HISTORY OF

ARCHITECTURE 3
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WEEK 2

Chapter 2: ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA

I. Introduction

India is the second-most populous country, the seventh-largest country by land area, and the most
populous democracy in the world. (6)

Let us learn about the design intentions and design principles of Indian architecture which is mostly
influenced by their religion and culture.

II. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Chapter, you should be able to:

1. Identify the influencing factors of architectural styles in India.
2. Determine the architectural character of an Indian architectural style.
3. Point out the parts of an Indian architectural example.
4. Classify the different elements and features of the Buddhist, Hindu and Jain Architecture.

III. Influences

Geography
The geography of India is diverse and can be divided into three main regions, which are
1. Himalayan Region- mountainous northern part
2. Indo-Gangetic Plain- large-scale agriculture
3. Plateau Region- southern and central portions of the country

India also has three major river systems, all of which have large deltas that take over a large portion of
the land. These are the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra Rivers. (7)

Geology
The country has a rich and varied mineral resource base such as coal, iron, manganese, lignite, copper,
bauxite, kyanite, fire clays, mica, limestone and petroleum.

Climate
India's climate is also varied but is tropical in the south and mainly temperate in the north. The country
also has a pronounced monsoon season from June to September in its southern portion. (7)

Religion
Since religious buildings assume such a prominent position in Indian architecture, it is necessary to
understand the rudiments of the faiths that inspired their construction. During the sixth century BCE,
the Indian subcontinent witnessed the development of three major religions that all shared a general
belief in the transmigration of souls. (2)

1. HINDUISM- the oldest living religion in the world.

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It has NO SINGLE FOUNDER, NO SINGLE SCRIPTURE, and NO COMMONLY AGREED SET OF

TEACHINGS. About 80% of the Indian population regard themselves as Hindu. Most Hindus
believe in a SUPREME GOD, whose qualities and forms are represented by the multitude of
deities which emanate from him.

The TRIMURTI or triumvirate consists of three gods who are responsible for the creation,
upkeep and destruction of the world: BRAHMA is the creator of the universe, SHIVA is the
destroyer, and VISHNU is the preserver and protector of the universe.

Hindus believe that existence is a CYCLE OF BIRTH, DEATH, and REBIRTH, governed by
KARMA.

3. BUDDHISM- The religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama.

The religion took its name from the word “Buddha,” the Enlightened One, the name given
to Gautama after his conversion.

2. JAINISM- was inspired by the life of Vardhamana.

He taught that escape from the world’s unhappiness was attainable only through rigorous
asceticism to purify the soul and by maintaining reverence for all living creatures His
followers, mostly merchants and bankers whose livelihoods enabled them to avoid all forms
of violence against animals, established Jainism, in which participants seek to acquire
spiritual merit through charity, good works, and, whenever possible, monastic retreats. (2)

IV. Buddhist Architecture

The Buddha had not prescribed any particular architectural setting for worship, but his disciples
established shrines to give permanent form to their religion. The first shrines were created after the
death of the Buddha, when his cremated remains were divided by his followers and placed in ten
locations associated with his life and teaching.

To mark these places, a simple mound of rubble and earth known as a stupa was erected over the relics,
in a manner comparable to traditional chaityas, or village memorials, where the ashes of deceased
leaders were placed in a mound, often located on the outskirts of their settlement. It was this traditional
form and placement that served as the genesis of later Buddhist architecture. (2)

Basic form is a SOLID DOMICAL MOUND CROWNED BY A PARASOL.

Architectural Examples

1. STUPA the supreme sacred monument of Buddhism.

Stupas became the principal object of veneration of the Buddhists. First, it relates to burial mounds
which contained relics of BUDDHA. Second, the stupa form, with its vertical axis representing the world
axis, has cosmic implications.

Study the parts of a Stupa in the Great Stupa of Sanchi, as shown in Figure 11.
1. ANDA – hemispherical dome
2. CHATTRA - parasol, which is one of the kingly symbols associated with the Buddha.

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3. VEDIKA – railing
4. SOPANAS – stairways
5. TORANA – gateway
6. MEDHI – circular platform which serves as a PRADAKSHINAPATHA.
7. HARMIKA – square platform at the summit of the mound

Figure 11. Parts of Stupa (ApproachGuides)

2. STAMBHAS / LATHS – monumental pillars, standing free without any structural function, with circular
or octagonal shafts. Inscriptions were carved on the shaft. The capital was bell-shaped and crowned
with animal supporters bearing the Buddhist CHAKRA OR WHEEL OF THE LAW.

3. CHAITYA HALL- a form of rock-cut sanctuary housing a stupa within a space for congregational
worship. Best example is the Cave Temple in Karli (Figure 12).

Chaitya – a sacred place or object. It is a Buddhist shrine including a stupa.

4. VIHARA- is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a BUDDHIST MONASTERY.

It originally meant "a secluded place in which to walk", and referred to "dwellings" or "refuges" used by
wandering monks during the rainy season. The central square space of the interior of the vihara is
defined by square columns forming a more or less square open area. Outside this are long rectangular
aisles on each side, forming a kind of cloister.

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Stupa

Vestibule Nave

Side Aisle

Figure 12. The Cave Temple, Karli (Pinterest)

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V. Hindu Architecture

Most Hindu temple designs include forms that are symbolic of the holy mountain, the sacred cave, and
the cosmic axis.

Geometry derived from a subdivided square or mandala is commonly used, together with a single unit
that sets all proportions. Numbers associated with the gods are important in constructing and
interpreting the mandala, which provides links to divine proportions, hence harmony with the cosmos.
Temple complexes are usually aligned on the cardinal points, representing the four corners of the earth,
with the major entrances facing east. (2)

Hindu architecture creates a link between the gods and the worshiper in the form of three main
architectural styles, refer to Table 6.

Styles of Hindu
Features Example
Architecture
1. Nagara Style A square plan with a Khajuraho Temples
-the Northern Style, number of graduated as shown in
associated with the land projections in the Figure13.
between the Himalayas middle of each side
and Vindhyas. giving a cruciform Konark Sun Temple
shape with a number
of re-entrant angles Modhera Sun
on each side. Temple

Ossian Temple
SIKHARA (tower) gradually inclines inwards in a
convex curve and has two types:
Latina Type-
Even though the
plan is based on a
square, the walls
are broken up so
that the tower
offers the
impression of
being circular

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Sekhari Type-
Later
developments
involved the
central shaft
being surrounded
by many smaller
reproductions
which created a
spectacular visual
effect resembling
a fountain

2. Dravidian Style Unlike the nagara temple, the dravida temple is Mahabalipuram
- (in South India) with enclosed within a compound wall. Temple as shown in
the land between the Figure 15.
Krishna and Kaveri The front wall has an entrance gateway in its
rivers. centre, which is known as Gopura/ Gopuram. Brihadeshvara
Temple, Tanjore in
The shape of the main Figure16.
temple tower is known
as Vimana (Sikhara in
nagara style). The
vimana is like a stepped
pyramid that rise up
geometrically rather
than the curving
Sikhara of north India.

3. Vesara Style In particular the shape Chennakesava

- an independent style of the superstructure Temple,
created through the over the sanctum is Somanathapura
mixing of Nagara and usually pyramidal in
Dravida orders. profile, and shorter
than the northern
Sikhara tower.

Table 6. Different Styles of Hindu Architecture

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Figure 13. Lakshamana Temple in Khajuraho (Wikipedia)

Common features of Hindu temple architecture are also shown in Figure 11.

a. Ratha- a facet or vertical offset projection on the plan of the sanctum and Sikhara above, or other
structure. If there are a main facet and a secondary one, the temple has five rathas (pancharatha). There
are also temples with seven rathas (saptaratha)and nine rathas (navaratha).

Figure 14. Rathas of Hindu temples (Wikipedia)

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Figure 15. Mahabalipuram Temple (TripSavvy)

b. Garbhagriha
-It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like sanctum.
-In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
-Later it grew into a larger complex.
-The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much
ritual attention.

c. Mandapa
-It is the entrance to the temple.
-It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that
incorporate space for a large number of worshippers.
-Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.
-Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa and
Mahamandapa.

d. Sikhara or Vimana
-They are mountain like spire of a free standing temple.
-Sikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
Sikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal like structure.

e. Amalaka
-It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North Indian
temples.

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f. Kalasha
-It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.

g. Antarala (vestibule)
-Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall (mandapa).

Figure 16. Brihadeshvara Temple, Tanjore (Wikipedia)

h. Jagati
-It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.

i. Vahana
-It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which is
placed axially before the sanctum. (8)

Most Hindu temple designs include forms that are symbolic of the holy mountain, the sacred cave, and
the cosmic axis.

Geometry derived from a subdivided square or mandala is commonly used, together with a single unit
that sets all proportions. Numbers associated with the gods are important in constructing and
interpreting the mandala, which provides links to divine proportions, hence harmony with the cosmos.
Temple complexes are usually aligned on the cardinal points, representing the four corners of the earth,
with the major entrances facing east.

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VI. Jain Architecture

Jain architecture is an offshoot of Hindu and Buddhist styles. In the intial years, many Jain temples were
made adjoining the Buddhist temples following the Buddhist rock-cut architecture. Initially these
temples were mainly carved out of rock faces and the use of bricks was almost negligible. However, in
later years Jains started building temple cities hills based on the concept of mountains of immortality.

Jain Temples
1. An important aspect to be noted is that Jain built temple-cities on hills.
1. The leading idea of the plan of the Jain temple is that of a number of columns arranged squares.
Wherever it was intended to have a dome, pillars were omitted, so as to leave spaces in the form of
octagons.
2. By corbelling over the pendentives in level courses, the dome was gradually formed.

Interior layout of Jain Temples:

1. The exits of Jain temples lead into a series of columned chambers into the central halls of the
temples.
2. These temples within a temple, divided into sanctums and surrounded by a range of chapels and
shrines, and the maze of columns act as a defense against plunderers.
3. The principle impression gathered from these temples is the variety sections but in harmony with
each other.
4. The point spires above each dome is different, yet it signifies the position of a chapel, hall or any
other chamber inside.

Figure 17. Adinatha Temple in Ranakpur (Sights and Culture)

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Adinatha Temple in Ranakpur (Figure 17)

-The Adinatha Temple is also named after its builder, Dharma Vihara temple.
-It has a large number of columns carved elaborately, and it is said that no two pillars are
alike in design, refer to Figure 18.
- At a space that penetrates through two to three stories, various heights of domes are
placed, and their ceilings have sculptures that are unbelievably intricate, see Figure 19.

Figure 18. Marble columns in Adinatha Temple (Alamy Stock Photo)

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Figure 19. Intricately-designed ceiling of Adinatha temple (Pinterest)

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Parts of a Jain temple, as shown in the plan of Adinatha temple (Figure 20) are:
1. Mula-prasada- central main shrine
2. Garbagriha- sanctum
3. Mulanayaka – main statue
4. Gudha-mandapa- closed hall
5. Trikamandapa- vestibule
6. Ranga-mandapa- assembly hall
7. Meghanada-mandapa – high hall
8. Mahadara-prasada – two faced shrine
9. Panchayatana- five shrined type
10. Bhadra-prasada- east and west side shrine
11. Dev-kulika – small shrine
12. Bhamati- cloister

Figure 20. Plan of Adinatha Temple

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VII. Activity 2.1

Activity Title : Classification of Architectural Styles of India

Tasks : Using the table below, classify the 3 main architectural styles of India.
This is a collaborative activity, with three members in each group.
*Note: Individual submission to blackboard account.
Learning Resources :
Format : The output must be in standard US letter size (8.5” x 11”).
Full name, subject code and activity code (Assignment 1.1) at the
upper left corner of the document.
Maximum of 3 pages only.
Rubric : See Rubric for Activities.
Note: Under the Completion criterion, the rate will be based on the
number of group members who submitted an output.
Duration : It will take no more than 45 minutes.
Submission : Upload to Blackboard on or before Thursday, 12:00 noon.
Feedback : See Feedback section of Course Details.

ARCHITECTURAL ARCHITECTURAL
EXAMPLE FEATURES
CHARACTER TYPOLOGY
Ex. Formal Landscape Ex. Mosque Ex. Friday
(for Islamic Mosque
Architecture)
1. BUDDHIST
ARCHITECTURE
2. HINDU
ARCHITECTURE
3. JAIN
ARCHITECTURE

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