoptera. The compound
(HCHs), in India until 1985 was 575,000 tons and since then about is a both stomach and a contact insecticide, and shows adultici-
45,000 tons of HCHs has been used annually [25]. The usage of DDT dal, ovicidal and, particularly, larviicdal activity [34,35]. Pesticides
and HCH continued till recently [12,26]. Apart from the US, India is commonly used in India are presented in Table 2.
the only country which has applied more than 100,000 tons of DDTs The changes brought about during modernization of agriculture
since its formulation, mainly in its agricultural and malarial control have directly or indirectly led to increased incidences of pests and
programs until it was banned for agricultural use in 1989 [10,27]. diseases [36]. For instance, areas under crops such as coarse cere-
Even though usage of technical HCH was finally banned completely als, small millets and barley are decreasing whereas monoculture
in 1977 [28–31], the Government of India is encouraging its replace- and continuous cultivation of paddy, cotton and other commercial
ment with Lindane (␥-HCH), an isomer which has all the hazardous crops are increasing [19]. However, there has been an increase in
properties of HCH. Even though DDT has been banned for agricul- number of species as well as absolute number of pests attacking
tural use, India has sought exemption under Stockholm Convention
for use of 10,000 tons of DDT for restricted use in the public health Table 2
sector [13]. The national malaria program (NAMP) used 3750 tons Pesticides commonly used in India.
of DDT in the year 2001, in rural and peri-urban areas for residual
Pesticide: common name Chemical family
spraying [12].
The pattern of pesticide use differs significantly between the I a Extremely hazardousa
1. Phorate Organophosphate
countries (Table 1). The worldwide consumption of pesticide is
I b Highly hazardousa
about two million tons per year, of which 24% is consumed in 2 Monocrotophos Organophosphate
the USA alone, 45% in Europe and 25% in the rest of the world. 3 Profenofos & Cypermethrin Combination pesticide
The usage of pesticides in India is only 0.5 kg ha−1 , while in Korea 4 Carbofuran Carbamate
and Japan, it is 6.6 and 12.0 kg ha−1 , respectively. Among the vari- II Moderately hazardousa
ous pesticides used in India, 40% of all the pesticides used belong 5 Dimethoate Organophosphate
to organochlroine class of chemical pesticides [3,12,32]. The other 6 Quinalphos Organophosphate
7 Endosulphan Organochlorine
major category is organophosphate pesticides. Monocrotophos,
8 Carbaryl Carbamate
phorate, phosphamidon, methyl parathion and dimethoate are 9 Chlorpyrifos Organophosphate
some of highly hazardous pesticides that are continually and indis- 10 Cyhalothrin Pyrethroid
criminately used in India. The three commonly used pesticides, 11 Fenthion Organophosphate
lindane (␥-HCH), DDT and malathion account for 70% of the total 12 DDT Organochlorine
13 Lindane Organochlorine
pesticides consumption. Regarding the usage of technical pesti-
cides, insecticides account for 80% of total pesticide used in the III Slightly hazardousa
14 Malathion
country, followed by herbicides and fungicides (Fig. 1). Globally
herbicides are the leading category followed by insecticides and IV Unlikely to present acute hazard in normal usea
fungicides. In India, the share of herbicides is insignificant [33] .The 15 Carbendazim Carbamate
16 Atrazine Triazine
higher consumption of insecticides is partially due to warm humid
a
and tropical climate which provides favorable breeding environ- WHO classification [54].
4 P.C. Abhilash, N. Singh / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 1–12

Table 3 • Wrong application practices, such as use of same concentration

Usage of pesticides in India [12].
mixture for different sprayers and measurement of dosage by
Sector Use own convenient scale
• Poor or faulty application equipment
Agriculture For control of pests, weeds,
rodents, etc. • Long hours of spraying
Public health For control of malaria, • Smoking or chewing betel while spraying
filariasis, dengue fever, • Poor regulation and easy availability of hazardous pesticides,
Japanese encephalitis,
including sales by untrained dealers
cholera, and louse-borne
typhus
• Lack of personal protective equipment (boots, gloves and glasses),
which are costly and not adapted to a tropical climate
Other than agriculture and public health
• Lack of suitable washing facilities for workers
Industrial Control of vegetation in
forests and factory sites, • Demand for containers, leading to reuse of poorly cleansed pes-
fumigation of buildings and ticide bottles, barrels or cans
ships • Poor household storage and disposal
Domestic Household and garden spray, • Lack of health centers, medical facilities, antidotes and poison
control of ecto-parasites,
animals and birds treatment centers, as well as confusion of symptoms of pesticide
Personal Application of clothing and poisoning with common illness
skin care (Pediculicdes,
Scabicides, etc.)
The above safety factors clearly indicate that risks from pes-
Material building Incorporation of paints, glues,
plastic protection, sheeting, ticides in India are considerable higher than in industrialized
foundation of buildings, etc. countries.

4. Methods of pesticide application and application

the economically important crops. Pesticide use is high in regions equipments
with good irrigation facilities and in certain areas where commer-
cial crops are grown. Cotton is one crop which is grown only on 5% Some common types of application methods used in India are:
of he cultivated areas, but consumes 45% of total pesticides used in
the country (Table 3). The use of pesticides is high in few parts of the • Seed treatment
country such as Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat • Soil treatment
and Punjab [11]. Andhra Pradesh and Punjab consume major quan- • Foliar treatment
tity of pesticides. Pesticides account for 40–50%, 25% and 38% of
cost of cultivation for cotton, paddy and cole crops, respectively. Pesticides application equipment used in the country are
The cropped area wise pesticide shares of major Indian crops are mostly portable equipments which are manually operated. Trac-
depicted in Table 4. tor mounted techniques have been used only for big farms and
air crafts have been used selectively on high value crops. In India,
3. Factors related to pesticide safety in India most commonly used equipment is hand carried lever operated
knapsack sprayer which is not very well designed [16,19]. A study
Pesticides must be used with care, but in many developing coun- has revealed that two third of the users have experienced various
tries in the third world and even in some developed countries many problems with this equipment during spraying. The most common
factors make safety impossible [8,18,19,33,37–42]. The major agri- problems identified were replacement of the piston and clogging
culture practices and related factors relevant to pesticide usage and of the nozzles. Though this equipment is affordable to most of the
safety measures in India are enumerated below: farmers, it lacks maintenance and safety considerations. The other
equipment used are hand compression sprayers, tree sprayers mist
• Lack of training in pesticide use blowers cum duster, tree sprayers, thermal foggers, and ultra low
• Ignorance about potential dangers to health and environment volume (ULV) applications (spinning disc sprayers). Studies show
• Poor literacy, which makes it impossible to read or follow complex that spinning disc sprayers are second in use after the hand com-
label instructions pression sprayers. Insecticides are the most common pesticides for
• Inappropriate mixing (insecticides combinations i.e. mixing of a spinning disc sprayer followed by herbicides [19–23].
two insecticides without technical advice)and application meth-
ods 5. Factors affecting proper application of pesticides
• Repeated application of pesticides and application of same pes-
ticides at all stage of life cycle While modern pesticides have reached country, the technology
• Over application of pesticides used for their application has not been upgraded, resulting in a
waste of pesticides and unnecessary environmental contamination.
Reports indicate that changing the design of nozzles of lever oper-
Table 4
Cropped area wise pesticide share of major Indian crops.
ated knapsack sprayers could save 70% of pesticides compared to
the farmer’s previous practice [18,19]. The major factors affecting
Crops Pesticide share (%) Cropped area (%) the proper application of pesticides are discussed below.
Cotton 45 5
Rice 20 24
5.1. Operator knowledge
Chilies/vegetables/fruits 13–24 3
Plantation 7–8 2
Cereals/Millets/Oil seeds 6–7 58 Farmers and sprayers equipment operators still have wrong
Sugarcane 2–3 2 notion that high volumes, high pressure and high doses being per-
Others 1–2 6 ceived as the most appropriate ways for pesticide application.
 P.C. Abhilash, N. Singh / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 1–12 5

5.2. Equipment design Table 5

Major pesticide control legislations in India [44–47].

As the application equipment market in India insists on lower S no. Legislation Regulatory body
costs and does not demand quality, manufactures are not encour- 1 Insecticide Act, 1968 and Ministry of Agriculture
aged to offer equipment with any extras to improve safety, the Insecticides Rules, 1971 Department of Agriculture
durability, comfort or efficiency, not considered essential for & Cooperation
smooth functioning of the equipment. Further, as the market insists 2 Environment Protection Ministry of Environment &
Act, 1986 Forest
on lower costs, inferior materials are often used. Examples include
3 Prevention of Food Ministry of Health & Family
tanks with rough surfaces, hoses or washers not being pesticide Adulteration Act, 1954 Welfare
proof and crimped hose clips [23]. This sort of equipment competes
on the market, as it sold at very low price difficult to be matched
by quality equipment. part of the pesticide industry operate outside its watchful eye. Not
only every pesticide product is manufactured, imported or used in
5.3. Service conditions of equipment India required to be registered with the Central Insecticides Board,
any body selling, stocking or distributing pesticides products, also
Usually the major part of the spraying equipment in use is requires a license. The act also allows the Board to ban or restrict
in extremely poor condition, due to lack of maintenance. A high the use of any pesticide product. Accordingly, the Government has
percentage of farmers never change sealing washers in their equip- banned the use of more than 30 pesticides, restricted the use of
ment. As a result, most of the spray equipment leaks [23]. Nozzles 7 pesticides including DDT, and refused registration for 18 pesti-
are normally not replaced and are even enlarged on purpose to cides. India also has a BIS standard (Bureau of Indian standard) for
achieve higher flow rates. The distribution patterns under these pesticide application equipment. However, implementation of leg-
conditions are uneven; leaving sections with no pesticide coverage islations and standards at field level needs to be strengthened to
and others receiving overdoses [18,19]. prevent misuse and inappropriate use of pesticides with equipment
that does not meet the minimum of quality standards.
5.4. Weather conditions Under the Insecticide Act, compulsory registration of pesticides
is provided. The use of chemical pesticides can be initiated only
Accurate timing of pesticide applications is a critical component after the proper registration by the Registration Committee, after
in obtaining the best results possible from pest control products close scrutiny of the data about bio-efficacy and safety of human
[43]. Timing decision may simultaneously incorporate multiple beings, wildlife, birds, domestic animals, beneficial parasites and
variables. Weather conditions play a major factor in affecting tim- predators. The Insecticide Rules takes care of the safety culture in
ing decisions; these conditions also play a significant role in the pesticide handling and use. It covers periodical clothing, respiratory
occurrence of spray drift. Spray drift is a major concern because devices, antidotes and first aid medicines, training of workers and
it diverts the pesticide from the intended target, reduces efficacy, disposal of used packages, surplus materials and washing of insecti-
and deposits pesticide where it is not needed or wanted. The fac- cides. The Registration Committee reviews the pesticide from time
tors influence spray drift contamination are: operating pressure; to time and the recommendations are considered by the Ministry of
nozzle, type, orientation, orifice size, wind speed, wind direction, Agriculture. The committee as the policy has decided not to register
temperature, relative humidity and atmospheric stability. When a WHO class IA and IB pesticide unless there is sufficient justification.
pesticide drifts, it may cause both environmental and economic The Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage (DPPQS)
damage through injury to susceptible vegetation, harm to wildlife, has good schemes for training at the state level. Besides, training is
deposition of illegal residues on crops, and contamination of water imparted to the doctors of health centers of states by the medical
supplies. Many pest control product labels contain either guidance experts of the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage.
or specific instructions regarding suitable environmental condi- The National Plant Protection Training Institute (NPPTI) at Hyder-
tions and application timing. While following the label instructions abad imparts training to the State Plant Protection functionaries.
to the letter may not guarantee applicator’s freedom from inadver- Farmers Field Schools (FFS) are regularly organized under the IPM
tent economic or environmental damage, these directions are based programme in addition to season-long training for Masters Trainers
on both generic drift studies and specific product tests. Hence, under which State Extension Functionaries are trained for full crop-
applicators should monitor and make accurate records of weather ping periods of various crops. State Agricultural Universities (SAUs),
conditions at application time both to reduce liability and make Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), and State Department of Agriculture
better decisions regarding timing of the application [43]. (SDA) also organize training to farmers on safe use of pesticides.
For the enforcement of the quality of pesticides, four important
6. Regulations in pesticide application functionaries are notified under the provisions of the Insecticide
Act/Rules viz., Licensing Officers, Appellate Authority, Insecticide
6.1. Indian scenario Inspectors and Insecticide Analysts. A network of 46 pesticides test-
ing laboratories, situated in 18 States and 1 Union Territory across
In the regulation of pesticide application, government bodies the length and breadth of the country, with an annual analysis
have an important and major role because both producers and users capacity of over 55,666 samples of pesticides is available in the
are not likely to limit themselves in the sales and use of pesticides country for continuously monitoring the quality of pesticides. One
[44–47] (Table 5). Quality control of pesticides is ensured through of the notified functionaries of the Government, Insecticide Inspec-
a rigorous registration procedure requiring testing in four differ- tors can enter and search, at all reasonable times and with such
ent climatic conditions and making available toxicological data in assistance as he considers necessary in which he has the reason
Indian conditions. The import, manufacture, sale, transport, use, to believe that an offence under the Insecticides Act, 1968 and the
etc. of pesticides is being regulated under a comprehensive statute Rules made there under has been or is being or is about to be com-
‘The insecticides act, 1968’ and the rules framed there under, to mitted, or for the purpose of satisfying himself that the provisions
ensure availability of quality, safe and efficacious pesticides to the of this Act or the Rules made there under or the conditions of any
farming community, comprehensive regulations to ensure that no certificate of registration or license issued there under are being
6 P.C. Abhilash, N. Singh / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 1–12

Table 6
International instruments concerning pesticide use and application [48–58].

S no. Convention Adopted Entry into force Number of parties Remarks

Legally binding
1 Rotterdam Convention on the Prior 1988 2004 117 Substances covered: specific types of
informed Consent Procedure for pesticides (24 pesticides and 4 severely
Certain Hazardous Pesticides and hazardous pesticide formulations) and 11
Industrial Chemicals in International industrial chemicals
Trade
2 Stockholm Convention on Persistent 2001 2004 149 Substances covered: persistent organic
Organic Pollutants pesticides (9 of which are pesticides)
3 Basel Convention on the 1989 1992 170 Substances covered: hazardous wastes
Transboundary Movement of including pesticides, including pesticides at the
Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal end stages of their life cycle
4 Montreal protocol on Substances that 1987 1989 191 Substances covered: methyl bromide, a specific
Deplete Ozone Layer type of pesticides, which is also an
ozone-depleting substances
5 ILO Convention on Safety and Health in 2001 2003 8 Substances covered: not specified, addresses
Agriculture, No. 184 all aspects of health and safety for chemicals
used in agriculture
6 ILO Convention concerning Safety in 1990 1993 15 Substances covered: (hazardous) chemicals
the use of chemicals at Work, No. 170 used in all kinds of economic activities

Voluntary
1 FAO International Code of Conduct on Adopted, 1985 Substances covered: pesticides (broadly
the Distribution and Use of Pesticide Revised; 2002 defined)

Selected FAO Guidelines to the Code of Conduct

1 Glossary of terms and definitions for the guidelines in support of the code of conduct (continuously updated)
2 Guidelines on monitoring and observance of code of conduct (2006)
3 Legislation on the control of pesticides (1989)
4 Manual on submission and evaluation of pesticide residues data for the estimation of maximum residue limits in food and feed (2002)
5 Initial introduction and subsequent development of a simple national pesticide Registration and Control Schemes (1991)
6 Addenda to the registration and control of pesticides (1988)
7 The registration and control of pesticides (1985)
8 Guidelines on efficacy data for the registration of pesticides for plant protection (1985)
9 Guidelines on good labeling practices for pesticides (1995)
10 Guidelines for the packaging and storage of pesticides (1985)
11 Guidelines on procedures for the registration, certification and testing of new pesticide application equipment (2001)
12 Guidelines on compliance and enforcement of pesticide regulatory program (2006)
13 Pesticide storage and stock control manual (1996)
14 Provisional guidelines on tender procedures on the procurement of pesticides (1994)
15 Guidelines for retail distribution of pesticides with particular reference to storage and handling at the point of supply to users in developing countries (1988)
16 Guidelines on good practices for aerial application of pesticides (2001)
17 Guidelines on good practices for good application of pesticides (2001)
18 Guidelines on personal protection when working with pesticides in tropical climate (1990)
19 Guidelines on organizational and operational training schemes and certification procedures for operators of pesticide application equipment (2001)
20 Guidelines on the management and disposal of used containers (2007)
21 Guidelines for the management of small quantities of unwanted and obsolete pesticides (1999)
22 Guidelines on disposal of bulk quantities of obsolete pesticides in developing countries (1996)
23 Provisional guidelines on prevention of accumulation of obsolete stocks (1995)
24 Guidelines on post registration surveillance and other activities in the field of pesticides (1988)

complied with. Insecticide Inspectors also draw samples of pes- While registration of pesticide under the Insecticide Act 1968 for
ticides, Insecticide analysts, carry out their analysis. Besides, the use in the county, it is ensured that no residue of pesticide is left at
Central Government has also established two regional pesticides the time of harvest of the crop. The maximum residual limits (MRL)
testing laboratories to supplement the resources of the States/UTs, are fixed by Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MOH&F) under the
who do not either, have a pesticide testing laboratory or adequate Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFAA) 1954 on the basis of the
analysis capacity or adequate analysis facility for monitoring the residue and the toxicological information provided by the Ministry
quality of pesticides. Any disputes in the results of analysis are of Agriculture and thus the monitoring of the pesticide residues fall
settled by a referral laboratory of the Central Government, called under the preview of the MOH&F. However, Directorate of Agricul-
the Central Insecticides Laboratory (CIL). In order to strengthen the ture & Co-operation has been allocated the pesticide monitoring
existing laboratories and to set up new pesticides testing labora- recently. A central Scheme “monitoring of pesticide residues” have
tories, the Central Government also extends financial assistance been formulated/approved with an objective to ascertain the preva-
to the States/UTs as grants-in-aid. Besides, State Governments also lence of pesticide residues at farm-gate and market yards so that
establish additional Pesticides Testing Laboratories with their own remedial measures could be undertaken through IPM campaign to
resources. eliminate the risk of pesticide residues from agricultural commodi-
India has four poison information centers including the National ties with special emphasis on export products.
Information Centre (NIC) at All India Institute of Medical Science
in New Delhi. The Poison Information Centre is a specialized unit 6.2. International scenario
providing information on prevention, treatment of poisoning and
hazard management. The information on poisoning due to pesti- Pesticides have traditionally being the object of international
cide is regularly collected and discussed in the national conferences. legislation in several fields (Table 6). Laws and regulations on
 P.C. Abhilash, N. Singh / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 1–12 7

Fig. 2. Pesticide application without personal protection. A farmer is going to apply weedicide (without protective mask, clothes and gloves) against Salvinia molesta in
Vemband lake, Kerala, South India (Photo credit: Sylas V.P., Doctoral Fellow, School of Environmental Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala).

human health, environmental protection, agricultural practices, 7. Problems related to improper pesticide application
international trade and border control all address the proper use,
manufacture, export, import and application technologies for pes- Although India has national standards for spray equipment,
ticides [13,14,36]. The international code of conduct and use of which are followed by the major manufactures, there are still many
pesticides (Code of Conduct), adopted in 1985 by the 23rd ses- manufactures serving local needs that do not comply with quality
sion of the main governing body of the Food and Agriculture standards [3,19,23]. Pilot study in select hot spots in various parts of
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), was formulated to pro- the country has indicated that substantial amount of applied pesti-
vide universal standards of conduct for all parties, but especially cides are wasted due to poor spraying machinery and inappropriate
national governments and pesticide industry. Since then, the code application. In the hot spots studied, much of the spraying equip-
of conduct has been amended once, in 1989, to include the prior ment was in extremely poor condition. Nozzles were normally not
informed consent procedure, and revised in 2002. Since 1985, sev- replaced and were even enlarged on purpose to achieve higher flow
eral other international instruments, either dealing explicitly with rates and most of the farmers were not trained in safety aspects.
pesticides or indirectly relating to their management, have come Also high levels of pesticide residues in food crops, compared to
into force. The most relevant include the Rotterdam convention on the world average, are reported from various parts of the country
the prior informed consent procedure, for certain hazardous chem- [16]. This is an indication that pesticides were used in a wrong way.
icals and pesticides in international trade (Rotterdam convention), Most of the farmers use locally made spraying equipment which
the Stockholm convention on persistent organic pollutants (Stock- does not have adequate safeguard and is least durable. This sprayer
holm convention), the Basel convention on the transboundary develops cracks and leaks quite frequently. The use of protective
movement of hazardous wastes and their disposal (Basel con- clothing, masks or gloves is also very rare. (Fig. 2). Further, farm-
vention), the Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ers are ignorant about proper use and efficient application. They
ozone layer (Montreal protocol), the International Labor Organi- are unable to distinguish one pest from other and use wrong or
zation convention No. 184 on safety and health in agriculture (ILO improperly maintained nozzles. Further, the study has revealed that
convention 184) and numerous standards on pesticide residues in farmers are mixing the pesticides that should not be mixed and are
food issues by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Furthermore, using ultra low volume formulations for knapsack sprayers. The
a new globally harmonized system of classification and labeling equipment of the farmers is not properly maintained and proper
of chemicals (GHS) has been designed to improve the protection cleansing and correct handling has not been done. Farmers are also
of human health and the environment during the handling, trans- not aware of the specific doses of the pesticides to use them in cost
port and use of chemicals. However, it is very important to note effective manner. The selection of the equipment is also not appro-
that legislation alone is unlikely to balance effective pesticide man- priate in many cases. For instance, the equipment such as knapsack
agement with an environmentally sustainable approach to pest sprayers that needs considerable amount of water per hectare has
control. Governments should consider adopting other policies and also been used even in water scarce areas [23,32].
strategies to improve pesticide management, such as providing Malpractice in pesticide application attributes greatly to the
farmers with support and training in integrated pest management environmental and health hazard. Experiences with farmers on
(IPM), allocating subsidies for the purchase of minimum-risk prod- health implications of pesticides in Punjab revealed that inci-
ucts and fostering scientific research, public education campaigns dences of occurrence of cancer, kidney failure, still birth, infertility,
and training for both inspectors and professional users. A solid leg- etc. have been substantially increased [59–63]. There have been
islative and regulatory framework, however, underpins all of these a number of outbreaks of accidental poisoning that deserves spe-
[36,47–58]. cial mention [34,64]. In India, the first report of poisoning due to
8 P.C. Abhilash, N. Singh / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 1–12

Table 7 Apart from these, numbers of recent studies are coming with the
Average daily intake of organochlorine pesticides in various states of India.
health implications of pesticide workers and susceptible general
Location Pesticidesa Reference populations in India [137–144]. More than twenty years of aerial
Gujarat (1980s) HCH (23); DDT (141) [128]
spraying of endosulfan for cashew nut production, in the govern-
Punjab (1980–1981) HCH (125), ␥-HCH (23), DDT [60] ment owned Plantation Corporation of Kerala, South India, has been
(vegetarian) (239) linked to massive health problems from horrendous birth defects to
Punjab (1980–1981) HCH (134), ␥-HCH (22), DDT [60] cancers and deaths in the communities around the Kasargod Dis-
(non-vegetarian) (225)
trict, Kerala. People residing in the villages within the plantation
Uttar Pradesh (1981–1983) HCH (1290), ␥-HCH (190), DDT [114]
(200) have been afflicted with different kinds of illnesses [138,145–149].
Gujarat (1990s) HCH (77), DDT (20) [124] People also noticed the death of fishes, honeybees, frogs, birds,
Punjab (1999–2000) ␥-HCH (599.5) [62] chicken and even cows. The illnesses observed from the villages of
(vegetarian diet)
Kasargod district are to be expected from the known intrinsic tox-
Punjab (2001) (vegetarian diet) ␥-HCH (163.5), DDT (2.2) [62]
Punjab (2002) (vegetarian diet) ␥-HCH (27.2), DDT (8.17) [62]
icologic properties of endosulfan. There is no evidence that other
Punjab (2001) (non-vegetarian ␥-HCH (163.5), DDT (13.6) [62] environmental toxicants that might possibly explain the observed
diet) health problems are presenting in the affected areas. There has been
Punjab (2002) (non-vegetarian ␥-HCH (81.7), DDT (27.2) [62] no other pesticide, not even household pesticides that have been
diet)
used except endosulfan. There are no industrial activities at or near
a
Results in parenthesis are the ADI (average daily intake; ␮g person−1 ) value. the areas affected. The preponderance of neurologic and mental ill-
nesses among the reported health problems is compatible with the
fact that endosulfan is a known neurotoxicant, blocks the inhibitory
receptors of the central nervous system, disrupts the ionic chan-
pesticides was from Kerala in 1958, where over 100 people died nels, and destroy the integrity of the nerve cells [149]. Apart from its
after consuming wheat flour contaminated with parathion [65]. capacity to directly damage the nervous system [146], endosulfan is
The chemical used was ethyl parathion known as Folidol E 605, was also an endocrine disruptor [148]. Even low levels of exposure dur-
introduced by Bayer. In the same year poisoning in Kerala caused ing pregnancy could result in various forms of endocrine disrupting
deaths of 102 people. This was mainly due to careless handling and effects in the offspring, including mental retardation, reproductive
storage of wheat. Subsequently, several cases of human and animal organ anomalies, developmental disorders, behavioral disorders
poisonings, besides deaths of birds and fishes, have been reported. later in life and many others [147].
In general, it has been observed that organophosphorus pesticides It could be inferred from above that the problems directly relat-
are responsible for death in more than 70% cases [12,65]. The 1984 ing to pesticides application technique and equipment such as
Bhopal tragedy was the world worst industrial disaster. On the night unavailability of standard equipment and appropriate pesticides,
of December 2 and 3, 1984, a Union Carbide plant in Bhopal, began poor maintenance of equipment, misdirected and wrong targeted
leaking 27 tons of the deadly gas methyl isocyanate (MIC). None of application of pesticides and malpractices in pesticide application
the six safety systems designed to contain such a leak were oper- have a spiraling effect and result in some associated problems
ational, allowing the gas to spread throughout the city of Bhopal. having severe socio-ecological implications such as intoxication,
Half a million people were exposed to the gas and 20,000 have died poisoning and environmental hazard.
to date as a result of their exposure. More than 120,000 people still
suffer from ailments caused by the accident and the subsequent
8. Recommendations
pollution at the plant site.
Several reports are available for the occurrence of pesticides in
Pesticides are widely used chemical substances throughout
various environmental compartments. Recently, four hexachloro-
the world in agriculture and public health. Because of their high
cyclohexane isomers in eight plant species growing in an industrial
biological activity, and in some cases of their persistence in the
premise have been reported having high concentrations in Withania
environment, the use of pesticides may cause undesired effects on
somnifera (L) Dunal and Solanum torvum [66,67]. Tanabe et al. [68]
human health and to environment. On the other hand, pesticides
and Takeoka et al. [69] evaluated the transport of HCHs from land
play a significant role in rural health program comprises of the con-
to sea in a paddy field and adjoining estuarine systems in southern
trol of biting, noxious, irritating, annoying or contaminating insects
India and found out that major portion of the HCHs used is removed
and other pests, which infest human and animals. Pesticide residue
to the air and contribute both to the regional and global pollution.
in food and feed crops, meat and poultry, fish and aquaculture as
A series of studies from other workers showed the existence of var-
well as milk products generally arise from their indiscriminate use
ious pesticides in samples of air [70–73], water [70,74–85], soil and
in agriculture and public health. Fortunately, there are encourag-
sediments [69–70,86–98] wildlife including dolphins, sharks and
ing trends towards phasing out the toxic and persistent group of
mussels [99–107], fish [106,108,109] birds [88,110–112] and food
pesticides. Some new molecules are being developed which are
stuffs [113–129] from India. Average daily intake of organochlorine
biodegradable and having low mammalian toxicity, low residual
pesticides in various states of India is summarized in Table 7. Many
life and better compatibility with non-target organisms. Some of
of the above studies in the past two decades have shown that India
the other alternatives include:
has the highest concentrations of HCHs in its environmental and
biological samples than in several other countries. Li et al. [31] has
stated that India is one of the greatest consumers of HCHs and the (i) Regulating pesticide use
most contaminated nation in the world. As a result of intensive (ii) Use of biotechnology (Developing GM crops based on trans-
application, relatively high levels of HCHs and DDTs were observed genic technology) to combat bacterial, fungal and viral diseases
in the Indian environment and biota. Especially the finding of per- [150],
sistent organochlorine residues like DDTs, HCHs and PCBs in human (iii) Encourage eco-friendly cultivation practices include polycul-
breast milk [130–136] is of particular concern because infants and ture (growing multiple types of plants) and crop rotation.
children may be susceptible to the toxic implications of any toxicant (iv) Use of trap crops that attracts pests away from the real crop
than the adults. (sex pheromones)
 P.C. Abhilash, N. Singh / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 1–12 9

organizations, central and state agricultural institute in providing

such support services. The Governments efforts should be to pro-
vide new, safer and efficacious quality pesticide products to the
farmers and encourage the use of bio-pesticides and bio-control
agents. The IPM future thrust areas are listed below:

• Constitution of more intensive field based trainings and demon-

strations for Human Resource Development on IPM.
• Establishment and strengthening of more biocontrol laboratories
in the States for augmenting the biocontrol potential.
• Conservation of the naturally occurring biocontrol agents by dis-
couraging the use of broad spectrum and hazardous chemical
pesticides.
• Sustained publicity through electronic; and print media for cre-
ating greater awareness among the public/farmers.
• Encouragement to NGOs and women organizations for their
greater participation in the promotion of IPM.
• Perspective National Plan for IPM is being prepared.
• Computer networking of all Biocontrol Units present in the
country with Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Stor-
age/DAC, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi is required.
• Expert team report on use of remote sensing technol-
Fig. 3. Critical factors affecting the safety of pesticide application. Benefits of RPU ogy in Plant Protection has been received. Initially, the
are operator safety, reduced pesticide cost or equivalent cost with reduced environ-
expert team has recommended taking up the studies in
mental impact and pesticide resistance management.
Rajasthan/Haryana/Punjab/Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• Working group has been constituted to recommend the pest
(v) Use of self-micro-encapsulated pesticides and bacteria as well monitoring strategy in future.
as encapsulated pesticide granules and powders, aimed at pro-
viding specific releases rate. 8.3. Continuous monitoring of pesticide residues in agricultural
(vi) Use of bio-pesticides i.e. use of enemies of insect pests such as commodities
parasitoids, predators and insect pathogens, use of pesticides
obtained from natural plant products such as neem extracts, In view of the WTO and sanitary and phytosanitary agreements,
tobacco extracts, garlic extracts, etc. international trade is likely to increase and pesticides residue cer-
tificate on agricultural commodities would become unavoidable.
8.1. Rational use of pesticides (RUP) Therefore, emphasis should be given to establish additional facili-
ties (all over the country) for pesticide residue testing in agricultural
The concept of rational use of pesticide (RUP) was coined in the commodities being imported or exported and also for the regular
title of a book by Brent & Atkin [151]. Rational pesticide use (Fig. 3) monitoring in all agricultural commodities marketed within the
can be defined as a focused sub-set of integrated crop management country. Besides, the facilities for pesticide quality testing would
and integrated pest management, which attempts to mitigate the be developed and strengthened to enforce the quality control for
adverse effects of pesticide use by improvements in the selectivity manufacture and marketing of pesticides.
of the products themselves and the precision of their applica-
tion in both space and time. The benefits of RPU are maximized 8.4. Organic farming
with a combination of all three, and the potential benefits include:
reduction of costs (for both pesticides and labour), improved safety One alternative to synthetic pesticide use is organic farming.
and reduced environmental impact (through more efficient use of Organic agriculture and food processing practices are being widely
sprays and the use of specific agents, including biopesticides). used in developed countries and overall seeks the development of
a food production system that is socially, ecologically and econom-
8.2. Integrated pest management (IPM) ically sustainable. The key principles and practices of organic food
production aims to encourage and enhance biological cycles within
Concern about the adverse effects of chemical pesticides due to farming systems to maintain and increase long time fertility of soil,
their indiscriminate use is growing. The integrated pest manage- to minimize all forms of pollution caused by fertilizers and pes-
ment (IPM) approach, being promoted since 1985, is an eco-friendly ticides and to produce food of high quality in sufficient quantity.
strategy of pest containment by exploiting the role of natural However, this process is costly, labor intensive, and in some cases
agents/forces in harmony with other pest management tactics ineffective.
and with the sole aim to effect minimum disturbance to environ-
ment. Cultural control, use of natural enemies and plant resistant 8.5. Farmers awareness
are basically compatible and supportive tactics in the IPM strat-
egy. Strengthening of IPM infrastructure, especially for surveillance The dangers of acute pesticide poisoning are well known to
and forecasting the outbreak of pests and diseases and produc- Indian farmers, but the need is to highlight the chronic exposure
tion/multiplication of bio-control agents for filed use, should be which can cause many neurological diseases. The current need is to
given adequate attention. Besides, reliable methods of forecast- address the awareness for long term moderate exposure. Further,
ing should be developed and efforts should be make bio-control Indian farmers are lagging behind in the use of new application
agents available on demand to farmers to help them adopt IPM technologies for pesticides spraying. The crux of the problem is that
in the true spirit by encouraging the private sector, Government though, the technology is available in the country and is being used
10 P.C. Abhilash, N. Singh / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 1–12

by few progressive farmers, majority of them are not in a position to [7] N.P. Agnihotri, Pesticide Safety and Monitoring, All India Coordinated Research
implement these new technologies either due to lack of awareness Project on Pesticides Residues, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New
Delhi, India, 1999.
or means. The farmers need to be educated by the crop protec- [8] ICAR, Report of the Special Committee on Harmful Effects of Pesticides, ICAR,
tion industry sine they are the main end-users of the products. New Delhi, 1967, p. 78.
This realization leads to development of indigenous technology as [9] UN/DESA, Changing Unsustainable Patterns of Consumption and Production,
Johannesburg Plan on Implementation of the World summit on Sustainable
required by the farmers [152–155]. Farmers in their quests to con- Development, Johannesburg, 2002 (Chapter III).
trolling pests and increasing yields ignore the problems of health [10] Anonymous, Survey of the Environment, The Hindu, 1991.
and environment hazard. [11] Government of India, Eleventh Five-Year Plan: 2008–2012, Planning Com-
mission of India, New Delhi, 2008, http://planningcommission.nic.in/
plans/planrel/fiveyr/welcome.html.
8.6. Additional recommendations [12] P.K. Gupta, Pesticide exposure—Indian scene, Toxicology 198 (2004) 83–
90.
[13] P. Lallas, The Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants, Am. J.
Recommendations relating to minimizing the problems related
Int. Law 95 (2001) 692–708.
to health and environment due to inappropriate application of pes- [14] Rotterdam Convention Secretariat, Guideline on the Development of National
ticide are: Laws to Implement the Rotterdam Convention, Rome/Geneva, 2004 (revised
2005).
[15] F. Thullner, Impact of pesticide resistance and network for global pesticide
• A multidisciplinary integrated approach involving toxicology, management based on a regional structure, World Anim. Health Rev. 89 (1997)
epidemiology, physiology and behavioral sciences to appreciate 41.
the hazards and plan the preventive strategies need to be devel- [16] World Bank, Toxics and Poverty: The Impact of Toxic Substances on the Poor
in Developing Countries, Washington, DC, 2002.
oped. [17] FAO/UNEP/OECD/SIB, Baseline Study on the Problem of Obsolete Pesticides
• Using economic incentives for pesticide usage reductions by eval- Stocks, Rome, 2001.
uating the actual cost of pesticide pollution [155]. [18] G.A. Mathews, Application Equipment with Particular Reference to Small-
scale Operations, UNIDO Report, 1998.
• There is need to monitor adverse reproductive outcomes of pes-
[19] NAMS&T/NASTEC, Technology of Application of Pesticides, Daya Publishing
ticides exposure and prevalence of pesticides related cancer to House, New Delhi, 2005, pp. 109–125.
plan preventive action. [20] P.K. Gupta, Pesticide production in India: an overview, in: P.C. Mishra (Ed.),
• There is need to promote and implement the holistic concept of Soil Pollution and Soil Organisms, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi, 1989,
pp. 1–16.
Integrated Crop Management (ICM) to minimize adverse effects [21] P.K. Gupta, Pesticides in the India Environment, Interprint, New Delhi, 1986,
of pesticides. pp. 1–206.
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