© 1983 Adrian Dickens All rights reserved. This book is copyright and no part may be copied or stored by electromagnetic, electronic, photographic, mechanical or any other means whatsoever except as provided by national law. All enquiries should be addressed to the publishers: IN THE UNITED KINGDOM — Melbourne House (Publishers) Ltd Castle Yard House Castle Yard Richmond, TW10 6TF IN AUSTRALIA — Melbourne House (Australia) Pty Ltd 2nd Floor, 70 Park Street South Melbourne, Victoria 3205 ISBN 0 86161 1152 Edition 5432 Printing FED CBA987654321 Year 90 9 a8 87 6 BS Bs ee RkACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | would like to acknowledge the contributions of the many people who have provided valuable assistance and suggestions for improvements to the book. Alfred Milgrom of Melbourne House was very helpful from the start. My many friends at Cambridge, especially Mark Plumbley and Julian Bane were always prepared to discuss technical problems and provide suggestions for im- provements. My brother Nigel and John Kimmitt at Churchill College proof read the book. The continuous support of both my parents was invaluable. Finally, | will be grateful to receive any further suggestions from Spectrum users for improvements to the book. iCONTENTS Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Introduction ....-.......--+ bbeeseene aeeae de General overview of the complete Spectrum ....... 9 The power supply — how the Spectrum supplies work — current limits — adding your OMe Tene ee eke gees Col wa: 40 15 The Z80A central processing unit — what it does— pindescriptions .........seeeeeeee rene 23 Video and program memory .......-----.....+++ 27 The BASIC readonly memory . settee + 3T The Keyboardiss ey oes ee ee een 33 The Uncommitted logic array — what it does — pin descriptions — avoiding video memory conflicts — interrupts — clocks — keyboard and cassette input — cassette, ‘buzzer and border colour outputs — amplifying the buzzer ....--....--.-- Peet i The memory expansion sockets — upgrading to 48K The video circuit -- - . seeeeeeeeeees 55 Tuning the Issue 2 circuit for better quality displays — changing the colour or POY SCAIC occ secceesecseceenteeeecestensneres 58 The Edge connector — contact by contact description Sette amt ae mne tne nteeneenEe G2) Fault diagnosis — no display? — No colour? — random graphics? ...-.-- 0.0.1... 65Chapter 14 Experimenting with the edge connector — construction hints — using the accessible signals — RESET, INT, IORQGE, NMI, HALT —1281/O ports .. i en 67) Chapter 15 Adding a Z80A PIO chip — a practical example 74 Chapter 16 Adding your own povmcane — aconstruction Brot echae ne rn peer eee ane EERO) Chapter 17 Adding Sinclair compatible joysticks — construction project — APOLLO game programpinuuectantcsaeet ine cmsees Vat apes 64 Chapter 18 Constructing an 8 channel analogue to digital converter — use as a ei oa —drawingaprogram ...... eee 90. Chapter 19 Adding a Centronics Parallel printer interface — the hardware and software ...-...... 96 Chapter 20 connecting a Video Monitor to your A A B c D Es IN’ Spectrum - a in aed meee Le PPENDICES Glossary 109 References Parts list cross reference Component layout diagram Complete circuit diagram INDEX) :.32<:--. scaseeenaes, sta darertesss sevens 1211. INTRODUCTION The ZX Spectrum as supplied includes an introductory booklet and a Basic programming manual. These books together contain virtually no detailed information on the hardware aspects of the computer. This book fills in that gap by providing an in depth look into how the Spectrum works. For the absolute beginner who knows nothing about computer hardware, this book provides a good introduction to what makes a computer tick. For the advanced electronics wizard who is desperate to use his Spectrum to perform all sorts of weird and wonderful tasks, this book also holds the key, by providing invaluable circuit diagrams and operational descriptions. Starting off by explaining the fundamental principles behind the Spectrum's operation, the book progresses with full descriptions of how each part works and how all of the parts interrelate. After a complete’ explanation of all the edge connector signals, simple illustrative experiments making use of these signals are given. The remainder of the book consists of practical circuits which you can build. Constructional hints, drawings and photographs are included to help beginners with no previous experience. All of the Spectrum circuit diagrams contain component numbers such as TR4. These are generally the codes printed by the components on the Spectrum circuit board. There is a full layout diagram of the Spectrum board together with marked positions for each component in Appendix D. The complete circuit diagram can be found in Appendix E. You should refer to these appendices if you wish to find the position of any components, The component codes given for the additional hardware projects refer to the parts list for the project, not to the main Spectrum parts list. There are currently three different versions of the Spectrum in circulation. The first 60,000 machines were ‘Issue 1’, the next half-a-million were ‘Issue 2’, and all new machines are ‘Issue 3’. Earlier editions of the Hardware Manual dealt with the Issue 1 Spectrums. This edition only deals with Issue 2 and Issue 3 Spectrums. Whilst the differences between these two types of Spectrums are in most areas minor, certain features on the Issue 2 are no longer present on Issue 3's. Major differences are described in the relevant chapters as they occur. Some minor differences, such as a new capacitor or resistor are not included on all of the circuits throughout the book. However, the full circuit diagrams in Appendix E show all of these differences. Before we start delving deeper into the intricacies of hardware. a few words of warning will be given. The Spectrum contains a lot of sensitive and expensive chips. These will not be damaged provided that you take adequate precautions. If you are adding any kind of interface to the Spectrum, always switch off all power supplies before making the connection to the Spectrum. Always switch on the Spectrum before or simultaneously with any external power supplies. Finally. if you are testing vanous voltages inside the Spectrum or on its edge connector, take care not to short any pins together by mistake. Check and double check everything you do! PLEASE NOTE — whilst every effort has been made to ensure that all information given in this book is correct, no responsibility can be accepted for any errors which may have occured. All Spectrum circuits are the copyright of Sinclair Research Limited. Other designs and programs are the copyright of the author. 7. VIDEO MODULATOR ULA 280A ROM cpu ISSUE 2 BOARD VIDEO «VIDEO AND PROGRAM — 32K ADDITIONAL — BUZZER CIRCUIT MEMORY MEMORY VIDEQ CIRCUIT 280 CPU VIDEO MODULATOR ULA HEATSINK ROM ISSUE 3 BOARD VIDEO AND PROGRAM MEMORY 32K ADDITIONAL MEMORY es PLATE 1 —PHOTO OF MAIN SPECTRUM BOARD & ANNOTATIONS 8 HOLWd MNISLW3H a ie c S YOLVINDSY AS+2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE SPECTRUM This chapter is essentially in two parts. The first part aims to introduce the basic concept of binary numbers. The second part explains each of the main sections of the Spectrum in a general way SECTIONA Computers are essentially two state devices. They rely upon logic to operate This logic can be in one of two states only. For convenience, these two states are usually represented by a 0 and a 1. At its simplest level, the computer manipulates 1's and 0's to produce the answers. Consider for example the simple operation of addition. This could be represented by a black box with two inputs, A, B and two outputs C, D. A and B could be added together to produce their sum represented by C and D. The addition would be carried out by several simple transistors inside the black box. The addition function would be defined in binary as follows A +B =D (sum) & C(carry) 0+0=0 0 O+1=1 0 1+0-=1 0 Vee 0 1 Note that 1 + 1 cannot equal 2 because in the binary number system, only 0 and 1 can be used. The carry bit here is similar to that in the decimal number system. If we added 8 + Q, this would give 7 carry 1 in the decimal number system. The difference is that a carry in binary represents 2, whereas it represents 10 in decimal. SECTIONB In the following descriptions of the various sections within the Spectrum, you will find it helpful to refer to the overall block diagram in fig 1 The central processing unit (CPU) is. as its name implies, central to the operation of the Spectrum. It is connected to other parts of the computer by data, control and address buses (more about these later). The CPU in the Spectrum is a Z80A and lives inside the large chip IC2 at the centre of your Spectrum board This processor is an 8 bit device which means that there are 8 separate connections in its data bus. The CPU can send information to other devices in the Spectrum along this data bus and the other devices can send data back to the CPU via the same bus. Because there are eight connections, each one of which can be either a logic 0 or a logic 1, any number between 0 (all 0's) and 256 (al! 1's) can be sent via the data bus (255 = 2" 1). You may wonder how the CPU can understand very large decimal numbers or words typed at the keyboard when it is using BASIC. After all, if you type HELLO. at the Spectrum keyboard it might be difficult to see how this can be represented by a number between 0 and 255. in fact, the answer is not very difficult. The CPU ‘oniy deals with a small part of the operation ata time. To understand HELLO, the CPU first deals with the H (seen by the CPU as 72 decimal), then it deals with EMEMORY ADDRESS BUS CONTROL ULA eeu KEYBOARD. CASSETTE RECORDER FIG 1 — SPECTRUM BLOCK DIAGRAM VIDEO 10 cpu TELEVISION(seen as 69 decimal) and so on (see Appendix A of your Spectrum BASIC manual for a complete list of characters and their decimal equivalents). Large decimal numbers are dealt with in a similar way. Each decimal number is stored in the Spectrum in 5 bytes of memory. Chapter 24 of the BASIC manual explains how these bytes are used. Before the CPU can actually start doing anything, it must be instructed what to do. The instructions for running BASIC are held in memory. The BASIC operating system program contains all of the information required by the CPU to understand BASIC. This operating program is written in machine code and starts, to run when you switch the Spectrum on. The actual program is stored in the read only memory (ROM) chip ICS. Read only memory cannot be modified by the CPU and the program remains fixed in the memory chip even when the power is switched off. The BASIC programs which you enter into the Spectrum go into random access memory (RAM). Unlike the ROM, this type of memory can be changed by the CPU, When the power is switched off, RAM forgets everything that was stored inside it. You therefore have to save your programs on a cassette before switching off. if you do not, the program will be lost forever Having found what to do from the program in ROM, the CPU must get inputs from the keyboard or cassette and send outputs to the video display or cassette. The uncommitted logic array (ULA) helps the CPU to interface with the outside world. The ULA gets information directly from the keyboard and cassette inputs This information is then sent to the CPU. When the CPU wants to record a program on cassette or buzz the buzzer, it tells the ULA to do it. Output to the television is rather more complex. The ULA copies the screen output from the video memory to the video output circuit 50 times every second. This creates the illusion of a continuous display. Alll that the CPU has to do when it wants to output, to the TV display is to put the video information into the video memory. The ULA then does the rest So far, transfer of information between the CPU, memory. ULA, keyboard ete. has been taken for granted. How is it actually done? All data is transferred via the data bus. The type of transfer being carried out is defined by various control signals on the control bus. For example, the CPU sends out a read signal if it wishes to read some data from the ULA or memory. This tells the ULA or memory to send some datato the CPU. Ifthe CPU wishes to output something to be stored in memory, it sends out a write signal. This (ells the memory that it must store the data from the data bus. So that the memory knows where it should store the data, the CPU also supplies an address on the 16 bit address bus. The address bus therefore allows the CPU to send or read data from up to 2"" = 65536 different memory locations. The buses can only deal with the two logic states 0 or 1 on each of their lines. in practice, these logic states are represented by voltages. By convention (so that most modern computer integrated circuits are compatible with one another), logical 0 is represented by a voltage between 0 volts and 0.8 volts. Logical 1 is represented by a voltage between +2 volts and +5 volts (the maximum supply voltage for logic chips). If the voltage is between 0.8 volts and 2 volts, the signal is. in the process of changing from O—1 or 1—0. All logical data transfers occur within these voltage limits. The chips are designed so that they are not reading data at times when it may be changing 1You should now have a basic understanding of the blocks which make up the Spectrum, The following chapters explain each of these blacks in much greater detail. Each block is considered in isolation, but you should always try to remember how it is connected into the rest of the system. The full circuit diagram of the logic systems which make up the Spectrum can be found in Appendix E. You can refer to this diagram if you have any difficulty in seeing how the individual circuits interconnect 12ISSUE 2 80ARD PLATE 2 —PHOTO OF MAIN SPECTRUM BOARD WITH POWER SUPPLY OUTLINED3. THE POWER SUPPLY The power supply of any computer is probably the piece of circuitry most often overlooked by the user. The computer is connected to the mains supply and it comes to life. Itis just taken for granted that the correct currents and voltages will be generated. It you are going to add on your own hardware however, a complete understanding of the power supplies is necessary. This chapter therefore takes a close look at that forgotten piece of circuitry and its limitations. The chapter explains how to make the most of your Spectrum power supply. It also provides circuits for additional power supplies tor use with your external circuits. In the Spectrum, all of the power comes in at +9 volts at a current of up to 1.2 amps. This is supplied from a ZX Mains Power Supply. Unfortunately, none of the chips in the Spectrum use a 9 volt supply. Most of the logic, including the CPU. operates from a +5 volt supply. The video circuit requires +12 volts supply as well. The video memory chips are most awkward of all, requiring + 12v, +5v and 5v all at once! The problem isn't simply one of producing a supply that is roughly constant at roughly the right voltage for most of the time. The +5 volt supply must be within 5% of +5 volts and the +12v and —5v supplies within 10% of their nominal value all over the circut all of the time. Even a microsecond’s drop in voltage could spell disaster. How are these constant voltages produced? THE +5 VOLT SUPPLY This is the major supply in the Spectrum. In the 48K version itis really stretched to its limit supplying a full 1 Amp of current. Looking at the regulator, you will see that itis bolted onto a large piece of aluminum. The little +5 volt regulator integrated circuit with only three connections to the outside world, contains complex regulation circuitry. Referring to fig. 2a, the 7805 regulator accepts +9 volts at its IN pin. The internal regulation circuitry then reduces this to +5 volts at the OUT pin. The fact that the input is +9 voltsis irrelevant (except for the amount of dissipated power). It could equally well have been anything from +7 volts to +25 volts, the output would still remain at a steady +5 volts. You might wonder where the lost 4 volts has gone to. Itis dissipated as heat by the aluminum heatsink. When the regulator is supplying 1 amp, 4 watts have to be dissipated by the heatsink (about one quarter of the heat from a small soldering iron!). That's why the Spectrum soon gets quite hot after it is switched on THE +12 VOLTS SUPPLY The 5 volt supply was relatively easy to produce. 4 volts were simply dropped by the regulator. Producing the +12 volts with only +9 volts available is rather more complex. Referring to fig 2b, TRS, TR4 and their associated components produce the 12 volt supply. TRS forms a current feedback for the oscillator formed by C43, R61, L1 and TR4 (the main power drive transistor). Operation of the circuit relies upon the induced reverse voltage across L1 which occurs on every cycle of oscillation. This reverse voltage pushes the collector of TR4 up above 9 volts to a maximum of about + 13 volts. At this level, 015 conducts to charge up the +12 volt supply capacitor C44. C44 then discharges to provide a constant 15+12 volts to the memories and video circuit when 15 is not conducting. If the +12 volt supply starts to fall too low, this causes TRS to conduct more. The oscillation frequency of the oscillator then increases, boosting the voltage back Up to its original level THE —5 VOLT POWER SUPPLY Again reterto fig 2b, The ~ 5 volt part of the circuit consists of C46, 011, R55, D12, D16, R54 and C47. This circuit operates on the “charge pump principle” Remember that the collector of TR4 in the 12 volt circuit is oscillating rapidly between about + 13 volts and 0 volts. When rising up to 13 volts, C46 is charging via D11 up to a maximum of about 12 volts (0.7 volts are dropped across all silicon diodes during conduction). When the collector of TR4 drops to 0 volts, this pushes the negative plate of C46 down to ~ 12 volts. C47 then charges via D12 and R55 from C46, The voltage across C47 is held constant at —5 volts by the zener diode D17. C46is then charged up again on the next oscillator cycle and so on. CURRENT LIMITS Currents which can be drawn from the Spectrum's own internal power supply tor use by external circuits are fairly limited. For the 16K Spectrum, about 300 mA extra can be taken from the +5 volt supply. The absolute maximum limits are rather difficult to define. Generally, the more you take from the power supplies, the worse the regulation becomes. Bad regulation can cause the computer to crash more frequently, but shouldn't cause any damage provided that you stay within the limits recommended above. For 48K Spectrum owners, it is advisable to add an extra +5 volt supply for all external circuits. The current limits on the other supplies are similar to those for the 16K version. THE —12 VOLT SUPPLY You may now be wondering what has happened to the —12 volt supply. It is shown on the edge connector in the Sinclair BASIC manual. However, it isn’t shown on the main circuit diagram. In fact, it doesn't exist. The “—12 volt’ connection was wrongly labelled. it should really be ‘unregulated + 12 volt’, since itis connected to the collector of TR4. Luckily, itis very easy to use this oscillating + 12 volt supply to produce a — 12 volt supply, with the addition of a few common components. Referring to fig 2c, you will almost instantly recognise a circuit very similar to that for the ~5 volt supply in the Spectrum. It works on exactly the same charge pump principle. No zener diade has been incorporated in this circuit, because the 33 uF capacitor charges up to 12 volts anyway and is therefore at the correct voltage. Regulation of this type of circuit is never very good under load. The voltage will rise to about ~ 10.5 volts if you take 20mA from the circuit, so thisis the recommended maximum current. If you decide to build the circuit then make sure that the two capacitors are rated at 16 volts or above. Apart from this, none of the component values are critical EXTRA +5 VOLT SUPPLIES For all but very low current circuits on the 48K Spectrum (such as the simple resistor and switches type of experiments in this book), you will have to add an external power supply. The same will apply to the 16K version if you want to draw more than 300 mA from the +5 volt supply. In either case, you have two options: 16 aerial ae a ee259 tee Pi nen a pearl [com | Oe ome — = ] + —— oh FIG 2a — +6volt POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 7 ) iy FROM +8 FROM MAINS aos. POWER PACK REGULATOR rig 20) FIG 2b ~ +12volt AND-5volt POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 7AlddNS 9Z1— YO LINDYID TWNOILIGGY — 9% Old LoopNt ACLS 10 4 LINdYiD WNHLO3BdS: dO 183Y OL nzit + an 181. Using the ZX Power supply There will be some extra current capacity available from your +9 volt Spectrum supply, especially if the +12 volt supply is not fully loaded. The author found it quite acceptable to obtain up to 500 mA more from the ZX supply. The circuit for doing this is shown in fig 2e. Only that part of the circuit to the right of the figure is required. This circuit is basically identical to the one used inside your Spectrum. Connect the 7805 regulator as shown in fig 2d. its input pin being connected to +9 volts. This pin diagram shows a view looking down onto the black plastic part of the regulator, which has the device number stamped on it Do not forget to bolt a heatsink onto the regulator. Small vaned heatsinks of a suitable type are available from most good electronic stores. A cheap alternative is to bolt a piece of aluminum onto the regulator. A piece similar in size to that in the Spectrum will do nicely. C1" in fig 2e should be included to help regulation. 22uF at 16 volts will do. Another 22 uF capacitor should also be included across the output. It is advisable to scatter some 0.1 uF decoupling capacitors around as well. About one for every two chips should be sufficient. The +5 volts provided by this circuit should not be connected to your main Spectrum +5 volt supply rail Only the 0 volts connection should be made to all chips. ‘coMMoN Tor view FIG 2d — 7805C 1 AMP/S VOLT REGULATOR PIN CONNECTIONS, 192. Using an extra mains supply unit The full circuit is shown in fig 2e and will provide up to 1 Amp at «5 volts. instead of connecting pin 1 of the regulator to the Spectrum + 9v supply. asin the previous example, it should be connected to the new +9 volt supply. This extra ~9 volt supply consists of a 240v to 9 volt at 1 amp mains transformer, a 1 amp bridge rectifier (BR1) and a large 1000uF +25 volt smoothing capacitor C1, You must ensure that the mains transformer is safely wired up. Build it into an earthed metal case. The 7805 can then be bolted to the case, which will act as the heatsink. Accessible mains connections must be avoided to eliminate the possibility of an electric shock. Apart trom the differences mentioned above, the circuit is identical to that described in section 1 You should ensure that the mains supply is connected to your extra power supply at the same time as the Spectrum. If power is not applied simultaneously. some chips could be damaged. because they don't like to have voltages applied to any of their pins without power being applied to them DECOUPLING CAPACITORS The power supplies are distributed all over the main Spectrum board. Therefore, ita chip on the far side of the board from the power supply suddenly requires extra current, a localised drop in voltage could occur. If the voltage drops too iow (even for a microsecond), it could be enough to destroy essential data and programs stored in memory. Supply ‘decoupling capacitors’ are therefore placed at strategic positions around the board. They are able to smooth out the supply by providing large currents for short penods of time. The voltage 1s therefore held approximately constant C1—C8 around the memory chips are there for this reason, as are the other capacitors around the board connected across the supply rails. You should put some around any external circuits which you build as well. One 0. 1uF capacitor for every two chips should be enough 20Be FIG 2e — ADDITIONAL +5 VOLT POWER SUPPLY ee 21ISSUE 2 BOARD PLATE 3— PHOTO OF MAIN SPECTRUM BOARD WITH Z80A CHIP OUTLINED 224. THE Z80A CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT This is the microprocessor chip itself. Housed in its 40 pin plastic package, this chip is the computing centre of your Spectrum. It is the big chip labelied IC2 in Appendix D. The CPU is able to perform several basic functions. These are: Read data from memory Write data to memory Read data from an input/output (I/O) device Write data to an I/O device Perform arithmetic and logical operations on data What the Z80A does at any particular time is determined by the instructions which it obtains from memory. There are 158 different types of instructions which the Z80A can understand. Programming the Z80A in machine code is a complete subject in itself. You should look at a specialised book on programming if you wish to know more. You may have seen other computers using the 280 chip, and wondered what the difference between it and the ZB0A is. Both are identical in their operation The only difference is that the Z80A can operate at speeds up to 4MHz whereas the Z80 can only operate at speeds up to 2.5MHz. More recently, a new chip called the Z80B has been introduced. This is stil the same as the Z80 chip, but can operate at speeds up to 6MHz As was mentioned earlier, the Z80A is an 8 bit microprocessor. It transfers data 8 bits at a time. The first microprocessor chips were 4 bit devices, but now some microprocessors are 16 bit or even 32 bit devices. They tend to be rather faster than the 8 bit ones because they can transfer more information in the same time However, they are much more expensive, so the 8 bit micros are more popular in home computers. The ZB0A clock signal runs at 3.5 MHz (except when accessing video/program memory — see chapter 8) in the Spectrum. All CPU operations are referenced relative to this clock signal, so the 0—1 and 1—0 transitions must be very fast to ensure that all operations start each cycle at exactly the same point. This is why TR3 and its associated resistors and diode are required. The 3.5 MHz clock signal from the ULA does not have a sufficiently fast logic 0 to logic 1 transition Since all internal CPU circuits may start at slightly different voltages in the +0.8 volt to +2 volt range, if the time for the clock signal to go from +0.8 volts to +2 volts is significant (in nanoseconds!), different parts of the internal circuitry may start at different times. If there is a difference in start times, the Z80A may malfunction. TR3 ensures that the transition at the CPU clock pinis fast enough. Z80A CPU PIN DESCRIPTIONS* ‘AO — A15 The address bus — tristate outputs (ie 0 or 1 or floating. When floating, another device can provide the address bus instead of the CPU). This bus provides 2" = 65536 different addresses for memory data exchanges or 2° = 256 input/output device addresses (the lower eight address lines are used during 1/0). The CPU can also refresh memory (see refresh pin) by providing “note that signals with a bar over them such as RD are ‘active low’. This means that a read is occuring when RD = 0.Normally,1 = trueandO = false but all Z80A control signals with a bar over them are inverted so that 0 = true and 1 = false 23valid refresh addresses on the lower 7 bits of the address bus DO — D7 The data bus — these eight tristate bidirectional lines are used for data input and output transfers with the CPU. Transfers take place between memory or peripheral devices and the Z80A. ‘Mi Machine cycle one — Output active low. The signal means that the CPU is currently getting the Op-code for the next instruction to be executed from memory. Mi also occurs with [ORO to indicate an interrupt acknowledge cycle. MREQ Memory request — tristate output, active low. This signal indicates to the memory that the address bus now contains a valid address for a read or write operation. This signal is required to distinguish between a memory or input/ output operation. For example, MREQ, RD and ROMCS must all be active before a read from the BASIC ROM can take place (see fig 5). TORQ input/output request — tristate output, active low. Indicates that the lower half of the address bus holds a valid 1/O address for an I/O read or write operation. This signal is required to distinguish between an input/output or memory operation. Note that [ORQ and MREQ will never be active at the same time. AD Read — tristate output active low. Indicates that the CPU wishes to read from memory or an I/O device. The addressed device should use this signal to put the relevant data onto the CPU data bus. WR Write — tristate output, active low. Indicates that the CPU daia bus holds data to be stored at the addressed location, or output to the selected 1/0 port. Memory should use this signal to store the data from the data bus. AFSH Refresh — output active low. Indicates that the lower 7 bits of the address bus contain a refresh address for dynamic memories. This is required by dynamic memory chips so that they do not forget. If they are not fully refreshed at least once every two milliseconds, there is a danger that memory will be lost. When this signal is present, the upper 8 address bus lines contain the CPU | register contents. This leads to a fault in the Spectrum hardware. By setting the | register to any value between 64 and 127, interesting contention for the video RAMoccurs. A15 and A14 from the CPU are selecting the 16K of RAMwhich the ULA normally has priority over. In this case, although the relevant address occurs with MREQ active, no RD or WR signal occurs because it is a refresh. This combination of signals seems to confuse the ULA so that it doesn't stop the CPU clock properly. A BASIC program which will illustrate this problem is included in chapter 8 on the ULA HALT Output active low. Indicates that the CPU has executed a software HALT instruction. It awaits an interrupt from another device before it will continue operation. There is a simple experiment illustrating the operation of a HALT in chapter 14. WAIT Input active low. Used by slow memory or I/O devices to tell the CPU that they are not yet ready for a data transfer. The CPU sits back doing nothing until the slow device indicates that it is now ready. INT Interrupt request — input, active low. This signal can be generated by external devices to make the CPU run a special machine code program some- where in memory. If the internal software controlled interrupt enable flip-flop is enabled, the CPU will accept and acknowledge the interrupt. A flip-flop is equiv- alent to one bit of memory. The CPU uses this bit of its internal memory to remember whether or not it should accept interrupts from other devices. For more details on the use of interrupts, you should refer to a specialised book on the 280. 24 Te ee ee= why ULasz mS i » na 34 > 12 les nes es] zioa wf an —Hos abe» 10) a ce aptiy al ey ; eo oe@— "J RFR Sal a a oS 1d | a = — ; gue ho ay eet ance sr ‘ATESEY é = rar ve A Diag: cos ‘ lee see re war WAT Wea ~ baw iS ea "2 Rao Ike a nT nt zs SUSRED im rowan =I MS lee sl me / oie = RG o> R27 680 a FIG 3 — Z80A CENTRAL PROCESSING CHIP 25A simple experiment showing you how you can make use of the interrupt line is given in chapter 14. NMI Non-maskable interrupt — input operated on the negative going edge of the interrupting signal. The NMI is always accepted by the CPU at the end of its current instruction. It forces the CPU to run the program in memory starting at address 102 decimal (66 Hex). See chapter 14 for a simple example of its use. RESET Input active low. This signal forces the CPU to the reset state. In the Spectrum, when power is applied, C27 holds the reset pin low until ithas charged up via R31. This allows the rest of the computer to reach an operational state before the CPU starts to run the program in memory from address zero. Details of adding a push button to reset the Spectrum are given in chapter 14 BUSREO Bus request — input. active low. Used by an external device to request the CPU address bus, data bus and tristate output control signals for its own use. The CPU will hand over control of all its buses as soon as the current machine cycle is terminated. To indicate to the requesting device that control can now be taken, the CPU sets its BUSACK output low. BUSACK Bus acknowledge — output, active low. Indicates to the requesting device that it can now take full control of all the CPU buses. More information about some of these Z80 signals and how they canbe used is. included in other chapters. In particular you are referred to chapters 8, 12.and 14. :5. VIDEO AND PROGRAM MEMORY This 16K of RAMis supplied on both the 16K and 48K versions of the Spectrum, It contains all of the data for generating the display on the television screen, the various variables required by BASIC, workspace, user defined graphics and your BASIC programs. Now refer to fig 4. Each of the memory chips IC6 — IC13 can store 2!" = 16K (K just means 1024) bits of information. Eight of them are required to make up the 8 bit data bus. So that the memories can fit into smaller chips with fewer connections, the address lines are multiplexed. This means that first of all AO — A6 are presented to the memory chip, followed by A7 —A14. These two sets of 7 bits are latched within the memory chip. The memory chip is then able to select the correct location. IC3 and IC4 do this multiplexing, the selected address lines diverted to the memory chip inputs being determined by the state of the select pin 1 on IC3 and IC4. DRAM AO — DRAM Aé on the ULA can override the outputs from IC3 and C4 because of the 330 ohm resistors in series with the multiplexer outputs. This override capability enables the ULA to get data for output to the video circuit whenever it is required. You may now be wondering what would happen if the CPU and ULA both wanted to access this memory simultaneously. Obviously they cannot both access two different memory locations at the same time. The resolution of this conflict will be described in chapter 8 on the ULA The type of memory used here is called dynamic random access memory. The internal memory array is arranged as 128 rows by 128 columns of cells. The row address strobe (RAS) and column address strobe (CAS) signals are used to latch the relevant addresses into the memory chips. Data can then be written to or read from the addressed location. Each row must be accessed at least once every 2mS otherwise the memory may forget what is stored inside it. In the Spectrum this refreshing is not a problem whilst video output is occuring, because the video memory has to be regularly accessed to produce a continuous video display. During the video field sync, when the memory is not accessed for about 5mS, the normal CPU refresh takes over. Memory which can be read from and written to, but which does not require this continual refreshing procedure is called Static RAM. In both types of RAM, the data is lost when the power is disconnected 27ISSUE 2 BOARD PLATE 4— PHOTO OF MAIN SPECTRUM BOARD WITH RAM OUTLINED 28ISSUE 2 BOARD PLATE 5— PHOTO OF MAIN SPECTRUM BOARD WITH ROM OUTLINED 306. THE BASIC READ ONLY MEMORY IC5 is a 16K byte read only memory (ROM) chip. Housed in its 28 pin package, this chip is provided with 14 address lines, 8 data lines, two chip select pins, one output enable pin to enable data to be read by the CPU and of course the power supply connections. Its pin connection diagram is illustrated in fig. 5. The ROM contains the program which tells the CPU how to run Sinclair BASIC This program is embedded into the silicon structure of the chip during manufacture and cannot ever be changed. If this were not the case then BASIC would disappear whenever the power was switched off. Aiso, since you cannot modify the BASIC program nothing that you can do with software from the Spectrum keyboard can possibly destroy BASIC. The ROM is positioned from address zero upwards. It has to be positioned here, because when the CPU is reset (when it is switched on), the CPU always runs the machine code program starting from address zero. The ROMCS connection on the rear edge connector can be connected directly to +5 volts to disable the BASIC ROM. The ROMCS output from the ULA is connected via R33, and is therefore unable to pull the ROMCS signal low when the +5 volt connection is made. This might be useful for future add ons which would have their own ROM or RAM switched in instead, Different languages could then be run from the Spectrum in place of BASIC. Replacing the BASIC ROM in this way with a new chip requires a thorough understanding of the Spectrum hardware and software requirements. A totally new operating system for inclusion in the new chip would have to be written Chips called EPROMs (erasable programmable read only memories) are available with the same connections as the Sinclair ROM, The 27128 EPROM is such a device. It too contains 16K bytes of memory. The difference is that it can be programmed by the user. Once programmed, it retains all of the data just like a ROM, even when the power is switched off. EPROMS can be erased so that they can be reprogrammed, using ultraviolet light. This shines directly onto the silicon chip through a glass window in the top of the package. This facility is useful because it allows the same chip to be used again and again with different programs in it 311.4.4 20. 0 ve be 1. TT. a8 Ics Pa 16K ROM as = Eo De os > 6 on Poy 16 oa FIG 5 — BASIC READ ONLY MEMORY 32 eee ll lc CUES2 = 7. THE KEYBOARD Pate) PLATE 6 —PHOTO OF KEYBOARD. The keyboard consists of a five by eight grid of wires, the crossing points of which can be connected by pressing the relevant key (see figure 6). Whenever the BASIC ROM program wishes to find out which key on the keyboard is pressed, it scans each of the eight rows in turn. Each row is selected by setting the relevant 280 address line to logic 0, keeping the remainder at logic 1. Each of the five columns is usually held high by one of the resistors R65-R69. If any of the keys on a particular row are depressed, the associated column input to the ULA will be pulled down to logic 0 instead of its usual logic 1. The key can therefore be read Consider for example that key ‘D' is pressed. By doing an IN from an address with all lines at logic 1 except for AQ, bit D2 of the input byte would be 0, whilst DO. D1, D3 and D4 would all be at logic 1. The keyboard is scanned 50 times per second to see if any of the keys have been pressed, so that everything you type should be noticed by the Spectrum. A keyboard scan is initiated by the ULA interrupting the CPU at the end of displaying each video frame. The CPU then reads the keyboard If you wish to scan the keyboard yourself for some reason, the following addresses can be used, Bear in mind that each of these numbers is simply used to set all of these address lines except for the one being used to scan, to logic level 1. Using this method of input, the reading of keys is no longer restricted to 50 times per second. It can be done as often (within limits) or as infrequently as desired 33“IN 32766" uses A15 to read the half row SPACE to B “IN 49150" uses A14 to read the half row ENTER toH IN 57342" uses A13 to read the half row P to Y “IN 61438" uses A12 to read the half row 010 6 IN 63486" uses A11 to read the half row 1 to5 IN 64510" uses A10 to read the half row Q to T “IN 65022" uses AQ to read the half row AtoG “IN 65278" uses A8 to read the half row SHIFT to V In the byte read in DO = logic level at KBD 13 input D1 = logic level at KBD 12 input D2 = logic level at KBD 11 input D3 = logic level at KBD 10 input D4 = logic level at KBD 9 input D5 = unused (appears as logic 1 in byte read in) D6 = voltage level at EAR socket (see below) D7 = unused (appears as logic 1 in byte read in) THE LOGIC LEVEL AT THE EAR SOCKET The logic level read in from the EAR socket will in general be 0 for voltages below about 0.6 volts, and 1 for any voltage higher than that. However, the threshold level between logic 0 and logic 1 is slightly different in the Issue 2 and Issue 3 models. The following table illustrates this difference. The voltages at the EAR input are set to four different values controlled by ULA control byte bits D4 and D3. D4 bs Voltage Issue 3 Issue 2 IN 57342 IN57342 0 oO 0.4v 191 191 oO 1 0.7 191 255, 1 0 3.5v 255 255 1 1 3.8v 255 255 The value read in using IN 57342 uses address line A13 to read the half row of keys P, O, |, U, Y, and the values shown are with none of these keys pressed. The read in values are the same for the two Spectrums, except when D4—OandD3=1 inthe ULA control byte. The Issue 3 then registers the value at the EAR port (D6 in input byte) as a 0. The Issue 2 recognises it as a 1. As it happens, D4 and D3 normally are in this state, so if the keyboard is scanned by a user program (rather than the ROM), bit 6 in the input byte should ALWAYS be masked. Several commercial programs looked to see if a key had been pressed by checking for IN 57342 NOT EQUAL TO 255. This worked on Issue 2 machines, because the value was 255 without a key pressed. However, as soon as Issue 3's came on the market, such software stopped working because it hadn't masked out bit 6! Details for constructing your own additional keyboard interface which will plug into the rear edge connector are given in Chapter 16. 34old 23 AR 3. v of «The riN the the: slug aed KBo 43 aud sue aN Ta and Khg a and FIG 6 — SPECTRUM KEYBOARD.ISSUE 2 BOARD. PLATE 7— PHOTO OF MAIN SPECTRUM BOARD. WITH ULA OUTLINED 368. THE UNCOMMITTED LOGIC ARRAY The ULA is Sinclair's special chip. It has been designed to replace lots of smaller logic chips which were used in older computers. The way in which it operates is defined when the chip is manufactured, and can never be changed with software. Its function is to take the heavy burden of input and output from the CPU. It performs the tedious output of information to the television all of the time when power is applied to the Spectrum, Apart from this major task, the ULA also deals with output to the buzzer and cassette plus input from the keyboard and cassette. ULA PIN DESCRIPTIONS DRAM AO — DRAM Aé from the memory address multiplexer chips IC3 and IC4. These enable the ULA to determine which address is being selected by the CPU. Also used by the ULA to select the address of video data from the video memory. When used by the ULA as outputs in this way, they are able to override. the output from the address multiplexers because of the set of series 330 ohm resistors. pall DRAM CAS — dynamic RAM column address strobe (CAS) output. Used to latch in the column address for the dynamic RAM from the address multiplexer (see chapter 5 for more details). OMICS — ROM chip select output enables the 16K ROM chip IC5 whenever the CPU wishes to read from it. The ULA can monitor this with its A14 and A15 address inputs, so it can be outputting video information at the same time as the CPU is reading from the ROM. IORQGE — input connected to the Z80A JORG pin via R27. If this (ORQGE connection is held high by connecting it to +5 volts, the Z80A TORO signal no longer reaches the ULA. This can be useful for adding extra I/O devices. See chapter 15 for more details. RAS — used as row address strobe on the dynamic RAM chips. (see chapter 5 for more details about refreshing dynamic memories). This pin is also connected to the Z80A refresh pin via R57 (330 ohms). The memories can then be refreshed by the CPU during the video field sync time, when regular accessing by the ULA stops for about 5 ms KBD9 — KBD13 — inputs from the Spectrum keyboard. See chapter 7 for further details. U — blue — yellow colour difference output. V — red — yellow colour difference output. Y — luminance and sync outputs for the video. Do — D7 — 8 bit bidirectional databus. Connected directly to the video memory databus and via 470 ohm resistors to the main system databus. This enables asynchronous operation of the ULA accessing video RAM and the CPU accessing the rest of memory. The computer therefore runs faster than it would if the ULA stopped it every cycle CLK — 3.5 MHz clock output to the Z80A CPU. This clock may occasionally be stopped by the ULA to prevent the CPU from accessing the video RAM when the ULA is using it. WR — tells the ULA when the CPU is writing to some device. If that device happens to be the ULA then the ULA will use this signal to latch the incoming data, 37RD — tells the ULAwhen the CPU Is reading from a device. It the device is the ULA, data will be output onto the databus tor the CPU MREQ — this input tells the ULA that the address bus now contains a valid address tor a read or write operation. This signal is required to distinguish between a memory or I/O operation. INT — interrupt to the CPU operates 50 times per second. Upon receiving this interrupt, the CPU increments a 2 byte counter in memory and scans the keyboard to see if any keys have been pressed. 38ras wr 30 4+ orem o- 4+ {J onaminn ee s 4-H onan a0 <> onan + J pram a2 e <9 ram a ° 44 pnamas 10 49 oramas, 44 on amas F 20 Lm 05> 43 ‘cassette | 28 os uta ete z wae 1c1 os» ULA - +—4, «809 - 28 os} 7 24 + t y e010K-——— 8 2 +> 00 «8011 ¢-———— 2 ——S xaos o> 2 as Keo 12 on NOTE — VC1 IN ISSUE 21S REPLACED BY C73 IN ISSUE 3 FIG 7a — THE UNCOMMITTED LOGIC ARRAY PIN CONNECTIONS 39THE TRANSISTOR PATCH IN ISSUE 2 Issue 2 Spectrums have TR6 soldered across the Z80A chip. The connections to this transistor are shown in figure 7b. The effect of this patch is to pull the \ORQGE input to the ULA high whenever address line zero (A0) is at logic 1. The ULAwill therefore only be selected when AQ and IORQ from the Z80A are in the logic 0 state together. In Issue 3 Spectrums. transistor TR6 has been incorporated on the printed circuit board. It operates in exactly the same manner as in Issue 2 Spectrums. +5v A0 (2 IORQGE FIG 7b— THE TRANSISTOR PATCH CIRCUIT VIDEO OUTPUT One of the major problems on most home computers is that of producing the video display. Especially for a colour display of the resolution used in the Spectrum, data has to be copied from the video memory to the display at a continuous and fast rate. This poses problems when the CPU wants to read from the video memory at the same time as the ULA. Two devices cannot address. different places in amemory chip simultaneously Most other computers use one of two methods to resolve this. In the first method the CPU has priority. This produces ‘snow on the screen, representing video information which was not displayed because the CPU was using the memory. Snow is annoying but the CPU runs at full speed. The second method gives the video circuit priority during a television field scan. This requires that the CPU should only be able to operate during the field sync time. Using this method does eliminate snow. but the computer operates very slowly. Neither of these methods is satisfactory. Your Spectrum uses a very ingenious way to get over the problem. Let us assume that the ULA is accessing video memory. The CPU can simultaneously access the ROM or extra 32K of RAM without any bus contention occuring. The ULA and video memory have their address and data buses separated from the rest of the system by 330 ohm and 470 ohm series resistors respectively. Normally therefore. there are two separate systems operating independently of ‘one other. The ULA outputting video, the Z80A operating BASIC. But then, the CPU may wish to access the 16K of RAM which the ULA is using, because this Contains all of the BASIC system variables as well as the video memory. At this 40ogaoaow DHDA~DO inpor 013 caserre ostrur Mow oor - Sone FIG. 7c — ISSUE 2 CASSETTE INTERFACE AND BUZZER CIRCUIT 43,ULAPIN28 —_—_ > BS & R36 c32 3 6800 100nF i> 5 3 c3t oe 400nF FIG. 7d — ISSUE 3 CASSETTE INTERFACE AND BUZZER CIRCUIT AMPLIFYING THE BUZZER The sound output from the Spectrum's internal buzzer is normally not very loud. For certain games or other applications, it may be advantageous to connect the Spectrum up to an amplifier. This is very easy, because the Spectrum sound signal is present on both the MIC and EAR sockets at the rear of the computer. All that is required is a standard 3.5mm jack plug, a length of two way audio cable and a suitable plug to the amplifier being used. Connect the two plugs to opposite ends of the cable. For an amplifier with a high impedance input, plug the 3.5mm jack into the Spectrum's MIC socket. For an amplifier with a low impedance input, plug the 3.5mm jack into the Spectrum's EAR socket 44 CASSETTE MIC INPUTVv CASSETTEMIC INPUT 1e id All le ISSUE 2 BOARD PLATE 8 — PHOTO OF MAIN SPECTRUM BOARD WITH MEMORY EXPANSION SOCKETS OUTLINED 459. THE MEMORY EXPANSION SOCKETS The Sinclair Spectrum can be purchased in two different versions. One of these contains 16K of user RAM, and the other contains 48K. This chapter explains first of all how a 16K Spectrum can be upgraded to a 48K Spectrum, and there then follows a detailed description of how the additional memory circuit operates. Since upgrading an Issue 3 Spectrum enables the use of chips which cannot be used on a Issue 2 Spectrum, the type of Spectrum should be checked before purchasing any chips. UPGRADING AN ‘ISSUE 2’ SPECTRUM The upgrading procedure for Issue 2 Spectrums consists of plugging twelve integrated circuits into sockets on the printed circuit board and soldering one wire link. The following integrated circuits are required: (c15-22 8 of 4532 32K x1 dynamic memory chips (see text) (C23 1 of 74LS32 \C24 1 of 74LS00 1C25-IC26 2 of 74LS157 The 4532 memory IC's will probably be the most difficult to obtain. Luckily, several mail order companies can supply these, either individually, or as a complete ‘Spectrum memory upgrade kit’. A current copy of any good computing magazine should contain advertisments by some such company. The 4532 chips used in Issue 2 Spectrums are 64K RAMs from Texas Instruments which failed to operate to specifications. Usually, several bits in one half of the chips are permanently fixed to a logic 1 or 0. The bad half of the chip is not used. Two versions are therefore available corresponding to different operational halves. These are designated the 4532L in which the lower 32K bits function correctly, and the 4532H in which the upper 32K bits function correctly. To select the particular type of 4532 which is used, a wire link is provided on the main circuit board, Note that only Texas Instruments chips should be used. This is because Texas 4532's are split in half using the ROW address A7. Most other manufacturers’ chips use A15 (COLUMN address A7) to select the operational half of the chip, so they must NOT be used in the Issue 2 Spectrum. f any difficulty is experienced in obtaining 4532's, it is possible to use any manufacturers’ 64K x1 chips instead. The 64K chips will probably be more expensive, but it will not be necessary to solder in the wire link.S13490S NOISNVdX3 AHOWSW JO NOILISOd SNIMOHS GHVO8 Z 3NSS!I — eB ‘DIS wazzna head or} on a] a] a] oF 47 92 woLvindowYou should now refer to the layout diagram in figure 8a. This illustrates the positions of the expansion sockets on an Issue 2 board. Carefully unscrew the five retaining screws on the underside of the Spectrum. The keyboard should then come away from the circuit board and base. Using the layout diagram as a guide, start by inserting the memory chips IC15 to C22 into their sockets. Ensure that all of the pins on the integrated circuits are vertical and straight before attempting to insert them into sockets. The small indentations at the ends of the chips correspond to the indentations marked on the diagram. It is ESSENTIAL that ALL of the chips are inserted the correct way round. Now that all of the memories have been inserted, carefully plug in the 74LS32 (IC23), the 74LS00 (1C24) and the two 74LS157s (IC25 and IC26). Using a fine tipped soldering iron and a piece of stripped single strand wire, the link can now be made. If 4532s have been installed then solder the wire between the central hole (marked “link” in figure 8a) and the hole marked OV. If 4532Hs have been installed, then connect the wire between the central hole and the hole marked +5V. Take great care not to let the solder run onto any other connections, since that may damage the computer when power is applied The installation is now complete. Go back and check that all of the chips are in the correct sockets and pointing in the correct direction. Also check that none of the pins have been bent under the integrated circuits in case there is no contact with the socket Connect up the power supply and you should have an operational 48K Spectrum. Check this by typing PRINT PEEK 23733. The response should be 255. Ifitisn't then consult your local Spectrum expert UPGRADING AN ‘ISSUE 3’ SPECTRUM The upgrading procedure for Issue 3 Spectrums consists of plugging twelve integrated circuits into sockets on the circuit board and soldering in two wire links. The following integrated circuits are required 1C15-IC22 8 of 4532 32K x 1 dynamic memory chips (see text) IC23 1 of 74L832 IC24 1 of 74LS00 IC25-IC26 2 of 74LS157 The 4532 memory IC's will probably be the most difficult to obtain. Luckily, several mail order companies can supply these, either individually or as a complete ‘Spectrum memory upgrade kit’. A current copy of any good computing magazine should contain advertisements by some such company. Most manufacturers’ 4532’s can be used in the Issue 3 Spectrum. These are 64K RAMs which failed to operate fully. Usually, several bits in one half of the chips are permanently set to a logic 0 or 1. The bad half of the chip is not used Several versions are therefore available, corresponding to different operational halves. These are designated 4532L in which the lower 32K bits function correctly, and the 4532H in which the upper 32K bits function correctly. The definition of ‘lower’ and ‘upper’ operational halves varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. 48To select the particular type of 4532 which is used, a block of contact pads which can be connected by wire links is provided on the main circuit board. The connections to this link block, together with various options for common types of memory chips are illustrated in figure 8c. Texas Instruments 4532's are split in half using the ROW address A7. Most other manufacturers’ chips, such as those produced by OKI use A15 (COLUMN address A7) to select the operational half of the chip. If any difficulty is experienced in obtaining 4532's, itis possible to use any manufacturers’ 64K x 1 dynamic RAMs. The 64K chips will probably be more expensive, but either the ‘L’ or ‘H link pattern for that manufacturer's chip can be selected. You should now refer to the layout diagram in Figure 8b. This illustrates the positions of the expansion sockets on an Issue 3 board. Carefully unscrew the five retaining screws on the underside of the Spectrum. The keyboard should then come away from the circuit board and base. Using the layout as a guide, start by inserting the memory chips IC 15 to IC22 into their sockets. Ensure that all of the pins on the integrated circuits are vertical and straight before attempting to insert them into sockets. The small indentation at one end of the chip corresponds to the indentations marked on the diagram. It is ESSENTIAL that ALL chips are inserted the correct way round. Now that all of the memories have been inserted, carefully plug in the 74LS32 (C23), the 74LS00 (C24) and the two 74LS157's (IC25 and IC26) Using a fine tipped soldering iron and two pieces of stripped single strand wire, the links can now be made. Various valid link patterns for different types of 4532's are illustrated in figure 8c. Choose the correct pattern for the type of chips being used. Take care not to let the solder run onto any other connections, since that may cause damage to the computer when the power is reconnected. The installation is now complete. Go back and check that all of the chips are in the correct sockets and facing in the correct direction. Also check that none of the pins have been bent under the integrated circuits in case there is no contact with the socket. Connect up the power supply and you should have an operational 48K Spectrum. Check this by typing PRINT PEEK 23733. The response should be 255. Ifit isn't, then consult your local Spectrum expert. 49S134OOS NOISNWdX43 AYOWAW 40 NOILISOd DNIMOHS GHVOS € 3NSS! — 48 “Old st} or] ai} ar or} or} or}o sz ve on or HOLO3NNOO 3903 ° H YOLVINGOW CO 50(C26 pin 10 = 38 (MUX TO A7) IC26 pin 11 ~3A (MUX TO A15) oe OK oo — 3732L, ee Ok! 3732H FIG. 8b — ISSUE 3 BOARD SHOWING POSITION OF MEMORY EXPANSION SOCKETS FIG. 8c — ISSUE 3 MEMORY TYPE SELECTION LINKS 51EXPANSION MEMORY CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION 1. MEMORY READ Whenever the CPU wishes to read data from the 32K expansion memory, A15 will go to logic 1 to indicate an address in the range 32768 — 65535. As the ZB0A read cycle is initiated both RD and MREQ signals will go low. The high to low transition of MREQ is butfered by IC23a to operate RAS. The RAS line going low causes the addresses AO — A7 to be latched into the eight dynamic RAM chips RAS going low is delayed by the RC network comprising R71 and C63. Even- tually, the RAS low signal filters through to IC23c which operates the address multiplexers “select” line. This changes the outputs from the address multi- plexers to A8 — A14. Another RC network comprising R70 and C64 delays the low going signal yet again. This delay gives the address multiplexers a chance to stabilise before CAS finally latches their outputs into the memory chips. A complete 15 bit address will then be latched into the memory. After a further short delay the data appears on the Spectrum data bus so that it can be read by the CPU. 2, MEMORY WRITE When the CPU wishes to store some data in this 32K block of memory, A15 is again set to logic 1. The write cycle commences with WR and MREQ going low. Addresses are latched into the dynamic memories in the same Way as a read cycle. The only difference is that the WR pin on the dynamic memories is low as well. The memories therefore know that they must store data from the CPU data bus instead of outputting data, 3. Memory Refresh al es When a refresh cycle is executed by the Z80A, WR and RD remain inactive in the logic 1 state. The address multiplexers are therefore set to direct AO-A7 to the memory array. The Z80A puts the number of the row to be refreshed on A0-A6 (7 bits allow 128 different row addresses). MREQ then goes low to operate the RAS line on the memories. This is all that is required for a refresh. Each of the 128 rows are refreshed at least once every two milliseconds by this method. Continual refreshing by the CPU was not required for the video memory except during field synchronisation pulses to the television. This is because the ULA is accessing the video memory sequentially at each of the 128 row addresses during video data outputPoor on FIG. 8d — 32K ADDITIONAL RAM EXPANSION,ISSUE 2 BOARD PLATE 9 ~PHOTO OF MAIN SPECTRUM BOARD. OUTLINED VIDEO CIRCUIT 710. THE VIDEO CIRCUIT The Spectrum video circuitry is based around the LM1889N integrated circuit produced by National Semiconductor. The video circuit diagrams for Issue 2 and Issue 3 Spectrums are shown in Figure 9a and Figure 9b respectively. The LM1889N accepts two colour difference signals (U = blue-yellow, and V = red-yellow) from the ULA. These are combined to produce a single colour output signal. It is more economic to use colour difference signals rather than separate RED, GREEN and BLUE signals. Only two sets of circuitry are required instead of three associated with RGB signals. The colour is mixed with the incoming composite video sync. and luminance (Y from the ULA) to produce the composite colour video signal. After being buffered by the emitter follower circuit using TR2. the video signal is fed into the video modulator. This enables the video information to be displayed on an ordinary colour television Itis unfortunate that RGB video was not used, because some colour monitors require these signals. However, it is still possible to improve the rather poor quality display obtained on a television. For this, a monitor with a composite video input is required. Chapter 20 explains how such a monitor can be connected to your Spectrum. Looking at figures 9a and 9b, it will be seen that several adjustments are available on Issue 2 Spectrums. The two adjustment resistors VR1 and VR2 alter the relative amplification of the red-yellow and the biue-yellow signals. By varying these adjustments, you can vary the output colour quality or the grey scales. See the next chapter for details on how to accomplish this. Note that NO adjustable components are provided in Issue 3 Spectrums, 55FIG. 9a — ISSUE 2 VIDEO CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 56 aa a0 ioe. 0 MODULATORFIG. 9b — ISSUE 3 VIDEO CIRCUIT DIAGRAM. 5711. TUNING THE ISSUE 2 VIDEO CIRCUIT FOR A BETTER QUALITY DISPLAY It should be noted that this chapter is only relevant to Issue 2 Spectrums. The four variable components which were present inside Issue 2's have been replaced with fixed components which cannot be varied in Issue 3's. IMPROVING THE MOVING STRIATIONS ON THE SIDE OF CHARACTERS Many Spectrum computers suffer fram annoying striations on the side of video characters. These are caused by an interaction of the ULA 14MHz clock with the video display which it is used to generate. The striations can be improved by altering the clock frequency very slightly using VC1 To do this, you should fill the Spectrum screen with some text. Any old program listing will do. Then turn the computer over so that itis resting on the keyboard If you have an early version of the Spectrum, a smail hole should be present on the right hand side. A small screw head should be visible inside the hole. if your Spectrum has not got a hole then it will be necessary to open the case. To do this, remove the 5 retaining screws that are visible on the underside of the Spectrum and lift off the keyboard as far as you can. Locate and remove the small retaining screw on the component side of the board near the middle. The circuit board should now be free from the bottom of the case. Tum the circuit board upside down. You should see a small hole with a screw head inside on the righthand side of the board. Using a small screwdriver carefully turn this screw a little way clockwise then back a littie way anticlockwise, This should give you a feel for the effect of the adjustment. You should then be able to adjust the setting to produce the most pleasing display possible. Note that turning the screw through one complete revolution will set the adjustment back to its original value. Sometimes it will help to readjust the channel setting on your television. Unfortunately, as the computer warms up, the crystal expands and its frequency changes. Bad striations may therefore reoccur whenever the temperature of the. computer changes a lot. You should therefore let it warm up abit before trying any adjustments. If the striations do become bad again, the only solution is to readjust the frequency as belore using VC1 The easiest way to vary the colour is with the colour control on your television. Similarly for grey scales, adjust the brightness and contrast on your TV. The following paragraph explains how to vary the colour settings inside the Spectrum This ONLY applies to a colour (or grey scale) CHANGE. If there is no colour at all then refer to chapter 13. To adjust the colour setting (or grey scale), you will need to open up your Spectrum by removing the 5 retaining screws which are accessible from the underside of your computer. Having unscrewed the case you should put a display showing all of the colours and shades onto the screen. The program at the start of Chapter 16 of your BASIC manual is suitable for this. Now you can carefully adjust VR1 and VR2 using a screwdriver. The positions of these two adjustment presets are shown in Appendix D and in Fig. 9c. Watch the colours on the screen 58as you vary the settings. This will give you a feeling for the effect of each control VAI varies the red-yellow amplitude and VR2 varies the blue-yellow amplitude. VA1 has to be varied in conjunction with VR2 to vary the green level. How you eventually set the colour (or grey scale) is purely a matter of personal preference. SCREW HOLE FOR VC1 ISSUE 2 BOARD PLATE 10 — PHOTO OF SCREW HEAD FOR VC1 59CHANGING THE COLOUR OR GREY SCALE FIG. 9c — ISSUE 2 VIDEO CIRCUIT ADJUSTMENT CONTROLS 602a 234, +12W0ts (UNSMOOTHED! spe FIG 10a ~ THE EDGE CONNECTOR 61 Q| iN va12. THE EDGE CONNECTOR This chapter contains a contact by contact description of the signals available on the rear edge connector. Some hints and ideas to help you design your own circuits are included as well. For some simple experiments which you can do see chapter 14. The connections designated 28A and 1A are marked on the upper side of the Spectrum board. 288 is under 28A and 1Bis under 1A. Fig 10aillustrates the rear view of the Spectrum showing the correct orientation of the edge connector. Note that it is shown upside down in the BASIC manual! SIDE A CONNECTIONS 1A A15 of the address bus. This can be used as an output from the Spectrum to select various external devices in conjunction with the rest of the address bus. It can also be used as an input to the Spectrum from any external devices which take over control of the CPU buses using the BUSREQ signal. 2AA\13 of the address bus 3A D7 of the data bus. This bidirectional 8 bit bus can be used to transfer information to or from the Spectrum 4Ano connection 5Asliot to locate the edge connector in the correct position: 6A DO data bus 7A D1 data bus 8A D2 data bus 9A D6 data bus 10A D5 data bus 11A D3 data bus 12AD4 data bus __13A INT connected to the Z80A interrupt line, and via R26 (680R)} to the ULA INT pin. This could be used by an external device to request an interrupt from the Spectrum, or if connected to +5 volts this will prevent the ULA from interrupting the Z80A CPU every 20 ms. See chapter 14 for an experiment using INT. 144A NMi to the Z80A non-maskable interrupt input. Normally held at logic 1 by R28(10K) connected to +5 volts. If taken low by an external device the Z80A will be forced to jump to address 102 decimal (66Hex) and start executing the machine code from there. See chapter 14 for an experiment using an NMI 15A HALT from the CPU HALT output — indicates that the CPU has executed a software HALT instruction. The CPU waits for an interrupt from an external device before continuing to execute the program. See chapter 14 for a simple experimentusing a HALT. 16A MREQ from the CPU memory request output — indicates that the address bus now holds a valid address for a memory read or write operation. This signal is also operated during a memory refresh. 17A IORQ connected directly to the Z80A input/ouput request output Indicates that the lower half of the address bus holds a valid I/O address for an 1/O operation. The upper half of the address bus holds the contents of the CPU A register if IN A,n or OUT n,A are used in a machine language program. n appears on the lower half of the address bus. If a register indirect 1/O operation occurs, the 62