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HRE - Module

This document discusses an introduction to highway engineering. It defines highway engineering as a branch of transportation engineering that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of roads. It outlines some key aspects of highway engineering including planning, locating, and developing roads, materials used in construction, traffic performance and control, and road drainage. It also discusses highway plans, their purposes, and objectives. Finally, it emphasizes the significance of transportation, highlighting how it has enhanced life over the years and enabled economic activities, travel, and widespread mobility.

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Ranier Andrei Villanueva

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)

2K views242 pages

HRE - Module

Uploaded by

Ranier Andrei Villanueva

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 242

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

THE NATIONAL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY

ALANGILAN CAMPUS

HIGHWAY AND
RAILROAD
ENGINEERING
OVERVIEW
CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

This book emphasizes traffic and highway engineering as a key

branch of civil engineering. It appeals to students because they
can relate directly to problems created by motor vehicle travel.
We believe that this subject is appropriate for a transportation
curriculum or as an introductory transportation course because it
provides the opportunity to present information that is both
engaging and difficult for engineering students who intend to
work in other fields as well as helpful for engineering students
who may pursue careers in or related to transportation
engineering. Additionally, this book may be used as a reference by
graduate students and employed transportation engineers. The
main goal of this book is to give students a means to learn about
transportation engineering, get a sense of what it entails, and
experience the difficulties that come with the job.

The text chapters contain information that will aid students in

understanding the origins of transportation, its value, and how
much it permeates every aspect of our everyday lives.
Additionally, the text also provides information about the basic
areas in which transportation engineers work: traffic operations
and management, planning, design, construction, and
maintenance. As a result, this book has been divided into eight
sections: Part 1: Introduction (to Highway Engineering, its
background, and systems; Part 2: Highway Development and
Planning; Part 3: Design Criteria for Highway and Railway; Part 4:
Geometric Design fir Highway; Part 5: Railway Engineering; Part
6:Transportation Infrastructure; Part 7: Traffic Engineering; Part
8:Pavement Engineering

ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

TABLE OF
CONTENTS
COVER PAGE i

OVERVIEW ii

MODULE 1 01

MODULE 2 09

MODULE 3 19

MODULE 4 31

MODULE 5 76

MODULE 6 102

MODULE 7 118

MODULE 8 146

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 162

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 235

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 1

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION

Technology and scientific principles are applied to the planning,

functional design, operation, and management of facilities for any
mode of transportation in order to provide the safe, quick,
comfortable, convenient, inexpensive, and environmentally
friendly movement of people and commodities (transport). It is
within the umbrella of civil engineering. The field of
transportation engineering covers a wide range of topics, such as
designing streets, highways, and intersections; mass transit
systems; urban planning; traffic control systems and devices;
travel demand and traffic flow; sizing transportation facilities;
operations and management for roadways; visibility of highway
signs; traffic congestion and safety hazards; and management and
economics of transportation systems.

Urban planning and technical forecasting decisions are a part of

transportation engineering planning. Using an urban
transportation planning model, technical forecasting of passenger
travel typically entails the calculation of trip production (how
many trips are needed for what purpose), trip distribution (where
the traveler is going), mode choice (the mode being utilized), and
route assignment (which streets or routes are being used). Other
aspects of traveler decisions, such as auto ownership, trip
chaining (the option to combine separate visits into a tour), and
the decision of where to live or conduct business, can be included
in more advanced forecasting (known as land use forecasting).
Because passenger trips frequently represent the peak of demand
for any transportation system, they are the focus of transport
engineering. The design aspects include the sizing of
transportation facilities (lanes and facility capacity issues) as
well as designing the geometry of the roadway. Likewise, the
operations and management involve traffic engineering, so that
vehicles move smoothly on the road or track. A review of
descriptions of the scope of various committees indicates that
while facility planning and design continue to be the core of the
transportation engineering field, such areas as operations
planning, logistics, network analysis, financing, and policy
analysis are also important to civil engineers, particularly to those
working in highway and urban transportation.

Planning, designing, constructing, maintaining, operating, and

managing transportation facilities are the key components of
transportation engineering as it is conducted by civil engineers.
The infrastructure enables mobility via air, road, train, pipeline,

References:
https://www.brandedcivil.com/2020/01/highway-engineering-introduction.html
https://blog.mihlfeld.com/the-6-modes-of-transportation
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/transportation-infrastructure
https://www.glassdoor.com/Career/transportation-engineer-career_KO0,23.htm
https://www.mcgill.ca/civil/undergrad/areas/transportation
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 2

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

water, and even space. The size of transportation facilities (how

many lanes or how much capacity the facility has), choosing the
pavement's materials and thickness, and planning the geometry
(vertical and horizontal alignment) of the roadway are all design
considerations in transport engineering (or track).

What is Highway Engineering?

Highway Engineering is a branch of transportation engineering

which deals with the design, construction and maintenance of
different types of roads. It is also called as road engineering and
it involves the study of the following:

1. Planning, location and development of roads.

2. Materials required for their construction.
3. Highway traffic performance and its control.
4. Drainage of roads etc.

HIGHWAY PLANS

The drawings prepared from the data collected during different

surveys conducted for locating a highway are known as highway
plans or drawings. The various plans or drawings prepared in
connection with a road project are key map, index map,
preliminary survey plans, etc. The details of additional works such
as bridges, culverts, railway crossing, etc. are also prepared on
separate sheets.

Purposes, Objectives of Highway Plans

1. To find the earth work evolved.

2. To prepare estimates of the road project.

SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSPORTATION

Transport has helped to enhance life over the years and the
current world would not be able to thrive without the ability to
transfer things from one place to another. In general, different
parts of the world would not have been able to achieve a
fraction of what they have if there was no transport and the
solutions that have been derived from it. Economic activities,
travel, and widespread mobility all depend on it.

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

Transport offers numerous opportunities within the

employment sector. Traffic control, pilots, captains, delivery
services, and drivers are some of the jobs that are provided
through the industry.

Improving links to transport boosts an area’s popularity and

subsequent development. It has opened up numerous doors of
possibilities and its value cannot be overemphasized.

In both developing and developed economies, transport

continues to play a crucial role. When transport infrastructure
is properly connected, the environment is conducive to
economic growth. However, the lack of adequate transport can
inhibit economic development due to constraints that limit
opportunities.

Transport is essential for connecting travelers to locations.

Generally, the travel sector’s growth is dependent on the
transport infrastructure that is put in place. Many countries
seek solace in a thriving tourism sector that yields profitability
and helps to fill gaps in the nation’s budget. It is hard to
picture a world where people cannot travel or explore other
destinations.

Transport connects the global system by creating a network

that makes it easier for people to go to different places
because different means of transport are available.

It is an important activity that provides a supportive framework

for the demand for goods and services while ensuring that
customers can access what they need as soon as they need it.

Transport is necessary for every stage of the production

process, from designing concepts and manufacturing to
delivery and consumption. Maximizing on the prospects of
business functions can only be achieved if each procedure and
transaction is properly coordinated.

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

1. Road Transportation

The first, and most common mode of transportation in logistics,

is road. From walking to horses to wagons to bikes to cars to
trucks, road transportation has been around longer than mode and
is utilized the most of any mode in logistics. With the continued
improvement of vehicles and road infrastructure, transportation
by road is the most versatile of the four main modes with the least
geographical constraints. This attribute of road transport makes it
the preferred mode for smaller loads over a shorter distances and
as such, road is the only mode that performs door-to-door
deliveries. Consequently, most shipments that initially were
carried by another mode of transportation are completed by road
transportation.

2. Maritime Transportation

Shipping by water has been practiced for thousands of years

and remains pivotal to today’s global trade. 90% of all
international trade is accomplished through maritime
transportation. Cargo ships travel on almost every major body of
water and have capacity to transport the highest volume of
freight of any mode of transportation at the lowest cost. The
routes available to container ships are calculated and strictly
followed. Many routes used today have been used for centuries.
However, new routes are still being sought out and tested for
optimal supply chain efficiency. In the past few months, Maersk
sent a cargo ship over the Arctic Circle for the first time in history
to explore the potential for increased efficiency in shipping
routes.

3. Air Transportation

The newest mode of transportation is air. Airplanes are

becoming increasingly important in domestic and international
trade. With continually improving technologies and practically
unlimited route possibilities, air transportation is the fastest
growing and most time efficient shipping mode. Consequently,
many companies, such as Amazon and UPS, have purchased their
own fleets of airplanes to gain a competitive edge in the growing
market. As air travel has become increasingly advanced and
dependable,more companies are trusting airplanes with high value

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

freight and goods. The increasing popularity of flight as a
preferred way to travel also makes shipping by air more
convenient as shipments regularly piggyback on passenger planes,
further making air an economic way to transport goods. There are
a couple drawbacks to air transport. In its current state, air
transport is still, by far, the most expensive way to ship. Also, due
to the nature of air travel, weight and volume of freight has to
stay minimal to ensure the safety of the flight. The level of
emissions produced by air transport are also the highest of any
mode.

TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES

As world populations have grown over thousands of years, so

has the need for improved systems of transportation. As a result,
people have modified their environment by building transportation
infrastructure to make movement faster and easier.
Transportation is the movement of goods and people from one
place to another. In ancient times, people crafted simple boats
out of logs, walked, rode animals and, later, devised wheeled
vehicles to move from place to place. They used existing
waterways or simple roads for transportation. Over time, people
built more complex means of transportation. They learned how to
harness various sources of power, such as wind, steam, and
combustion, to move barges, ships, trains, automobiles, and
airplanes. These new means of transportation required people to
change their environments by building transportation
infrastructure. Transportation infrastructure is the underlying
system of public works designed to facilitate movement.

Past peoples, such as the ancient Egyptians, built ports in coastal

areas for bringing and receiving goods. They also adapted internal
natural waterways using dams or other means, to make them
navigable. Ancient people also constructed artificial waterways
called canals to move goods from place to place. Canals
continued to be an important part of transportation infrastructure
in societies around the world, particularly in Europe and China
during the Middle Ages. Canal building in the United States
reached its peak during the mid-1800s, but in other places, such
as the Netherlands, canals are still an important part of the
transportation infrastructure. Overland travel has also changed
over time. Historic civilizations, including the ancient Egyptians,
Babylonians, and Romans, built roads and highways out of earth
and stones to connect cities and rural areas. Roadbuilding in
Europe and elsewhere improved during 1600s and 1700s, with
increased trade and better vehicles.
References:
https://www.brandedcivil.com/2020/01/highway-engineering-introduction.html
https://blog.mihlfeld.com/the-6-modes-of-transportation
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/transportation-infrastructure
https://www.glassdoor.com/Career/transportation-engineer-career_KO0,23.htm
https://www.mcgill.ca/civil/undergrad/areas/transportation
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 6

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

With the development of the steam locomotive in the early
1800s, people began to build railways to take advantage of train
travel, particularly in the United States and Britain. By the mid-
1800s, workers had constructed around 11,000 kilometers (7,000
miles) of railroad track in England and Wales. In the United States,
by 1900, there were more than 320,000 kilometers (200,000 miles)
of track. Also during the mid-1800s, people developed means of
building railways underground. The world’s first subway line was
opened in London, England, in 1863. Subways are still an important
part of transportation infrastructure in many of the world’s
largest cities. Automobile ownership became widespread by the
mid-1900s, particularly in the United States and Europe, and
people with cars soon demanded better roads. These roads would
allow them to move away from cities and the need for mass
transportation. Communities and governments rebuilt their roads,
and major highway systems developed over time. European
countries were the first to develop highway systems. In the United
States, public demand from the 1930s to the 1950s led to
government funding of the massive U.S. interstate roadway
system.

BASIC ASPECT OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

On streets and highways, people and products must be moved

safely and effectively during this engineering phase. Additionally,
it addresses the planning, geometric layout, and traffic
management of roads, streets, and highways. Traffic engineering
is another name for this. Transportation has always played an
essential role in the development of society, originally with regard
to trade routes and harbors, but more recently with regard to
land- and air-based systems as well. It is the transportation
engineer's responsibility to plan, design, build, operate and
maintain these systems of transport, in such a way as to provide
for the safe, efficient and convenient movement of people and
goods. Increasing environmental concerns have revived an
interest in the development and management of public
transportation systems. Professional activities can range from
road and transit design and operation at the urban scale, to
railroad, seaway and airport location, construction and operation
at the regional and national scale. Transportation engineering in
North America focuses on automobile infrastructures, although it
also encompasses sea, air and rail systems. Automobile
infrastructures can be split into the traditional area of highway
design and planning, and the rapidly growing area of traffic
control systems. The transportation engineer faces the challenge

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

of developing both network links and major terminals to satisfy

transportation demands, with due regard for the resultant land-
use, environmental and other impacts of these facilities.

ROLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERS

Transportation engineers plan, design, and build transportation

systems and infrastructures such as highways, bridges, streets,
and tunnels – along with supporting systems to handle things like
lighting, safety, and traffic control. They devise strategies for
incorporating innovative and efficient technologies into the
design and building processes. They provide technical expertise,
prepare drawings and schematics, and oversee day-today
operations as projects are being executed. They perform analysis
and calculations to determine capacity, identify and address
safety concerns, and assist with problem resolution throughout all
phases of the design, construction, and maintenance processes.

What responsibilities are common for Transportation Engineer

jobs?

Participate in service improvement/resiliency initiatives and

key projects.
Actively communicate with clients to ensure needs are being
met.
Analyze challenges, define successful solution alternatives and
proactively solve problems.
Conceive, plan and conduct research in complex problem areas.
Participate in vendor, supplier, and contractor management at
worksites.
Conduct analysis and audits of electrical and civil systems, and
lead improvements.

MODULE 2

ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS
AND HIERARCHY and
CONSIDERATIONS FOR
HIGHWAY PLANNING
MODULE 2: ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS AND HIERARCHY 9

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

TOPIC 1. ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS AND HIERARCHY

Pavement or Road is an open, generally public way for the

passage of vehicles, people, and animals. Pavement is finished
with a hard smooth surface. It helped make them durable and able
to withstand traffic and the environment. A road network is made
up of different road types, each of which provides access to
property and facilitates vehicular transit between places of origin
and destination in a specific way. The systematic grouping of
roads into systems based on the kind and level of service they
offer to the general public is known as road classification.

In general, highways are based upon two primary functions:

a. MOBILITY: Continuous, high-speed travel. In addition, Mobility is

defined as the potential for movement and the ability to get from
one place to another using one or more modes of transport to
meet daily needs.

b.ACCESSIBILITY: Ability to get to destination direct access to

adjoining property. It is the quality of travel and takes place at the
community and individual level through Access Management
techniques to provide access to various land uses. It focuses on
travel time, travel cost, travel options, comfort, and risk while
addressing the needs of all within the community.

The connection between land access

and traffic mobility is depicted in the
Figure of Different road types offer
various degrees of accessibility and
movement. Local facilities, for instance,
highlight the role of land access. When it
comes to movement, arterials place a
strong emphasis on mobility, whereas
collectors offer a compromise between
access and mobility.

References:
https://www.civilengineeringterms.com/pavement-and-foundation/definition-of-road-or-pavement
https://www.eltis.org/glossary/
https://community-planning.extension.org/what-are-the-differences-between-mobility-accessibility-and-connectivity-in-
transportation-planning/
MODULE 2: ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS AND HIERARCHY 10

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

In the Philippines, roads and highways are classified and

named according to their functions. Based on DPWH D.O. No. 133,
s. 2018, Philippine roads are classified as follows:

1.National Roads (Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary) National roads

are continuous in extent that form part of the main trunk line
system.

● Primary roads - connect major cities (at least around 100,000

population) and comprise the national road system
● Secondary roads - connect cities to National Primary Roads,
except in metropolitan areas; connect major airports to National
Primary Roads; connect tourist service centers to National Primary
Roads or other National Secondary Roads; connect cities not
classified as major cities; connect provincial capitals within the
same region; connect National Primary Roads to National
Government Infrastructures
●Tertiary roads - other existing roads under DPWH which perform
a local function

2.Bypass/Diversion Roads- These roads divert through traffic

away from the city/municipality business centers.

3. Provincial Roads - Provincial roads connect cities and

municipalities without traversing National Roads. They also
connect National Roads to major provincial infrastructures as well
as to barangays through rural areas.

4. Municipal and City Roads - Roads within a Poblacion that

provide inter- barangay connections to major municipal and city
infrastructures without traversing Provincial Roads.

5. Barangay Roads - Other roads within the barangay and not

covered in the above definitions.

6. Expressways - These are highways with limited access, normally

with interchanges. They may include facilities for levying tolls for
passage in an open or closed system.

References
https://www.aboutcivil.org/classification-of-roads-highways.html
https://civiconcepts.com/blog/classification-of-roads#Classification_Of_Roads
https://www.virginiadot.org/Functional_Classification_Comprehensive_Guide.pdf
MODULE 2: ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS AND HIERARCHY 11

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

Other highway classifications by functions:

7. By-passes - These are roads or highways that avoid a built- up

area, town or city proper to let through traffic flow without
interference from local traffic reduce congestion and improve
road safety where a toll for passage is levied in an open or closed
system.

8. Parkways - These are arterial highways for non- commercial

traffic with full or partial control of access, usually located within
a park or a ribbon of park-like development.

References:
https://www.aboutcivil.org/classification-of-roads-highways.html
https://civiconcepts.com/blog/classification-of-roads#Classification_Of_Roads
https://www.virginiadot.org/Functional_Classification_Comprehensive_Guide.pdf
MODULE 2: CONSIDERATIONS FOR HIGHWAY PLANNING 12

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

TOPIC 2.CONSIDERATIONS FOR HIGHWAY PLANNING

In order to ensure the safe and efficient transportation of

people and products, the engineering discipline of highway
engineering, which is a part of civil engineering, encompasses the
planning, design, building, operation, and maintenance of
highways, bridges, and tunnels. The assessment of the present
and future traffic volumes on a road network is a component of
highway planning. Another fundamental requirement for the
construction of the highway is the planning of the highway.
Highway engineers make an effort to foresee and examine the
potential civil effects of highway networks. The negative
consequences on the environment, such as noise pollution, air
pollution, water pollution, and other ecological repercussions, are
some things to take into account.
The goals of highway planning are to (a) plan a highway
network for the quick, efficient, and safe movement of people and
goods, (b) keep the overall cost of building and maintaining the
network's roads to a minimum, (c) plan for future development
and traffic needs for a specific design period, (d) phase in road
development projects based on utility and importance as well as
available financial resources, and (e) prioritize road development
projects.
Along with its highway classifications, roads have different
planning considerations based on their functions.

1. National Roads
●Limited frontage access
●Development set well back from the highway
●All access to premises provided via provincial roads
●Number of intersections are minimized
● Suitable at-grade channelized intersections for minor flows and
other elements

2. Expressways
●No frontage access
●Development set well back from the highway
● Grade-separated intersections for extremely high flows and
other intersecting expressways
●Number of intersections are minimized
● Where necessary or for emergency purposes, parking/stopping
to be provided clear of the main carriageway

References:

https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/technological-university-of-the-philippines/bachelor-of-science-in-civil-engineering/highway-
development-and-planning-importance-classification-of-roads-road-patterns-planning-surveys-highway-alignment-and-surveys/9521269
MODULE 2: CONSIDERATIONS FOR HIGHWAY PLANNING 13

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

3. Provincial Roads
● Limited frontage access. In exceptional circumstances, large
individual developments may have direct access when a high level
intersection is provided
●Development set back from the highway
● Most development to be given access via intersections with
local distributor roads
●All intersections will normally be at-grade
●Turning traffic should be separated out from the through traffic
●Separated pedestrians/bikeways remote from the carriageway
● Pedestrian crossing points should be clearly defined and
controlled
●Parking on the road should not be permitted
● Bus stops and other loading areas should be in separate well
designed lay bys
● Regular stopping places should be identified and safe stopping
places established

4. City/Municipal Roads
● The road is only for local traffic; through traffic is adequately
accommodated on an alternative more direct main road
● Where possible, an industrial traffic route should not pass
through a residential area
● Vehicle speeds should be kept low so long straight roads should
be avoided
● Parking is allowed, but alternative off-road provision should be
made if possible
● Non-motorized traffic is of equal importance to motor traffic
and separate should be provided if possible
● Where non-motorized traffic needs to use a local distributor it
should be separated from motorized traffic
● The road width can be varied to provide for parking or to give
emphasis to crossing points depending upon traffic flows
● Bus stops and other loading areas should be in separate well
designed lay-bys
● Through-movements should be made awkward and inconvenient
to discourage them

References:

https://www.aboutcivil.org/classification-of-roads-highways.html
https://civiconcepts.com/blog/classification-of-roads#Classification_Of_Roads
https://www.virginiadot.org/Functional_Classification_Comprehensive_Guide.pdf
MODULE 2: CONSIDERATIONS FOR HIGHWAY PLANNING 14

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

Summary of Minimum Requirements of different of roads in

the Philippines

In addition to these considerations, the following design data

are necessary in planning and design of highways and railroads:

a. Field Survey Information

Topography is a major factor in determining the physical
location, alignment, gradients, sight distance, cross sections and
other design elements of a highway. Hills, valleys, steep slopes,
rivers and lakes often imposed limitations upon location and
design. In the case of flat-land areas, topography in itself may
exercise little if any control on location but it may cause
difficulties in some design elements such as drainage or grade
separation.

b. Highway Location
Highway location is concerned with gathering of
pertinent data for more effective highway planning, design,
construction and operation. It consists mainly of reconnaissance,
topographic surveys, establishment of horizontal and vertical
controls, centerline staking, centerline profile and cross-sectional
leveling, bridge site survey, parcellary survey, and other surveys
related to highway engineering. The survey shall be under the
direct supervision of a Locating Engineer.

References:

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

▪ Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance is carried out in order to plan the best
possible horizontal and vertical alignments. Rock cuts,
agricultural farms, steep side slopes, slides and other controls are
identified. Bridge crossings, expensive buildings and structures
are also noted. Reconnaissance is substantiated by the study of
available maps, and stereoscopic examination of the site on foot,
all of which aid in the elimination of costly locations to limit the
choice to one or two possible routes.

▪ Preliminary Survey
In the preliminary survey the topography of the strip or
strips flagged is obtained and from which a topographic map will
be prepared to be utilized as the basic framework for projection
of the line in the office. The required preliminary borings shall
include review of available topographic and geologic information,
plus aerial photographs, in addition to site examination.

▪ Utility Service Records

Depending on the location of a project, the utilities
involved could include (1) sanitary sewers, (2) water supply lines,
(3) oil, gas and petroleum product pipelines, (4) overhead and
underground power and communication lines including fiber optic
cables, (5) cable television lines, (6) wireless communication
towers, (7) drainage and irrigation lines, and (8) special tunnels
for building connections. Utility service providers should be
consulted and records obtained for all services in a project area,
including exact locations and depths. Obtaining Utility service
records benefits both highway agencies and the impacted utilities
in the following ways.

●Unnecessary utility relocations are avoided

●Unexpected conflicts with utilities are reduced

●Safety is enhanced

References:

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

Typical Roadway section for a National Road in Urbanized

Areas showing Underground Service Utilities

Typical Roadway section for a National Road in Urbanized

Areas showing Underground Service Utilities

References:

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

▪ Office Projection
In the office, the proposed highway line is projected on
the topographic map which is fitted as close as possible into the
terrain within the desired standards. Many lines should be tried so
as to obtain the most economical line without increasing the cost
of surveys. This is a trial-and-error process to obtain the best line,
in consideration of constraints such as alignment, grades, sight
distances and compensation.

▪ Final Location Survey

Final location survey is done to transfer the office
projection of the best line to the actual site in the field. Whenever
possible, video logs of a site with changes are a useful tool to
assist the process of designing upgrading and rehabilitation
schemes.
CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

MODULE 3

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR

HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY
MODULE 3: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY 19

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

A comprehensive list of factors to be taken into account while

negotiating a set of road standards makes up design criteria.
These include goals for resource management, environmental
limitations, safety, aspects of the physical environment (including
topography, climate, and soils), traffic needs, and traffic service
levels.

The elements of design are influenced by a wide variety of

design controls, engineering criteria, and project-specific
objectives.

The goal in Highway Design is to provide safe roads for all road
users, and not just those in motor vehicles. The principle that
‘man is the reference standard’ implies that roads must be
adapted to the limitations of human capacity. This leads to what is
called the ‘safe systems approach’ which encourages:

Simpler, self-explaining roads (with less reliance on traffic

signs).

Designing roads that encourage / enforce safe speeds (the safe

speed being the one that guarantees the safety of the most
vulnerable road user).

Forgiving roadsides (the ‘Clear Zone’ idea about unobstructed,

traversable space beyond the edge of the travelled way for
recovery of errant vehicles).

The World Bank’s Sustainable safe Road Design Manual also

discusses.

Functionality – developing a hierarchy of mono-functional

roads (e.g. truck, distributor and access).

Homogeneity – avoiding differences in speed, direction of

travel, and mass of vehicles (with segregation of incompatible
road users).

Predictability – ensuring that roads are easy to understand and

there are not nasty surprises (as for ‘self-explaining’ roads).

References:
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/negros-oriental-state-university/bachelor-of-sscience-in-civil-engineering/design-criteria-
for-highways/14343879#:~:text=Design%20criteria%20consist%20of%20a,requirements%2C%20and%20traffic%20service%20levels.
https://www.coursehero.com/file/99251421/DESIGN-CRITERIA-FOR-HIGHWAYS-and-Railwaysdocx/
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TOPIC 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROLS IN OPTIMIZING OR

IMPROVING THE DESIGN OF THE VARIOUS HIGHWAY AND STREET
FUNCTIONAL CLASSES.

1. Human Factors and Driver Performance

The suitability of a design rests as much on how effectively

drivers are able to use the highway as on any other criteria.
Considerations include;

Driver tasks that include vehicle control (such as simultaneous

multiple tasks and reaction time), guidance (such as road
following, lane placement, car following, passing maneuvers
and response to traffic control devices) and navigation.
Use of the facility by older drivers and older pedestrians.
Errors due to driver deficiencies and situational demands.
Speed.

Properly designed highways that provide positive guidance to

drivers can operate at a high level of efficiency and with relatively
few crashes.

The World Health Organization recorded 1.35 million people died

due to road traffic crashes. More than 90% of this recorded fatal
road crashes occur in lowand middle-income countries. More so,
2019 statistics showed that the leading cause of death for
children and young-adults aged 5 to 29 years is road traffic
injuries (WHO). The organization tackles road safety through
Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020.

In the Philippines, as of 2018 data, there are a total of 116,906

incidents of road traffic crashes in Metro Manila alone. On average
there were 334 reported accidents per day with one resulting in
fatality, 56 being non-fatal and 276 leading to damages to
property (topgear.com). This leads to the Philippine Road Safety
Action Plan 2017-2022, a program developed by the Department of
Transportation adopting a vision of zero road traffic death, with
an interim target to reduce road death rate by at least 20% by
2022.

References:
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/negros-oriental-state-university/bachelor-of-sscience-in-civil-
engineering/design-criteria-for-highways
https://www.coursehero.com/file/99251421/DESIGN-CRITERIA-FOR-HIGHWAYS-and-Railwaysdocx/
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The interventions are organized according to the Action Plan of

the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020, focusing on the
following:

1. Road safety management.

2. Safe roads and mobility.
3. Safe vehicles.
4. Safe road users.
5. Post-crash care.

2. Vehicles

Four general classes of design vehicles are:

passenger cars,
buses
trucks
recreational vehicles

In the design of any highway facility, the designer should

consider the largest design vehicle that is likely to use that
facility with considerable frequency or a design vehicle with
special characteristics appropriate to a particular location in
determining the design of such critical features as radii at
intersections and radii of turning roadways. As a general rule;

A passenger car may be selected when the main traffic

generator is a parking lot.
A two-axle single unit truck may be used for intersection design
of residential streets and park roads.
A three-axle single-unit truck may be used for the design of
collector streets and other facilities where larger single-unit
trucks are likely.
A bus may be used in the design of highway intersections that
are designated bus routes and that have relatively few large
trucks using them.

References:
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/negros-oriental-state-university/bachelor-of-sscience-in-civil-
engineering/design-criteria-for-highways
https://www.coursehero.com/file/99251421/DESIGN-CRITERIA-FOR-HIGHWAYS-and-Railwaysdocx/
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DESIGN VEHICLE DIMENSION

MINIMUM TURNING RADII OF DESING VEHICLES

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3.Traffic Characteristics

The design of a highway and its features should explicitly cover

traffic volumes and traffic characteristics. Traffic volumes
obtained from field studies (such as hourly and daily traffic
volumes, type and weight of vehicles and traffic trends) can
indicate the need for improvement and directly influence the
selection of geometric design features, such as number of lanes,
widths, alignments and grades. Relevant studies include average
daily traffic (ADT), peak hour traffic, directional distribution,
composition of traffic, projection of future traffic demands,
speed and traffic flow relationships characterized by the volume
flow rate in vehicles per hour, the average speed in kilometers per
hour, and the traffic density in vehicles per kilometer.

4. Physical Elements

These elements include highway capacity, access control and

management, pedestrians, bicycle facilities, safety, and
environment. Knowledge of highway capacity is essential to
properly fit a planned highway to traffic demands. Access control
to manage interference with through traffic is achieved through
the regulation of public access rights to and from properties
abutting the highway facilities, and can comprise full control,
partial control, access management or driveway/entrance
regulations. Pedestrian facilities including sidewalks, crosswalks,
traffic control features, curb cuts, ramps, bus stops, loading
areas, stairs, escalators and elevators warrant due attention in
both rural and urban areas. Existing streets and highways provide
most of the network used by bicycle travel, making bicycle traffic
an important element for consideration in highway design.
Because the number of crashes increases with the number of
decisions that need to be made by the driver, it is in the interest
of safety that roadways should be designed to reduce the need for
driver decisions and to reduce unexpected situations.

5. Economic Factors

Highway economics is concerned with the cost of a proposed

improvement and the benefits resulting from it.
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TOPIC 2. DESIGN CONTROLS OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

1. Anticipated Traffic Volume

The design of a highway or any part thereof should consider

jointly all data relating to traffic such as traffic volume, character
of traffic and axle loading. Financing, quality of foundations,
availability of materials, cost of right-of-way, and other factors
have important bearing on the design. However, traffic volume
indicates the service for which the improvement is being made
and directly affects the geometric features of design such as
width, alignment, grades, etc. It is no more rational to design a
highway without traffic information than it is to design a bridge
without the knowledge of weights and numbers of vehicles it is
intended to support. Traffic information serves to establish the
‘loads’ for geometric highway design.

A road should be designed so that it will accommodate or can

be readily changed to accommodate the number of vehicles which
is estimated to pass it towards the end of its life. This number is
called the design volume. In estimating the design volume, the
minimum life is commonly assumed to be 10 to 15 years for a
flexible pavement, and 20 years for a rigid pavement. Traffic
volumes are usually the annual average daily traffic (AADT),
though at critical points on a road, such as intersections, peak
traffic figures are also taken into account. The number of vehicles
using a road in a given time determines the number of traffic
lanes required and indicates whether there is a need for auxiliary
lanes for slow speed traffic and or whether speed change lanes
are required at intersections.

The design hourly volume (DHV) should be representative of the

future year chosen for design. It should be predicated on current
traffic (existing and attracted) plus all traffic increases (normal
traffic growth, generated traffic and development traffic) that
would occur during the period between the current and the future
year chosen for design. A period of 20 years is widely used as a
basis for design, for which the usual traffic increase on a highway
improvement is in the range of 50 to 150%. Where the highway is
to be an expressway, traffic increase is likely to be higher, in the
range of 80 to 200%.
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On minor, low volume roads, average daily traffic (ADT) normally

is sufficient. On most highways a DHV equal to the 30th highest
hourly volume (abbreviated as ‘30 HV’) is usually used for design.
On highways with unusual or highly seasonal fluctuation in traffic
flow, it may be necessary to use a design hourly volume other than
the 30 HV.

The design traffic data should include the following elements:

ADT – current average daily traffic, year specified.

ADT – future average daily traffic, year specified.

DHV – future design hourly volume, two-way unless otherwise

specified (DHV usually equals 30 HV).

K – Ratio of DHV to ADT; generally 12% to 18% for Rural and 8 to

12% for Urban.

D – Directional distribution of DHV, one-way volume in

predominant direction of travel expressed as percentage of
total. D normally varies from about 50 to 80% of two-way DHV,
with an average of 67%.

T – Trucks, exclusive of light delivery trucks, expressed as a

percentage of DHV. As an average on main rural highways, T is 7
to 9% of DHV and 13% of ADT; where weekend peaks govern, the
average may be 5% to 8% of DHV.

For important intersections, data should be obtained to show

simultaneous traffic movement during both the morning and
evening peak hours.
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2. Character of Traffic

All roads should be designed to accommodate trucks, buses,

passenger vehicles, handcarts, cyclists and pedestrians with
safety and convenience. A thorough knowledge of the design
vehicle’s weight, dimensions, mobility and other characteristics is
essential for good design.

The vehicle which should be used in design for normal

operation is the largest one which represents a significant
percentage of the traffic for the design year. For design of most
highways accommodating truck traffic, one of the design
semitrailer combinations should be used – refer to Table 2.3.1 and
Table 2.3.2. A design check should be made for the largest vehicle
expected to ensure that such a vehicle can negotiate the
designated turns, particularly if pavements are curbed. This is
done using a swept path analysis using either turning circle
templates or software. Knowing the predominant character of
traffic to use the highway, the required width of lane could be
determined. The total width of a highway is the sum of the widths
of traffic lanes required, dividing islands, curbs and gutter,
shoulders and/or walkways, ditches or gutters, drains and other
special features.

3. Design Speed

The design speed is the speed determined for design and

correlation of the physical features of a highway that influence
vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of the highway when
conditions are so favorable that the design features of the
highway govern. The choice of design is influenced principally by
the character of terrain, the extent of man-made features and
economic considerations. Once selected, it sets the limits for
curvature, sight distance and other geometric features. In the
design of a substantial length of highway it is desirable, although
it may not be feasible, to assume a constant design speed on
certain sections. Changes in terrain and other physical controls
may dictate a change in design speed on certain sections. If so,
the introduction of a lower or higher design speed should not be
affected abruptly but over a sufficient distance to permit drivers
to change speed gradually before reaching the section of highway
with the different design speed.
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When available funds are limited, it is impractical to reduce

design speed just to save construction cost; rather the savings
should be on other features.

4.Design Traffic (Vehicles)

The operating characteristics of motor vehicles should be

considered in analyzing a facility. The major considerations are
vehicle types and dimensions, turning radii and off-tracking,
resistance to motion, power requirements, acceleration
performance, and deceleration performance. Motor vehicles
include passenger cars, trucks, vans, buses, recreational vehicles,
and motorcycles. These vehicles have unique weight, length, size,
and operational characteristics. The forces that must be
overcome by motor vehicles if they are to move are rolling, air,
grade, curve, and inertial resistance. The weight/power ratios are
useful for indicating the overall performance in overcoming these
forces.

5. Highway Capacity

Roadway conditions include geometric and other elements. In

some cases, these influence the capacity of a road; in others, they
can affect a performance measure such as speed, but not the
capacity or maximum flow rate of the facility.

Roadway factors include the following:

Number of lanes
The type of facility and its development environment.
Lane widths.
Shoulder widths and lateral clearances.
Design speed.
Horizontal and vertical alignments.
Axle loads.
Availability of exclusive turn lanes at intersections

The horizontal and vertical alignment of a highway depends on

the design speed and the topography of the land on which it is
constructed.

In general, the severity of the terrain reduces capacity and

service flow rates. This is significant for two-lane rural highways,
where the severity of terrain not only can affect the operating
capabilities of individual vehicles in the traffic stream, but also
can restrict opportunities for passing slow-moving vehicles.
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6. Classification of Highway

Certain characteristics distinguish multilane suburban and rural

highways from expressways. For example, vehicles may enter or
leave multilane highways at intersections and driveways, and they
can encounter traffic signals.

Design standards for multilane highways tend to be lower than

those for expressways, although a multilane highway approaches
expressway conditions as its access points and turning volumes
approach zero. Moreover, the visual setting and the developed
frontage along multilane highways have a greater impact on
drivers than they do along expressways.

The multilane highway is similar to urban streets in many

respects, although it lacks the regularity of traffic signals and
tends to have greater control on the number of access points per
kilometer.

Also, its design standards are generally higher than those for
urban streets. The speed limits on multilane highways are often 10
to 20 kph. higher than speed limits on urban streets. Pedestrian
activity, as well as parking, is minimal, unlike on urban streets.

Multilane highways differ substantially from two-lane highways,

principally because a driver on a multilane highway is able to pass
slower-moving vehicles without using lanes designated for
oncoming traffic. Multilane highways also tend to be located near
urban areas and often connect urban areas; they usually have
better design features than two-lane highways, including
horizontal and vertical curvature.

7. Accident Information

On all proposed projects, the accident history should be analyzed

and potentially hazardous features and locations identified to
determine appropriate safety enhancement. A study of accidents
by location, type, severity, contributing circumstances,
environmental conditions, and time periods may suggest possible
safety deficiencies.
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The following tables contain the minimum design standards for

Philippine highways and for tourism roads respectively.

MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARDS FOR HIGHWAYS

EXCEPT TOURISM ROADS

MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARDS FOR TOURISM ROADS

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MODULE 4

GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR

HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY
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INTRODUCTION

The visible dimensions of components including horizontal and

vertical alignments, cross sections, junctions or intersections,
super elevations, and earthworks are discussed in relation to the
geometric design of highways. These fundamental components are
included in all linear infrastructure, including roads and railroads.
The basic objective of geometric design is to produce a roadway
that is both aesthetically pleasing and environmentally friendly
while also being safe, functional, and economical to operate.

Geometric design is influenced by vehicle, driver, and traffic

considerations. Because these features change over time, it is a
dynamic discipline where design rules are frequently modified to
yield better results. In order to maximize safety and smooth
operation of trains at the maximum permitted speed while
carrying the heaviest load on the axle, it is crucial that the rails
have a good geometric design. The train's speed and axle weight
are significant factors that are occasionally taken into account
when creating the geometric design of the railway.

VERTICAL and HORIZONTAL CURVES

In communication channels, curves are typically used to ensure

a smooth change in direction at the intersection of the straight
line. It is tangential to the lines joined by the curves, which are
referred to as tangents or straights.

A straight road or track is always preferred since it is more

economical to build, carry, and maintain. However, as a road or
track's alignment or grade changes, it becomes necessary to
create bends in the following situations.

1. By including curves to adjust alignment, excessive cutting and

filling can be avoided.
2. By giving a route around the obstacle that stood in the way of a
straight alignment, curves can make things easier.
3. By using curves as detours, straight routes' gradients are made
more comfortable and simpler.
4. When expensive land blocks the way on a straight path, it can
be avoided by creating detours using bends.

References:
Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel Traffic & Highway Engineering, Fouth Edition.pdf
Roger Roess, Elena Prassas, William McShanel Traffic Engineering.pdf
Daily Civil Types of Curves in Surveying Retrieved on December 21, 2022, from
https://dailycivil.com/types-of-curves-
insurveying/#:~:text=A%20simple%20curve%20is%20a,known%20as%20a%20back%20t angent.
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Curves are classified into two main types: Horizontal curve and
Vertical curve. Horizontal curve can be visibly seen from above
while the vertical curve is the section view of the road.

VERTICAL CURVE HORIZONTAL CURVE

TYPES OF CURVES

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HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

The simplest approach to describe a roadway's horizontal

alignment is to think of it as a series of road corners. It offers a
directional change between two portions of a straight route.
Important geometrical aspects and attributes of horizontal curves
should be properly understood. The ability of the vehicle to turn is
the primary consideration when building a horizontal curve.

The horizontal alignment is made up of tangents, or straight

sections of the road, joined by curves. Typically, the curves are
parts of circles with radii that allow for a steady flow of traffic. In
order to make it easier to locate the curve in the field, the
minimum radius, curve length, and horizontal offsets from the
tangents to the curve must all be determined while designing the
horizontal alignment. Occasionally, a curve with radii ranging from
infinite to finite is used to avoid a rapid transition from a tangent
with infinite radius to a curve with finite radius. The distance
between the circular curve and the tangent is limitless to the
radius of the circular curve. A spiral or transition curve is the
name for such a curve. Simple, compound, reversed, and spiral
curves are the four different types of horizontal curves.
Computations required for each type are presented in the
following sections.

A. SIMPLE CURVES

A simple curve is a single arc of a circle, which is tangential to

both the straight lines of the route. It does not cross itself and
can be both open and closed. It is normally represented by the
length of its radius or by the degree of curve. Illustrated below is
the figure of a simple curve.

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

In designing a simple circular curve, the following factors are

considered:

PI = point of intersection; point at which the two tangent lines

meet
PC = point of curvature; point at which the circular horizontal
curve begins
PT = point of tangency; point at which the circular horizontal
curve ends
T = length of tangent, from the PC to the PI and from the PT, in
feet
E = external distance, from point 5 to the PI in Figure 3.6, in feet
M = middle ordinate distance, from point 5 to point 6 in Figure
3.6, in feet
LC = long chord, from the P.C. to the P.T., in feet
I (Δ) = central or external angle of the curve, sometimes
referred to as the angle of deflection, in degrees
R = the radius of the circular curve, in feet

A number of geometric characteristics of the circular curve are of

interest in deriving important relationships:

Radii join tangent lines at right (90 °) angles at the P. C. and

P.T.
A line drawn from the P. I. to the center of the circular curve
bisects at ∠ 412 and ∠
432 (number refer to Figure 3.6)
∠ 412 equals 180 - Δ thus, ∠
413 and ∠
312 must be half this, or 90
- Δ /2 as shown in Figure 3.6.
Triangle 412 is an isosceles triangle. Thus, ∠
142 = ∠
124, and the
sum of these, plus ∠
412(180 - Δ), must be 180°. Therefore, 142 ∠
= ∠124 = Δ /2
∠ 346 and ∠ 326 must be 90 - Δ /2, and the central angle, 432, ∠
is equal to Δ
The long chord (LC) and the line from point 1 to point 3 meets
at a right (90°) angle.

References:
Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel Traffic & Highway Engineering, Fouth Edition.pdf
Roger Roess, Elena Prassas, William McShanel Traffic Engineering.pdf
Daily Civil Types of Curves in Surveying Retrieved on December 21, 2022, from
https://dailycivil.com/types-of-curves-
insurveying/#:~:text=A%20simple%20curve%20is%20a,known%20as%20a%20back%20t angent.
M O D U L E 4 : G E O M E T R I C D E S I G N F O R H I G H W A Y A N D R A I L W A Y 35

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Given the characteristics shown in Simple Curve Figure, some of

the key relationships for horizontal curves may be derived.

Length of the Tangent (T)

Consider the tangent of triangle 143:

Length of the External Distance (E)

Consider triangle 143. Then:

Length of the Middle Ordinate (M)

The length of the middle ordinate is found by subtracting line

segment 3-6 from the radius, which is line segment 3-6-5.

Then, considering triangle 362:

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Length of the Long Chord (LC)

Note that the long chord is bisected by line segment 3-6-5. Then,
considering triangle 364:

Length of the Curve (L)

The length of the curve derives directly from the arc definition of
degree of curvature. Therefore:

Degree of Curve: Arc Definition

B. COMPOUND CURVES

Compound curves are made up of two or more simple curves that

are connected by a common tangent point and turn in the same
direction. Composed of two simple curves, a compound curve is
often laid out as shown in Figure . These curves are mostly
employed to create the horizontal alignment's desired shapes,
especially at at-grade intersections, ramps at interchanges, and
highway portions in challenging terrain regions. The radii of any
two consecutive simple curves that make up a compound curve
shouldn't be noticeably different in order to prevent abrupt
changes in alignment.
References:
Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel Traffic & Highway Engineering, Fouth Edition.pdf
Roger Roess, Elena Prassas, William McShanel Traffic Engineering.pdf
Daily Civil Types of Curves in Surveying Retrieved on December 21, 2022, from
https://dailycivil.com/types-of-curves-
insurveying/#:~:text=A%20simple%20curve%20is%20a,known%20as%20a%20back%20t angent.
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Some general criteria for such curves include:

Use of compound curves should be limited to cases in which

physical conditions require it. Whenever two consecutive
curves ae connected on a highway segment, the larger radii
should not be more than 1.5 times the smaller. A similar
criterion is that the degrees of curvature should not differ by
more than 5°.
Whenever two consecutive curves in the same direction are
separated by a shot tangent (< 200 ft), they should be
combined in a compound curve.
A compound curve is merely a series of simple horizontal curves
subject to the same criteria as isolated horizontal curves.

Factors to be considered in
compound curve:

PCC – Point of Compound

Curvature
T – Common Tangent
I – Angle of Intersection
Other parts of simple
curve

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C. REVERSE CURVES

Typically, reverse curves are made up

of two straight lines with identical radii
that turn in the opposite directions
while sharing a tangent. They are
typically employed to alter a highway's
alignment. A reversing curve with
parallel tangents is shown in Figure.

Reverse curves are rarely advised

since unexpected alignment changes
may make it difficult for vehicles to
stay in their lanes. In the event that the
alignment must be reversed, the best
design entails two straightforward
horizontal curves that are sufficiently
spaced apart to ensure full
superelevation. Alternatively, an
equivalent length of spiral, which is
covered in the next section, may be
used to divide the basic curves.

Factors to be considered in
reverse curve:

PRC – Point of Reverse

Curvature
T – Common Tangent
I – Angle of Intersection
Other parts of simple
curve

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VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

A highway's vertical alignment is made up of straight stretches,

known as grades (or tangents), and it is generally stated as a
percentage, which are joined by vertical bends. Therefore, the
design of the vertical alignment entails choosing appropriate
grades for the tangent portions and the right vertical curve
length. The design of the vertical alignment is significantly
influenced by the topography of the region that the road passes
through.

In order to ensure a smooth transition from one tangent grade

to another so that vehicles can go over the highway without any
interruptions, vertical curves are used. Typically, these curves
have a parabolic shape. Therefore, the properties of a parabola
serve as the foundation for the formulas created for the minimum
lengths of vertical curves. In vertical design, attempts are made
to conform to the topography wherever possible to reduce the
need for costly excavations and landfills as well as to maintain
aesthetics.

Primary design criteria for vertical curves include:

Provision of adequate sight distance at all points along the

profile
Provision of adequate drainage
Maintenance of comfortable operations
Maintenance of reasonable aesthetics

Vertical curves can be classified into two types: the summit

curve or also know as crest curve, and the sag curve. There are
also two different situations to consider when analyzing the
vertical curves, the symmetrical and unsymmetrical curve. Curve
is symmetric at the point of intersection of tangent lines at the
curve in symmetrical curve, while the horizontal distance from the
beginning of curvature to the intersection of tangents is not equal
to the horizontal distance from the end of curvature to the
intersection of tangents in unsymmetrical curve.

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LAYOUT OF A VERTICAL SUMMIT CURVE

LAYOUT OF A VERTICAL SAG CURVE

Elements of a vertical curve:

Back and Forward Tangent

PC or VPC (Vertical Point of Curvature) or BVC (Beginning of
Vertical Curve) • PI or VPI (Vertical Point of Intersection)
PT or VPT (Vertical Point of Tangency) or EVC (End of Vertical
Curve)
High Point/Summit (for summit curve); Low Point (for sag
curve)
L (length of vertical curve)
S1 (horizontal distance from VPC to summit or low point)
S2 (horizontal distance from VPT to summit or low point)
h1 (vertical distance from VPC to summit or low point)
h2 (vertical distance from VPT to summit or low point)
g1 (grade of the first tangent from VPC to VPI, expressed in
percent)

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g2 (grade of the second tangent from VPI to VPT, expressed in

percent)
A (change in grade from VPC to VPT)
a (vertical distance of VPC to VPI)
b (vertical distance of VPT to VPI) • H (the distance of VPI to the
curve)

Properties of a vertical curve:

1. The length of parabolic curve L is the horizontal distance

between VPC and VPT
2. VPI is midway between VPC and VPT
3. The curve lies midway between VPI and the midpoint of the
chord from VPC to VPT
4. The vertical distance between any two points on the curve is
equal to area under the grade diagram. The vertical distance c
= Area.

Parabola in the Curve:

The general equation of a parabola is given by y = ax^2 + bx + c

Solving for the first derivative of the curve gives y' = 2ax + b

The slope of tangent line at VPC is the grade of the first

tangent 𝑔1

The slope of tangent line at VPT is the grade of the second

tangent 𝑔2

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At VPC, the height of the curve is equal to the elevation of VPC.

Hence, we have derived the general equation of a vertical curve

(applies both for summit and sag curves)
+ for Sag Curve; - for Summit Curve

Formulas in Vertical Curve

Location of summit/high point or low point in a vertical curve

Vertical distance from VPC (VPT) to summit (low point)

Given the elevation of VPC or VPT, the elevation of the summit

or low point is given by

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Location of VPI wrt VPC and VPT

Vertical distance of VPC or VPT wrt to VPI

Vertical Distance of VPI to the curve

Squared Property of Parabola

General equation of the vertical curves

Rate of change of grade (expressed in % per station)

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Simple Curve

1. A horizontal curve is to be designed with PI located at STA

23+000. The radius of the curve is 500 meters and the length of
its tangent is 200 m. Determine the location of PT, external
distance, middle ordinate, and degree of curve. 1 station = 20
meters.

Given:
R = 500 meters
T = 200 meters
PI @ STA 23 + 00

Required:
Location of the PT, external distance, middle ordinate, degree of
curve

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Solution:

Use the formula for length of tangent to determine I:

T=R tan (I/2) 200m = 500m (I/2)
I = 43.60°

We can now solve for the length of the curve, L

L = (πRI)/180
L = [(π)(500m)(43.60)]/180
L = 380.48m

Location of PT is @ STA 26 + 80.48

Solving for external distance, E

E = (R sec I/2) - R
E = [(500m) x sec (43.60/2)] -500m
E = 38.51m

Solving for middle ordinate, M

M = R − Rcos I/2
M = 500m- [(500m) cos (46.60/2)]
M = 35.76m

Solving for the degree of the curve, D

D =20I/L
D = [20 (43.60)] / 380.48m
D = 2.29°

2. Two tangents of a simple curve have azimuths of 120° and 150°

respectively. If the external distance is 12 meters, Evaluate the
radius and the middle ordinate, in meters.

Given:

Azimuths= 120° & 150°

E = 12m

Required:
The radius and the middle ordinate

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Solution:

First is compute the value of the central angle (I)

I = 150°-120°
I = 30°

Since we have the already the value of E and I, therefore we can

solve for the radius using the formula for external distance.

For middle ordinate, we have:

𝑀 = 𝑅[1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝛥 2 ⁄ )]
𝑀 = 340.17𝑚 [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 30 2 ⁄ )]
M = 11.59m

Compound Curve

1. A compound curve has the following characteristics: I1 = 24° I2 =

36° D1 = 6° D2 = 4° with Stationing of PC = 10 + 420. Compute the
stationing of the point of compound curvature PCC. and the
stationing of PT.

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2. The perpendicular distance between two parallel tangents is

10m. If the angle of intersection of the first curve is 10° with a
radius of 200m, what would be the radius of the second curve?

GIVEN:

10m offset distance

R1 = 200m
I1 = 10°

SOLUTION:

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3. Two parallel tangents 12 m apart are connected by a reverse

curve of equal radii. If the length of the chord from PC to PT is 140
m, determine the total length of the reversed curve.

GIVEN:

12 offset distances
LC= 140m

SOLUTION:

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4. A descending grade of 6% and an ascending grade of 2%

intersect at Sta 12 + 200 km whose elevation is at 14.375 m. The
two grades are to be connected by a parabolic curve, 160 m long.
Find the elevation of the first quarter point on the curve.

GIVEN:

g1 = -6% = 0.06
g2 = 2% = 0.02
Sta. PI = 12+200
ElevPI = 14.375m
L= 160m

SOLUTION:

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4. The rate of change of the grade of a parabolic summit curve is

0.5% per station. Determine the length of curve, elevation of the
summit, the location of the summit and the vertical distance from
VPI to the curve if the grade of ascending and descending
tangents are 5% and -2.5% respectively. The elevation of VPT is 20
m.

GIVEN:

r = 0.5% per station =20m

g1 = 5%
g2 = -2.5%
ElevVPT = 20m

SOLUTION:

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SPIRAL CURVES

While not impossible, it is difficult for drivers to travel

immediately from a tangent section to a circular curve with a
constant radius. A spiral transition curve begins with a tangent
(degree of curve, D = 0) and gradually and uniformly increases the
degree of Curvature (decreases the radius) until the intended
circular degree of curve is reached.

Use of a spiral transition provides for a number of benefits:

Provides an easy path for drivers to follow: centrifugal and

centripetal forces are increased gradually
Provides a desirable arrangement for super elevation runoff
Provides a desirable arrangement for pavement widening on
curves (often done to accommodate off-tracking of commercial
vehicles)
Enhances highway appearance

Spirals are used to overcome the abrupt change in curvature

and super elevation that occurs between tangent and circular
curve. The spiral curve is used to gradually change the curvature
and super elevation of the road, thus called transition curve.

THE VISUAL IMPACT OF A SPIRAL TRANSITION CURVE

References:
Factors Affecting the Stopping Sight Distance on Road - Civil Engineering Soft Studies
(civilengineeringsoftstudies.com)
Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel Traffic & Highway Engineering, Fouth Edition.pdf
Roger P. Roess, Elena S. Prassas Traffic Engineering.pdf Roger Roess, Elena Prassas, William McShanel Traffic
Engineering.pdf Yale University Press, C. Tunnard and B. Pushkarev, Munmade America, New Haven, CT, 1963
MODULE 4: GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY 51

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Elements of Spiral Curves

TS = Tangent to spiral
SC = Spiral to curve
CS = Curve to spiral
ST = Spiral to tangent
LT = Long tangent
ST = Short tangent
R = Radius of simple curve
Ts = Spiral tangent distance
Tc = Circular curve tangent
L = Length of spiral from TS to any
point along the spiral
Ls = Length of spiral
PI = Point of intersection
I = Angle of intersection
Ic = Angle of intersection of the
simple curve GEOMETRY OF SPIRAL
p = Length of throw or the TRANSITION CURVES
distance from tangent that the ILLUSTRATED
circular curve has been offset
X = Offset distance (right angle
distance) from tangent to any
point on the spiral
Xc = Offset distance (right angle
distance) from tangent to SC
Y = Distance along tangent to any
point on the spiral
Yc = Distance along tangent from
TS to point at right angle to SC
Es = External distance of the
simple curve
θ = Spiral angle from tangent to
any point on the spiral
θs = Spiral angle from tangent to
SC
i = Deflection angle from TS to any
point on the spiral, it is
proportional to the square of its
distance
DETAILED GEOMETRY OF
is = Deflection angle from TS to SC
SPIRAL TRANSITION CURVES
D = Degree of spiral curve at any
ILLUSTRATED
point
Dc = Degree of simple curve

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Formulas for Spiral Curves

Distance along tangent to any point on the spiral:

Offset distance from tangent to any point on the spiral:

Length of throw:

Spiral angle from tangent to any point on the spiral (in radian):

Deflection angle from TS to any point on the spiral:

This angle is proportional to the square of its distance:

Tangent distance:

References:
Factors Affecting the Stopping Sight Distance on Road - Civil Engineering Soft Studies
(civilengineeringsoftstudies.com)
Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel Traffic & Highway Engineering, Fouth Edition.pdf
Roger P. Roess, Elena S. Prassas Traffic Engineering.pdf Roger Roess, Elena Prassas, William McShanel Traffic
Engineering.pdf Yale University Press, C. Tunnard and B. Pushkarev, Munmade America, New Haven, CT, 1963
M O D U L E 4 : G E O M E T R I C D E S I G N F O R H I G H W A Y A N D R A I L W A Y 53

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Angle of intersection of simple curve:

External distance:

Degree of spiral curve:

SUPERELEVATION

Most road curves are "super-elevated," or banked, to aid

drivers in overcoming the effects of centripetal force. A car is
kept on a highway bend by two factors: side friction between the
tires and the pavement and the horizontal element of support
provided by a banked or "superelevated" surface.

Banking Curves

Interaction of Forces in a Banking Vehicle (Image courtesy

of F.L. Mannering &S.S.Washburn)

Where:
𝑅𝑣 = radius of curvature of the vehicle's path, in meters
𝛼 = angle of inclination, in degrees
𝑒 = vertical rise in meters per 100 m of horizontal distance, also
superelevation, usually expressed in
percentage
𝑊 = weight of the vehicle, in Newtons
𝑊𝑛 =weight of the vehicle normal to the road surface, in Newtons
𝑊𝑝 = weight of the vehicle parallel to the road surface, in Newtons

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𝐹𝑓 = side frictional force, in Newtons

𝐹𝑐 = centripetal force, in Newtons
𝐹𝑐𝑝 = centripetal force parallel to the road surface, in Newtons
𝐹𝑐𝑛 = centripetal force normal to the road surface, in Newtons

Using the concepts of mechanics, one can come up with the

following equation:

Where:
fs = coefficient of side friction
g = gravitational constant 9.81 m/s2

EARTHWORKS

Cross section of typical highway

The cross-section of a highway includes a number of elements

critical to the design of the facility. The cross-section view of a
highway is a 90-degree cut across the facility from roadside to
roadside. The cross-section includes the following features:

Travel lanes
Shoulders
Side slopes
Curbs
Medians and median barriers
Guardrails
Drainage channels

General design practice is to specify the cross-section at each

station (i.e., at points 100 ft apart and at intermediate points
where a change in the cross-sectional design occurs). The
important cross-sectional features are briefly discussed in the
sections that follow.

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The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables

to consider such as:

1. The volume of traffic.

2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver

A cross section design generally offers the expected level of

service for safety and a recent study showed that:

1. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has l8% less accident compared

with pavement narrower than 5.50 m. wide.

2. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 4% fewer accidents than the

6.00 meters wide roadway.

3. Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60

meters and the 7.20 meters wide pavement.

4. For the 6.00 m., 6.60 m. and,7.20 meters wide pavement with
2.70 to 3.00 m. wide shoulder, recorded accident decreases by
30% compared to 0 to .60 m. wide shoulder. And 20% compared
with a .90 to 1.20 meters wide shoulder.

Cross-Section Elements

The principal elements of a highway cross section consist of the

travel lanes, shoulders, and medians (for some multilane
highways). Marginal elements include median and roadside
barriers, curbs, gutters, guard rails, sidewalks, and side slopes.
Figure 4.2.5. shows a typical cross section for a two-lane highway,
and Figure 4.2.6 on the next page shows that for a multilane
highway.

Cross Section of Typical Two-Lane Highway

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Multi-Lane Highways and Freeways (Half Section)

Width of Travel Lanes. Travel lane widths usually vary from 9 to 12

ft. Most arterials have 12-ft travel lanes since the extra cost for
constructing 12-ft lanes over 10-ft lanes is usually offset by the
lower maintenance cost for shoulders and pavement surface,
resulting in a reduction of wheel concentrations at the pavement
edges.

Shoulders. The shoulder of a pavement cross section is always

contiguous with the traveled lane so as to provide an area along
the highway for vehicles to stop when necessary. In some cases,
bicycles are permitted to use a highway shoulder particularly on
rural and collector roads.

Medians. A median is the section of a divided highway that

separates the lanes in opposing directions. The width of a median
is the distance between the edges of the inside lanes, including
the median shoulders.

Roadside and Median Barriers. A median barrier is defined as a

longitudinal system used to prevent an errant vehicle from
crossing the portion of a divided highway separating the traveled
ways for traffic in opposite directions. Roadside barriers, on the
other hand, protect vehicles from obstacles or slopes on the
roadside.

Curbs and Gutters. Curbs are raised structures made of either

Portland cement concrete or bituminous concrete (rolled asphalt
curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to delineate
pavement edges and pedestrian walkways. Curbs are also used to
control drainage, improve aesthetics, and reduce right of way.
Curbs can be generally classified as either vertical or sloping.

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Guard Rails. Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the

outside of sharp curves and at sections with high fills. Their main
function is to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway. They are
installed at embankments higher than 8 ft and when shoulder
slopes are greater than 4:1. Shapes commonly used include the W
beam and the box beam. The weak post system provides for the
post to collapse on impact, with the rail deflecting and absorbing
the energy due to impact.

Sidewalks. Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in urban areas,

but are uncommon in rural areas. Nevertheless, the provision of
sidewalks in rural areas should be evaluated during the planning
process to determine sections of the road where they are
required.

Cross Slopes. Pavements on straight sections of two-lane and

multilane highways without medians are sloped from the middle
downward to both sides of the highway, resulting in a transverse
or cross slope, with a cross section shape that can be curved,
plane or a combination of the two.

Side Slopes. Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to

provide stability for earthworks. They also serve as a safety
feature by providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles.

Right of Way. The right of way is the total land area acquired for
the construction of a highway. The width should be sufficient to
accommodate all the elements of the highway cross section, any
planned widening of the highway, and public-utility facilities that
will be installed along the highway.

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Divided Highways

Undivided Highways

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Cross Section Method

The method of plotting the existing cross section perpendicular

to a particular line for the purpose of obtaining quantities such as
volumes. The procedure involves staking the centerline then
elevations are obtained at strategic points on the right angle to
the centerline at intervals of full or half stations. Crosssectional
data is needed in estimating the amount of cut or fill needed for a
given strip of roadway.

Volume approximation methods in earthworks

SIGHT DISTANCE

Distance at which a driver of a vehicle can see an object of

specified height on the road ahead, assuming adequate sight and
visual acuity and clear atmospheric conditions. One of the most
fundamental design criteria for all highway facilities is that a
minimum sight distance equal to the safe stopping distance must
be provided at every point along the roadway. In horizontal
curves, sight distance is limited by roadside objects (on the inside
of the curve) that block drivers' line of sight. Roadside objects
such as buildings, trees, and natural barriers disrupt motorists'
sight lines.

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Sight Restrictions on Horizontal Curves

Types of Sight Distances

1. Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance (SSD) Minimum

sight distance available on a highway at any spot should be of
sufficient length to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed,
safely without collision with any other obstruction.

It depends on

a. Feature of road ahead

b. Height of driver’s eye above the road surface (1.2m)
c. Height of the object above the road surface (0.15m)

Criteria for measurement

a. Height of driver’s eye above road surface (H)

b. Height of object above road surface (h)

Sight Distance at Vertical Summit Curve

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Factors affecting SSD

Total reaction time of driver

Speed of vehicle
Efficiency of brakes
Frictional resistance between road and tire
Gradient of road

1. Total reaction time of driver:

It is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant the brake is effectively applied.

It is divided into types:

Perception time

It is the time from the instant the object comes on the line of
sight of the driver to the instant he realizes that the vehicle needs
to be stopped.

Brake reaction time.

The brake reaction also depends on several factor including the

skill of the driver, the type of the problems and various other
environment factor. Total reaction time of driver can be
calculated by “PIEV” theory.

2. Speed of Vehicle

Speed of the vehicle affects the distance travelled by the driver

within the total reaction time. The more the speed, the more will
be the distance.

The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and the
braking distance

Lag Distance - The distance the vehicle travelled during the

reaction time.

If “V” is the design speed in m/s, ‘t’ is the total reaction time of
the driver in seconds

𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑣 ∙ t

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If “V” is in kph,
𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0.278 𝑣 ∙ t

AASHTO recommended reaction time is 2.5 seconds

Breaking Distance - Distance travelled by the vehicle after the

application of brake. For a level road, this is obtained by
equating the work done in stopping the vehicle and the kinetic
energy of the vehicle.

Work done against friction force in stopping the vehicle is

𝐹 ∗ 𝐿 = 𝑓 ∙ 𝑊 ∙ 𝐿

where W is the total weight of the vehicle

Coefficient of Longitudinal Friction Typical Values

Using typical units for velocity (kph) and considering the

braking action of the driver, the stopping sight distance may also
be written as

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Efficiency of Break

The efficiency of the brakes is considered by reducing the

original value of the friction in a range of 0.35 to 0.40.

Braking Action

Based on the driver’s ability to decelerate the vehicle while

staying within the travel lane and maintaining steering control
during the braking maneuver. A deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 is
comfortable for 90% of the drivers.

Frictional resistance between road and tire

The friction between the tire and the road surface depends
upon the type of road surface and the condition of the tire. Also,
it depends upon the speed of the vehicle. More the friction, less
will the stopping sight distance required but, if less is the friction,
more it will be.

Gradient of road

The gradient may be positive or negative and accordingly, the

required stopping sight distance will be less and more
respectively. In the case of the upward(positive) gradient, a
component of the gravity force will help in stopping the vehicle.

In the case of the downward gradient, the component of the

gravity will be in opposite direction to the direction of the friction
force so this will increase the stopping sight distance.

Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one

tangent grade to another so that vehicles may run smoothly as
they traverse the highway. These curves are usually parabolic in
shape. The expressions developed for minimum lengths of vertical
curves are therefore based on the properties of a parabola. The
following figure illustrates vertical curves that are classified as
crest or sag.

SSD and Crest Vertical Curve

Provision of a minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) is the only

criterion used for design of a crest vertical curve. As illustrated in
Figures 4.2.13 and 4.2.14, there are two possible scenarios that
could control the design length: (1) the SSD is greater than the

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the length of the vertical curve, and (2) the SSD is less than the
length of the vertical curve. Consider the case when the SSD is
greater than the length of the vertical curve as shown in Figure
4.2.13 where the driver eye height in a vehicle on the grade at
point C is H1 ft. and the object at point D seen by the driver is H2
ft. The driver’s line of sight is PN ft and the SSD is S ft. The line of
sight, PN, may not necessarily be horizontal, but the value used in
calculations for SSD considers the horizontal projection.

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Safe overtaking (OSD) or passing sight distance (PSD)

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a

vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety
against the traffic of opposite direction is known as the minimum
overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight
distance.

In limited 2-lane or 2-way highways, vehicles may overtake

slower moving vehicles, and the passing maneuver must be
accomplished on a lane used by opposing traffic.

Elements of Passing Distance (Two-Lane Highways)

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These values are determined using the AASHTO Policy on

geometric design of highways and streets.

Passing Sight Distance Values

For Rural Areas, the guideline considers the terrain in which road
is being constructed. Table below shows the recommended values

Recommended Values

Safe sight distance for entering an intersection, Intersection

Sight Distance

Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection (particularly un-

signalized intersection) has sufficient visibility to enable him to
take control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with another
vehicle. The corner sight distance available in intersection
quadrants that allows a driver approaching an intersection to
observe the actions of vehicles on the crossing leg(s). Evaluations
involve establishing the needed sight triangle in each quadrant by
determining the legs of the triangle on the two crossing roadways.

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Clear sight triangle must be free of sight obstructions such as
buildings, parked or turning vehicles, trees, hedges, fences,
retaining walls, and the actual ground line.

SUMMARY

The basic principles of highway geometric design are presented

in this chapter, along with the formulas needed to design the
highway's vertical and horizontal alignments. The geometric
properties of any highway or bikeway are established using the
fundamental qualities of the driver, pedestrian vehicle, and road.
The design speed, which varies depending on the type of facility
under consideration, is the essential attribute on which many
design standards are founded.

The information provided in this chapter gives engineers working

on the geometric design of roadways the mathematical tools they
need. The design of parking bays and garages is consequently
included because every motor vehicle on a highway must park at
some point.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A vehicle is travelling at 35 kilometers per hour. Its driver is

about to hit a 2-meters high wall 30 meters away if he did not
react accordingly. Assuming the coefficient of friction between
the road and tires is 0.35 and the driver steps on the brakes 2
seconds after seeing the obstruction, will he hit the wall? The road
is perfectly horizontal.

Given:
v = 35 kph = 9.72 m/s
t = 2 seconds
f = 0.35
G = 0

Required:
If SSD > 30, will the vehicle hit the wall?

Solution:

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2. Determine the length of the vertical curve with a stopping sight
distance of 230 meters. Its initial and final grades are +1.75% and
-2.05% respectively. The driver’s eye level above the roadway
surface is 150 centimeters and the height of obstruction is 100
centimeters.

Given:
S = 230 meters
𝐺1= +1.75%
𝐺2= -2.05%
𝐻1= 1500 centimeters = 1.5 meters
𝐻2= 1000 centimeters = 1.0 meters

Required:
L=?

Solution:

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3. A vertical curve is to be designed with a stopping sight distance
of 310 m. Its initial and final grades are -3.2% and +2.1%
respectively. The average height of the headlights of the vehicles
that will pass through this road is 60 centimeters and α is set at 1°.
Determine the length of the curve.

Given:
S = 310 meters
𝐺1= -3.2%
𝐺2= +2.1%
𝐻= 60 centimeters = 0.6 meters
α = 1°

Required:
L=?

Solution:

4. A roadway is designed to have a maximum speed of 75

kilometers per hour. One of its horizontal curves is designed to be
simple circular having a radius of 195 meters. What should be the
angle the roadway makes with the horizontal so that the vehicles
will not overturn? The coefficient of side friction is set at 0.15.

Given:
v = 75 kph = 20.83 m/s
Rv = 1050 meters
fs = 0.15

Required:
The angle the roadway makes with the horizontal

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4. A roadway is designed to have a maximum speed of 75

Given:
v = 75 kph = 20.83 m/s
Rv = 1050 meters
fs = 0.15

Required:
The angle the roadway makes with the horizontal

Solution:

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5. The cross-section notes shown below are for a ground

excavation.

What is the volume of excavation between the two stations using.

a. Find x
b. Find y
c. End Area Method
d. Prismoidal Formula
e. Correction of Error

Solution:

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MODULE 5

FUNDAMENTALS OF
RAILWAY ENGINEERING
MODULE 5: FUNDAMENTALS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING 76

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INTRODUCTION

The history of railways is closely linked with civilization. As the

necessity arose, human beings developed various methods of
transporting goods from one place to another. In the primitive
days goods were carried as head loads or in carts drawn by men or
animals.

TOPIC 1. RAILWAYS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

The efforts were made to replace animal power with mechanical

power. In 1769, Nicolas Carnot, a Frenchman, carried out the
pioneering work of developing steam energy. This work had very
limited success and it was only in the year 1804 that Richard
Trevithick designed and constructed a steam locomotive. This
locomotive, however, could be used for traction on roads only. The
credit of perfecting the design goes to George Stephenson, who in
1814 produced the first steam locomotive used for traction in
railways.

The first public railway in the world was opened to traffic on 27

September 1825 between Stockton and Darlington in the UK.
Simultaneously, other countries in Europe also developed such
railway systems, most introduced trains for carriage of passenger
traffic during that time. The first railway in Germany was opened
from Nuremberg to Furth in 1835. The USA opened its first railway
line between Mohawk and Hudson in 1833.

TOPIC 2. PHILIPPINE RAILWAY DEVELOMENT

Below are the listed Philippine National Railways historical

highlights

June 25, 1875 - King ALFONSO XII of Spain promulgates the Royal
Decree directing the Office of the Inspector of Public Works of
the Philippines to submit a general plan of railroad in Luzon

February 5, 1876 - Don Eduardo Lopez Navarro of Public Works

submits his "Memoria Sobre el Plan General de Ferrocarilles en
Isla de Luzon", a very comprehensive and detailed study of
railroad exploitation

References:
http://www.metromaniladirections.com/2010/04/light-rail-transit-line-2-lrt-2.html
https://history-ph.blogspot.com/2017/04/lrt-2-names.html
https://arpwe.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Ebook-Railway-Engineering-.pdf
https://www.adb.org/countries/philippines/south-commuter-railway-project
MODULE 5: FUNDAMENTALS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING 77

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November 1, 1883 – the study of the first railroad project

between Manila and Dagupandone by Antonio Dela Cámara
disapproved

January 1, 1887 – Royal Decree grants Mr. Edmund Syker the

concession to the original plan as approved

July 8, 1887 – the concession is transferred to Don Carlos E.

Bertodano representing the Manila Railroad Company (MRRCo)

July 31, 1887 – construction of the Manila-Dagupan railroad is

started

March 24, 1891 – the first section of the railroad from Manila to
Bagbag (about 45 kms) is completed and put to commercial
operations

November 24, 1892 – the entire line from Manila to Dagupan,

with a total length of 195.4 kms, is completed and put into
commercial operations

November 1896 – the Philippine revolution against the Spanish

Government breaks out, interrupting railroad traffic at various
points

August 13, 1898 – the railway operations is resumed only to be

interrupted again one year after when the Philippine-American
War breaks out

April 20, 1900 – the US military authorities returned the railroad

to its owner

July 1, 1902 – the US Congress authorizes the Philippine

Government to grant franchise and concession for the
construction of public utilities and services

December 8, 1902 – the first Railroad Legislation Act (Philippine

Commission Act No. 554) is passed granting the MRRCo the
right to construct branch lines

July 7, 1906 – Philippine Commission Act No. 1510 is enacted

giving the concession of the railway to Speyer and Co. with Mr.
Horace Higgins as General Manager

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February 4,1916 – By authority of Philippine Legislature Act No.

2574, former Governor General Harrison negotiates the
acquisition of the MRRCo by the Philippine Government

January 1917 – the acquisition of the MRRCoby the Philippine

Government is consummated, and the final transfer of
ownership effected

January 31, 1938 – the first Bicol train is put into operation

May 8, 1938 – the unified system of railroad from San Fernando,

La Union in the North to Legazpi in the South is formally
inaugurated

1942 – 1945 – the railway comes under the control of the

Imperial Japanese Army

February 1, 1946 – the US Army restores the control of the

railway to the Commonwealth Government

1954 – 1956 – Dieselization period of the railroad

June 20, 1964 – Republic Act No. 4156 is enacted. It changes the
corporate name of MRRCo to Philippine National Railways (PNR)

August 20, 1971 – Republic Act No. 6366 is passed amending the
PNR Charter

January 26, 1973 – PNR is placed under the Civil Service

Commission by virtue of PD No. 110

July 3, 1975 – PD 741 is issued, providing for the strengthening

of the financial structure of the PNR and expanding its role and
participation in the total economic and social development of
the country

July 23, 1979 – by Executive Order No. 546, PNR becomes one of
the attached agencies of the Ministry of Transportation and
Communications, now DOTC

August 23, 1989 – the Tutuban Station and part of the railroad
yard is leased out for shopping mall development. PNR
Management Center transfers to its Training Center site in
Caloocan City and PNR Operations Center transfers to its
railway station in Paco, Manila.

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February 2, 1992 – PNR inaugurates its first modern

maintenance workshop in Caloocan. The workshop can
accommodate 88 diesel rail car units at any given time

February 22, 1992 – PNR acquires six (6) new DEL units from
Japan thru the OECF loan

June 1992 – the rehabilitation of the Main Line South Project

funded by the OECF of Japan starts

June 26, 1992 – PNR acquires an additional ten (10) new DEL
units from Japan thru the OECF loan

February 21, 1994 – President Fidel Ramos lays the cornerstone

for the new Tutuban Terminal Building

November 30, 1995 – Super typhoon Rosing heavily damages the

tracks and bridges between Lucena and Naga, suspending train
operations. The line is restored after one year.

September 28, 2006 – Typhoon Milenyo damages San Cristobal

Bridge and other PNR infrastructure in Quezon and Camarines
Sur, resulting in the closure of line to long distance train
operations

November 30, 2006 – Typhoon Reming further damages the

railroad infrastructure, particularly Travesia Bridge in the
Ligao-Guinobatan section, and most of the station buildings
and communication facilities

December 22, 2008 – efforts start in the Reopening of the Bicol

Line Project

June 15, 2010 – President Gloria Macapagal - Arroyo launches

the opening of San Cristobal Bridge

June 29, 2010 – Train coming from Manila reaches Naga Station

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RAILWAY NETWORKS IN THE PHILIPPINES

TOPIC 3. PHILIPPINE RAILWAY SYSTEM

Greater Manila Railway Networks

Here is the transit map for the railway networks in Manila. The
green route is for LRT 1, blue route is for LRT 2, yellow route is for
MRT 3, and orange route is for PNR.

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LRT 1 (Light Rail Transit 1)

The LRT Line 1 began construction in 1981 with the first LRVs
arriving in 1982. By December 1984, a portion of LRT1 was opened
to the public and in 1985, the original LRT1 line from Baclaran,
Pasay City to Monumento in Caloocan City, approximately 13.95km
in length, became fully operational. LRT1 was one of the pioneer
PPP projects in the Philippines as the operations and maintenance
of the facility was contracted out to METRO, Inc., a subsidiary of
the Manila Electric Company, for 16 years under an operations and
maintenance (O&M) agreement with the LRTA. On 31 July 2000, the
O&M contract with METRO expired. LRTA decided not to renew the
agreement or retender it and took over the operations of LRT 1
which it has been managing up to the present. The Light Rail
Transit 1 (LRT 1) have 20 stations.

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LRT 2 (Light Rail Transit 2)

For a number of decades, no rail system served the areas

once operating the so-called "tranvia." In accordance with the
recommendations made by the World Bank in 1977 (the
MMetroplan), seven lines were proposed for construction to
accommodate the increasing demand of what is now Metro Manila.
However, to this day, only three lines were completed. One of
these system lines would be Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 2
(locally known as LRT Line 2 or LRT-2). Despite its name, LRT-2 is
the third line to be completed. In addition, despite being named
"Light Rail Transit," LRT-2 is a heavy rail transit. Thus, it has the
distinction of being capable to operate larger trains than the two
other lines. Nevertheless, it has the lowest amount of ridership. As
of 2011, LRT-2 posted a daily average of 199,000. The Light Rail
Transit 2 (LRT 2) have 11 stations.

MRT 3 (Metro Rail Transit 3)

The Metro Rail Transit 3 (MRT-3) is the cornerstone of the

Department of Transportation & Communication's integrated
strategy to alleviate the chronic traffic congestion experience
along the EDSA corridor. The Metro Rail system is designed to
carry more than 23,000 passengers per hour per direction,
initially, and is expandable to accommodate 48,000 passengers
per hour, per direction.

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The DOTC awarded a contract to Metro Rail Transit

Corporation (MRTC) to build, lease and transfer the Metro Rail
Transit System, under the BOT laws of the Republic of the
Philippines. The scheme required the DOTC to hold the franchise
and run the system particularly the operation and the collection
of fares. The MRTC built the system, maintain the same as to
guarantee the availability of the trains at specified headway at
specified hours, as well as to procure the required spare parts,
the DOTC pays MRTC monthly fees for a certain number of years.
The Metro rail Transit 3 have 13 stations.

PNR (Philippine National Railways)

PNR officially began operations on November 24, 1892, as the

Ferrocarril de Manila-Dagupan, during the Spanish colonial period,
and later becoming the Manila Railroad Company (MRR) during the
American colonial period. It became the Philippine National
Railways on June 20, 1964, by virtue of Republic Act No. 4156. The
PNR is an attached agency under the Department of
Transportation and Communications.

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ONGOING RAIL PROJECTS

The ongoing rail projects in the Philippines are the following:

LRT 1 Cavite Extensions

With the Cavite Extension project, the total number of LRT-1

stations will increase from 20 to 28, covering several major cities
including Quezon City, Caloocan, Manila, Pasay, and Paranaque, all
the way to Bacoor, Cavite. It will add 11 kms to the existing railway
system and is expected to service up to 800,000 passengers per
day. It is also expected to increase and enhance commercial
development around the rail stations.

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LRT 2 East Extensions

LRT-2 opened its East Extension adding 4 km to the pre-existing

13.8-km line and introducing Marikina and Antipolo stations.

In a keynote speech at the July 1 inauguration rites, President

Duterte called the project “one of the hallmarks of the
administration’s firm commitment to provide a better
transportation system for all” that “will improve mobility and
ensure transportation connectivity in the busy part of Metro
Manila.”

The LRT-2 East Extension is part of the government’s “Build,

Build, Build” agenda that seeks to improve lives by energizing
economies with infrastructure spending.

MRT 7

MRT-7 runs from North Avenue, Quezon City to San Jose del
Monte in Bulacan. It aims to accommodate up to 300,000
passengers in its first year of operation.

The 24.7-kilometer rail and road project that starts from North
Avenue in Quezon City will unlock the potential of tracts of land
along the route as they become easily more accessible to Metro
Manila’s business districts and other places of work.

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Metro Manila Subway Project

The Metro Manila subway, which is designed to have 17 stations,

will connect Valenzuela City to Pasay City. It is expected to serve
more than 370,000 passengers daily once operational. In June, the
first tunnel boring machine (TBM) for the project had broken
ground, thereby beginning the underground work.

North South Commuter Rail Project

The project will support the construction of the 54.6-kilometer

(km) Blumentritt-Calamba section of the North-South Commuter
Railway connecting Metro Manila and Calamba, located in Laguna
Province around 50 km south of Manila. The project will provide
improved connectivity in the public transport network by
connecting with all existing LRT/MRT-lines in Metro Manila,
including a connecting tunnel to allow the operation of direct
trains from Calamba to stations on the future Metro Manila
Subway system.

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Mindanao Railway System

The proposed Mindanao Railway Project (MRP) is one of the

major projects of the National Philippine Railway infrastructure
program. The 1,544-kilometer Mindanaowide Railway System will
connect cities like Davao, General Santos, Cagayan de Oro, Iligan,
Cotabato, Zamboanga, Butuan, Surigao, and Malaybalay.

The first phase of the MRP is the Tagum-Davao-Digos (TDD)

segment, which is 100.2 kilometers long and covers six (6)
locations in the Provinces of Davao del Norte and Davao del Sur;
from north to south, these are: (1) Tagum City, (2) Carmen
Municipality, (3) Panabo City, (4) Davao City, (5) Sta. Cruz
Municipality and (6) Digos City.

TOPIC 4. RAILWAYS VERSUS ROAD TRANSPORT

There are two modes of land transport, railways, and roads, and
each has its relative advantages and disadvantages.

Rail transport Owing to the heavy expenditure on the basic

infrastructure required, rail transport is best suited for carrying
bulk commodities and many passengers over long distances.
Hence, road transport Owing to flexibility of operation and the
ability to provide door to-door service, road transport is ideally
suited for carrying light commodities and a small number of
passengers over short distances.

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TOPIC 5. TRACK COMPONENTS

The track or permanent way is the railroad on which trains run.

It consists of two parallel rails fastened to sleepers with a
specified distance between them. The sleepers are embedded in a
layer of ballast of specified thickness spread over level ground
known as formation. The ballast provides a uniform level surface
and drainage and transfers the load to a larger area of the
formation. The rails are joined in series by fish plates and bolts,
and these are fastened to the sleepers with various types of
fittings. The sleepers are spaced at a specified distance and are
held in position by the ballast. Each component of the track has a
specific function to perform. The rails act as girders to transmit
the wheel load of trains to the sleepers. The sleepers hold the
rails in their proper positions, provide a correct gauge with the
help of fittings and fastenings, and transfer the load to the
ballast. The formation takes the total load of the track as well as
of the trains moving on it. The permanent way or track, therefore,
consists of the rails, sleepers, fittings and fastenings, the ballast,
and the formation as shown in Fig.

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Requirements of a Good Track

A permanent way or track should provide a comfortable and safe

ride at the maximum permissible speed with minimum
maintenance cost. To achieve these objectives, a sound
permanent way should have the following characteristics.

a. The gauge should be correct and uniform.

b. The rails should have perfect cross levels. In curves, the outer
rail should have a proper superelevation to consider the
centrifugal force.
c. The alignment should be straight and free of kinks. In the case
of curves, a proper transition should be provided between the
straight track and the curve.
d. The gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible. The
change of gradient should be followed by a proper vertical curve
to provide a smooth ride.
e. The track should be resilient and elastic in order to absorb
the shocks and vibrations of running trains.
f. The track should have a good drainage system so that the
stability of the track is not affected by waterlogging.
g. The track should have good lateral strength so that it can
maintain its stability despite variations in temperature and other
such factors.
h. There should be provisions for easy replacement and renewal
of the various track components.
i. The track should have such a structure that not only is its
initial cost low, but also its maintenance cost is minimum.

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RAILS

Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to
provide an unchanging, continuous, and level surface for the
movement of trains. To be able to withstand stresses, they are
made of high-carbon steel.

FUNCTION OF RAILS

Rails are similar to steel girders. These are provided to perform

the following functions in a track.

a. Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement

of trains.
b. Rails provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little
friction. The friction between the steel wheel and the steel rail is
about one-fifth of the friction between the pneumatic tyre and a
metalled road.
c. Rails serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.
d. Rails bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads
transmitted to them through axles and wheels of rolling stock as
well as due to braking and thermal forces.
e. Rails carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large
area of the formation through sleepers and the ballast.

TYPES OF RAILS

The first rails used were double headed (DH) and made of an I
or dumb-bell section. The idea was that once the head wore out
during service, the rail could be inverted and reused. Experience,
however, showed that while in service the bottom table of the rail
was dented to such an extent because of long and continuous
contact with the chairs that it was not possible to reuse it. This
led to the development of the bull headed (BH) rail, which had an
almost similar shape but with more metal in the head to better
withstand wear and tear. This rail section had the major drawback
that chairs were required for fixing it to the sleepers. A flat-
footed rail, also called a vignole rail, with an inverted T-type cross
section of inverted T- type was, therefore, developed, which could
be fixed directly to the sleepers with the help of spikes. Another
advantage of the flat-footed rail is that it is a more economical
design, giving greater strength and lateral stability to the track as
compared to a BH rail for a given cross-sectional area.

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DOUBLE HEADED RAIL BULL HEADED RAIL FLAT-FOOTED RAIL

Requirements for an Ideal Rail Station

The requirements for an ideal rail section are as follows.

a. The rail should have the most economical section consistent

with strength, stiffness, and durability. Head Fishing angle Foot
Web Height Rails 83.
b. The centre of gravity of the rail section should preferably be
very close to the mid-height of the rail so that the maximum
tensile and compressive stresses are equal.
c. A rail primarily consists of a head, a web, and a foot, and
there should be an economical and balanced distribution of metal
in its various components so that each of them can fulfil its
requirements properly. The requirements, as well as the main
considerations, for the design of these rail components are as
follows.

Head: The head of the rail should have adequate depth to allow
for vertical wear. The rail head should also be sufficiently wide so
that not only is a wider running surface available, but also the rail
has the desired lateral stiffness. Web: The web should be
sufficiently thick so as to withstand the stresses arising due to
the loads bone by it, after allowing for normal corrosion.

Foot: The foot should be of sufficient thickness to be able to

withstand vertical and horizontal forces after allowing for loss
due to corrosion. The foot should be wide enough for stability
against overturning. The design of the foot should be such that it
can be economically and efficiently rolled. Fishing angles: Fishing
angles must ensure proper transmission of loads from the rails to
the fish plates. The fishing angles should be such that the
tightening of the plate does not produce any excessive stress on
the web of the rail. Height of the rail: The height of the rail should
be adequate.

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RAIL GAUGE

Gauge is defined as the minimum distance between two rails.

Indian Railways follows this standard practice, and the gauge is
measured as the clear minimum distance between the running
faces of the two rails as shown in Fig.

GAUGE ON WORLD RAILWAYS

Various gauges have been adopted by different railways in the

world due to historical and other considerations. In British
Railways, a gauge of 1525 mm (5 feet) was initially adopted, but
the wheel flanges at that time were on the outside of the rails.
Subsequently, in order to guide the wheels better, the flanges
were made inside the rails. The gauge then became 1435 mm (4'
8.5"), as at that time the width of the rail at the top was 45 mm
(1.75"). The 1435-mm gauge became the standard gauge in most
European Railways. The approximate proportions of various
gauges on world railways are given in Table

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DIFFERENT GAUGES ON INDIAN RAILWAYS

The East India Company intended to adopt the standard gauge

of 1435 mm in India also. This proposal was, however, challenged
by Mr W. Simms, Consulting Engineer to the Government of India,
who recommended a wider gauge of 1676 mm (5' 6"). The Court of
Directors of the East India Company decided to adopt Mr Simms’s
recommendation and 5' 6" finally became the Indian standard
gauge. In 1871, the Government of India wanted to construct
cheaper railways for the development of the country and the
1000-mm metre gauge was introduced. In due course of time, two
more gauges with widths of 762 mm (2' 6") and 610 mm (2' 0") were
introduced for thinly populated areas, mountain railways, and
other miscellaneous purposes.

The details of the various gauges existing on Indian Railways are

given in Table.

RAIL SPECIFICATIONS

Every rail has a brand on its web, which is repeated at intervals

a. IRS-52-kg: Number of IRS rail section, i.e., 52 kg

b. 710: Grade of rail section, i.e., 710 or 880
c. TISCO: Manufacturer’s name, e.g., Tata Iron and Steel Co.
d. II 1991: Month and year of manufacture (February 1991)
e. ->: An arrow showing the direction of the top of the ingot
f. OB: Process of steel making, e.g., open hearth basic (OB)

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SLEEPERS

Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the
rails. They have an important role in the track as they transmit the
wheel load from the rails to the ballast.

FUNCTIONS AND REQUIREMENTS OF SLEEPERS

The main functions of sleepers are as follows.

a. Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment.

b. Giving a firm and even support to the rails.
c. Transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider area of
the ballast.
d. Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and the ballast to
absorb the blows and vibrations caused by moving loads.
e. Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the permanent
way.
f. Providing the means to rectify the track geometry during their
service life.

Apart from performing these functions the ideal sleeper should

normally fulfil the following requirements.

a. The initial as well as maintenance cost should be minimum.

b. The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is
convenient to handle.
c. The designs of the sleeper and the fastenings should be such
that it is possible to fix and remove the rails easily.
d. The sleeper should have sufficient bearing area so that the
ballast under it is not crushed.
e. The sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and
adjust the gauge properly.
f. The material of the sleeper and its design should be such that it
does not break or get damaged during packing.
g. The design of the sleeper should be such that it is possible to
have track circuiting.

SLEEPER DENSITY AND SPACING OF SLEEPERS

Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length. It is

specified as M + x or N + x, where M or N is the length of the rail in
metres and x is a number that varies according to factors such as
(a) axle load and speed, (b) type and section of rails, (c) type and

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strength of the sleepers, (d) type of ballast and ballast cushion,

and (e) nature of formation. If the sleeper density is M + 7 on a
broad-gauge route and the length of the rail is 13 m, it means that
13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will be used per rail on that route. The number
of sleepers in a track can also be specified by indicating the
number of sleepers per kilometer of the track. For example, 1540
sleepers/km. This specification becomes more relevant
particularly in cases where rails are welded, and the length of the
rail does not have much bearing on the number of sleepers
required.

The spacing of sleepers is fixed depending upon the sleeper

density. Spacing is not kept uniform throughout the rail length. It
is closer near the joints because of the weakness of the joints and
impact of moving loads on them. There is, however, a limitation to
the close spacing of the sleepers, as enough space is required for
working the beaters that are used to pack the joint sleepers.

BALLAST

The ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, moorum, or any

other granular material placed and packed below and around
sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers to the formation.
It provides drainage as well as longitudinal and lateral stability to
the track.

FUNCTIONS OF BALLAST

The ballast serves the following functions in a railway track.

Provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on. l Holds
the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.
Transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to a large area
of the formation.
Provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding
comfort.
Provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal
and lateral stability.
Provides effective drainage to the track.
Provides an effective means of maintaining the level and
alignment of the track.

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TYPES OF BALLAST

The different types of ballast used on Indian Railways are

described in the following.

a. Sand ballast

Sand ballast is used primarily for cast iron (CI) pots. It is also
used with wooden and steel trough sleepers in areas where traffic
density is very low. Coarse sand is preferred in comparison to fine
sand. It has good drainage properties but has the drawback of
blowing off because of being light. It also causes excessive wear
of the rail top and the moving parts of the rolling stock.

b. Moorum ballast

The decomposition of laterite results in the formation of

moorum. It is red, and sometimes yellow, in colour. The moorum
ballast is normally used as the initial ballast in new constructions
and also as sub-ballast. As it prevents water from percolating into
the formation, it is also used as a blanketing material for black
cotton soil.

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c. Coal ash or cinder

This type of ballast is normally used in yards and sidings or as

the initial ballast in new constructions since it is very cheap and
easily available. It is harmful for steel sleepers and fittings
because of its corrosive action.

d. Broken stone ballast

This type of ballast is used the most on Indian Railways. A good

stone ballast is generally procured from hard stones such as
granite, quartzite, and hard trap. The quality of stone should be
such that neither is it porous nor does it flake off due to the
vagaries of weather. Good quality hard stone is normally used for
high-speed tracks. This type of ballast works out to be economical
in the long run.

e. Other types of ballast

There are other types of ballast also such as the brickbat ballast,
gravel ballast, kankar stone ballast, and even earth ballast. These
types of ballast are used only in special circumstances.

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SIZES OF BALLAST

Previously, 50-mm (2") ballasts were specified for flat bottom

sleepers such as concrete and wooden sleepers and 40-mm (1.5")
ballasts were specified for metal sleepers such as CST-9 and
trough sleepers. Now, to ensure uniformity, 50-mm (2") ballasts
have been adopted universally for all type of sleepers.

As far as points and crossings are concerned, these are

subjected to heavy blows of moving loads and are maintained to a
higher degree of precision. A small sized, 25-mm (1") ballast is,
therefore, preferable because of its fineness for slight
adjustments, better compaction, and increased frictional area of
the ballast.

Requirements of a Good Ballast

Ballast material should possess the following properties.

a. It should be tough and wear resistant.

b. It should be hard so that it does not get crushed under the
moving loads.
c. It should be generally cubical with sharp edges.
d. It should be non-porous and should not absorb water.
e. It should resist both attrition and abrasion.
f. It should be durable and should not get pulverized or
disintegrated under adverse weather conditions.
g. It should allow for good drainage of water. h. It should be cheap
and economical.

Size and Gradation

The ballast should satisfy the size and gradation requirements

given in Table

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Track Fittings and Fastenings

The purpose of providing fittings and fastenings in railway

tracks is to hold the rails in their proper position to ensure the
smooth running of trains. These fittings and fastenings are used
for joining rails together as well as fixing them to the sleepers,
and they serve their purpose so well that the level, alignment, and
gauge of the railway track are maintained within permissible limits
even during the passage of trains. The important fittings and
fastenings commonly used in India are listed in Table.

MODULE 6

FAILURE, MAINTENANCE
AND REHABILITATION OF
TRANSPORTATION
INFRASTRUCTURE
MODULE 6:FAILURE, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION 102

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INTRODUCTION

Road maintenance is a work that takes place on roads from

motorways to unclassified roads to ensure they remain strong,
safe and efficient. Road maintenance takes many forms, but the
overarching aim is to keep road users safe, manage traffic and
maintain upkeep.

Once highway pavements are constructed, their lifespan is

predetermined. There will come a time when the level of
deterioration is at much such that the pavement's integrity is
damaged and, consequently, the level of service it can give, are
compromised. To extend its life at this point, maintenance is
necessary. All highway pavement eventually experiences forms of
deterioration such as loss of texture and sliding resistance.

A rational, cogent approach must be used to choose the most

efficient form for the repair to take, as well as the ideal time at
which this work should be completed, in order to carry out the
maintenance as affordably as feasible. Minor repairs could be
necessary to keep the required level of service for the driver.
However, in circumstances when significant structural
strengthening is necessary, a thorough structural analysis is
essential to help with the completion of the necessary detailed
design.

TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES

In ancient times, humans traveled by walking, riding animals,

and eventually inventing wheeled vehicles out of simple log boats.
They traveled by using the already-existing streams or basic
roads. Over time, people developed more sophisticated modes of
transportation. They discovered how to use several forms of
energy, including wind, steam, and combustion, to propel barges,
ships, trains, cars, and airplanes. Over thousands of years, the
necessity for better transportation infrastructure has increased
along with the growth of the global population. In order to
facilitate faster and easier transit, people have altered their
surroundings by creating transportation infrastructure.

References:
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/transportation-infrastructure
https://www.civilconcept.com/classification-of-roads-in-civil-engineering/
https://www.lonestarpavingtx.com/what-is-pavement-failure/
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/transport/brief/railways https://www.slideshare.net/YashPatel61/railway-
failure-and-its-type
MODULE 6:FAILURE, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION 103

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Transportation infrastructure is the underlying system of public

works designed to facilitate movement. It refers to the framework
that supports our transport system.

These are foundational structures and systems including roads,

railways, ports and airports. National and local government are
responsible for the development of our transport infrastructure.

COMMON TYPES OF TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE

1. Road
2. Railways
3. Bridges and Tunnels
4. Ship Canals
5. Ports
6. Airport Runways

1. Roads

Roads is an open, generally public way for the passage of

vehicles, people and animals such as streets, avenues and
highways. These includes paved roads, unpaved roads and roads
with unique surfaces like cobblestone and such. The earliest form
of transportation that has also been shown to be the most
dependable and affordable for people is the road.

Roads Failure Causes

Numerous factors, such as water infiltration, pressure from

heavy cars, expansion and contraction due to seasonal
temperature fluctuations, and sun exposure, contribute to the
failure of roads. When an asphalt surface loses its ability to
maintain its original shape and experiences material stress,
problems result. In order to stop cracks from growing or forming,
it's crucial to maintain adequate maintenance practices like crack
and asphalt sealing.

The following are the causes of road failures:

Rutting due to high variation in ambient temperature

Uncontrolled heavy axle loads
Inadequate stability

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Loss of binding action

Poor design and fabrication
Congestion
Environmental hazard (floods, earthquakes, etc.)
Accidents
Poor Maintenance

Type of Road Failures

The four major type of road failure are cracking, surface

deformation, disintegration, surface defects

A. Cracking

Road pavement distresses, which appear on the surface of

pavements, are referred to as "road pavement cracks." Road
pavements of various sorts develop cracks in various ways. The
type of climate and traffic are also related to the type of
cracking.

Types of Road Cracking

Fatigue Cracking
Longitudinal Cracking
Transverse Cracking
Block Cracking
Slippage Cracking
Reflective Cracking
Edge Cracking

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B. Surface Deformation

The deviation of a road surface from the intended construction

profile is known as surface deformation.

The following are the types of

surface deformation occurring in
roads:

Rutting
Corrugations
Shoving
Depressions
Swell

C. Disintegration

Road disintegration refers to the

breakdown of a pavement into tiny
fragments that are lost over time and
in traffic.

Pot Holes
Patches

D. Surface Defects

Surface defects are typically created by methods of surface

finishing, such as embossing, or by deterioration brought on by
the weather or environmental stress cracking.

Types of Surface Defects

Raveling
Bleeding
Polishing
Delamination

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Road Maintenance and Rehabilitation

a. Physical Maintenance. This includes activities such as sealing,
patching, filling joints, etc.
b. Service Activities. Includes painting pavement markings,
removing snow ice and litter.
c. Rehabilitation. Includes restoring or betterment of roadway
such as resurfacing.

Types of Road Maintenance

1. Surface Maintenance
2. Roadside and drainage maintenance
3. Shoulder and approaches maintenance
4. Snow and ice control
5. Traffic service

RAILWAYS

Railways are a kind of

transportation that utilizes trains
of moving vehicles (rails or
railroads). It is one of the most
significant, frequently used, and
highly affordable methods of
transportation for both people and
products across long and short
distances.

It includes high speed rail, subways and elevated railway

such as cable car.

Railways Failure Causes

A rail is said to have failed if it is considered necessary to

remove it immediately from the track on account of the defects
noticed on it. The bulk of rail failures are the result of fatigue
cracks brought on by alternating pressures that loads passing
through the rail section create. A rail segment is typically built to
support a specified minimum amount of traffic, but occasionally,
for reasons like a metal flaw, the section loses strength at a
specific location and causes the rail to break before it should.

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The following are the reasons of railway failure:

▪ Impact of moving loads ▪ Effects of weather and

▪ Effect of acceleration and temperature
deceleration ▪ Maintenance of rail joints
▪ Constant reversal of stresses ▪ Axle load of locomotive
▪ Defects in manufacture ▪ Design of rail joints
▪ Braking of wheels ▪ Frequency of rail renewal
▪ Fatigue caused by shearing ▪ Corrosion
stresses ▪ Poor maintenance
Type of Railways Failure
Railway failures includes crushed head, transverse and
compound fissure, split head, horizontal fissure, square of angular
breaks and rail misalignment.

A. Crushed Head
✓ Head get crushed, metal flows on the
head of rail
✓ Defects in manufacture, flat spots on
wheels, slipping of wheels, week
support at the rail end, etc.
✓ Skidding causes flat spots, loose fish
bolts cause weak support at ends

B. Transverse and Compound Fissure

✓ Fissure of hole in the head
✓ In the form of a cross wire crack
starts inside head and spreads
gradually
✓ Poor manufacture, excessive training
✓ Very dangerous, rail breaks without
any sign often

C. Split Head
✓ Head is split into two parts
✓ If the surface of crack appears smooth and
dark, it is called as piped rail
✓Formed due to cavity during manufacture or
shrinkage of metal

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D. Horizontal Fissure
✓ A fissure develop keeps on increasing
✓ Outcome of worn fish plates or insufficient
ballast

E. Square of Angular Breaks

▪ Rail breaks either in vertical or
angular plane

F. Rail Misalignment
▪ Rails are not aligned and properly
connected

Railway Maintenance and Rehabilitation

1. Ballast checking
2. Lubricating places such as curves on the side of the head of the
rails
3. Tightening of joints and fittings
4. Use of special alloy rails where wear is more
5. Renewal of rails

BRIDGES AND TUNNELS

A bridge is a structure to cross an open space or gap. Bridges

are mostly made for crossing rivers, valleys, or roads. While a
tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the
surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed except for entrance and
exit, commonly at each end.

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Bridge and Tunnels Failure Causes

Similar to plane crashes, terrorist attacks, and natural

disasters, bridge and tunnel failures can also result in injuries,
fatalities, and property damage. Because of this, everyone
involved in building bridges and tunnels—from designers to
engineers to laborers, managers, and inspectors— takes their
tasks very seriously. Understanding the causes of bridge and
tunnels failure is the greatest approach for them to avoid serious
accidents.

The following are the caused of bridge and tunnel failures:

▪ High variation in ambient ▪ Poor design and

temperature fabrication
▪ Uncontrolled heavy axle load ▪ Congestion of vehicles
▪ Inadequate stability ▪ Environmental hazard
▪Effect of seawater/water especially (flood, earthquake,
to the bridge columns tsunami, etc.)
▪ Inadequate ground investigation ▪ Accidents (car crash,
▪ Inadequate support method of boat crash, train
excavation crash, etc.)

Type of Bridge and Tunnels Failure

A. Steel Materials
✓ Corrosion of steel
✓ Paint deterioration
✓ Loose connections

B. Concrete Material
✓ Collapse
✓ Spalling
✓ Wear/Abrasion
✓ Material deterioration
✓ Surface defect
✓ Delamination
✓ Water leak at deck

C. Expansion Joint
✓ Abnormal spacing
✓ Difference in level
✓ Rupture
✓ Drainage blocked

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D. Drainpipe

Bridge and Tunnel Maintenance and Rehabilitation

1. Exposed steel work must be cleaned and repainted

2. Cleaning and resealing of deck joint
3. Damage to guard rail must be repaired and strengthened
4. Resurfacing of deck
5. Scour around and under piers and abutments should be removed
6. Sealing, patching, filling joints and such
7. Checking of steel cables for corrosion
8. Checking of supports

PORTS AND SHIP CANALS

a. Ports. A port is a maritime facility

which may comprise one or more
wharves where ships may dock to
load and discharge passengers and
cargo. Although usually situated on
a sea coast, some ports can be
miles inland, with access to the sea
via river or canal.

In an environment of increasing global demand, ports all

around the world are constantly competing to draw in new freight
and routes. The best ally for ensuring that shipping corporations
select one port over another one located in a closer location is
having the proper port infrastructure in place. This increase in
port infrastructure spending is nothing new; it has been
happening since the 1990s and is only now becoming more intense.
Ports are learning the value of creating and implementing
thorough conservation plans to boost the efficiency of port
infrastructures and extend their usable lives.

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b. Ship Canal. A ship canal is a canal

especially intended to accommodate
ships used on the oceans, seas or lakes to
which it is connected, as opposed to a
barge canal intended to carry barges and
other vessels specifically designed for
river and/or canal navigation.

Failure Causes in Ports and Ship Canal

A. Congestion. Congested transportation infrastructure

surrounding a port can limit the flow of goods to and from a port,
even if the port's internal capacity to handle cargo has expanded.
Additionally, many ports are limited in their ability to expand the
footprint of the port due to competing land uses.

B. Climate Adaptation/Resilience. Ports and ship canals are

increasingly devoting substantial resources to address risks
associated with extreme weather events and sea level rise (e.g.,
disruption of supply chains, storm surge, heat waves, intense
rain/flooding, high winds, etc.

Other failure causes in ports and ship canals includes:

▪ Poor Design and Fabrication

▪ High variation in ambient temperature
▪ Effect of seawater to the construction materials
▪ Severe Corrosion
▪ Congestion of Ships
▪ Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake, Tsunami etc.)
▪ Accidents (Boat Crash)
▪ Poor Maintenance
Types of Ports and Ship Canal Failures

A. Material Deterioration. The material is

subject to one or more of the following
defects; rusting, rotting, corrosion,
decay.

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B. Damage of Components. Material or

equipment has been affected by
external forces such as, but not
limited to, mechanical, thermal,
chemical or hydraulic, to an extent
whereby the equipment no longer
performs its original function to the
extent required for the users' safety.

C. Scouring. The removal of sediment

or engineered materials from the bed
or banks of a watercourse.

D. Sedimentation. Sedimentation
occurs when eroded material that is
being transported by water, settles
out of the water column onto the
surface, as the water flow slows.

E. Collapsing of Wharf/Settlement of
Foundation

Ports and Ship Canal Maintenance and Rehabilitation

The automation of maintenance work is crucial given the

growing significance of protecting port assets. Keep in mind that
ports are intricate ecosystems with numerous components
necessary to the facility's correct operation on a worldwide scale.
These components necessitate inspection, analysis, and ongoing
maintenance, including:

▪ Steel repair and painting

▪ Implementation of coatings for corrosion protection
▪ Epoxy injection into small Cracks on deck and supported beams
▪ Removal of plastered concrete and cleaning of surface
▪ Subject rebars replacement and re-concreting of damage
section
▪ Placement of anti-scouring devices.
References:
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/transportation-infrastructure
https://www.civilconcept.com/classification-of-roads-in-civil-engineering/
https://www.lonestarpavingtx.com/what-is-pavement-failure/
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/transport/brief/railways https://www.slideshare.net/YashPatel61/railway-
failure-and-its-type
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These are just a few examples of the ample maintenance work

that when effectively carried out improves a port’s
competitiveness and efficiency.

AIRPORT RUNWAYS

A runway is a specifically designated space at an airport,

often built of asphalt and concrete, for aircraft takeoff and
landing. This area could be nothing more than a narrow strip of
grass, dirt, or sand, depending on the airport. However, asphalt
and concrete make up the majority of airport runways.

In simpler words, it is a complex of runways and buildings

for the take-off, landing, and maintenance of civil aircraft, with
facilities for passengers.

Airport Runways Failure Causes

Aviation mishaps are more likely to happen during takeoff and

landing, despite the fact that many injuries happen during flight.
Pilots must maintain regular communication with air traffic
controllers and ground staff in order to take off and land safely;
even a slight error can result in a disastrous runway catastrophe.

The following are the causes of airport runways failure:

▪ Poor Design and ▪ Congestion of Aircrafts

▪ Fabrication ▪ Environmental Hazard
▪ High variation in ambient (Flood, Earthquake, Tsunami,
temperature Bird Strikes etc.)
▪ Poor Maintenance ▪ Accidents
▪ Degradation

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Types of Airport Runways Failure

A. Cracking B. Surface Deformation

C. Disintegration
D. Rubber Deposits

E. Surface Defects

Airport Runways Maintenance and Rehabilitation

Airport maintenance means any work carried out to keep airports

runways excellent condition, keep their operations running
smoothly and meet the high safety standards.

1. Maintenance of Visual Aids

✓ Airport Light maintenance
✓ Basic maintenance program for approach, runway and taxi way
lighting systems
✓ Special types of lights
✓ Cleaning procedures for lights
✓ Light measurement
✓ Lamp replacement

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2. Signs
✓ Markings

3. Maintenance of Airport Electrical Systems

✓ Power cables and distributors in field
✓ Transformers and regulators (including standby units)
✓ Transformer stations for electric power supply
✓ Relay and switch cabinets (including switch cabinets in sub
stations)
✓ Control cables, monitoring units, control desk
✓ Secondary power supplies (generators)
✓ Fixed 400 Hz ground power supplies
✓ Apron floodlighting

4. Maintenance of Pavements
✓ Surface repair
✓ Repair of cracks
✓ Portland cement concrete pavements
✓ Bituminous pavements
✓ Repair of joints and cracks
✓ Joints in concrete pavements
✓ Concrete joint maintenance
✓ Joints in bituminous pavements
✓ Repair of pavement edge damage
✓ Edge repair
✓ Corner repair
✓ Repair of another pavement
✓ surface deficiencies

5. Sweeping
✓ Purpose of sweeping
✓ Surface monitoring
✓ Cleaning of surfaces
✓ Purpose of cleaning pavements
✓ Removal of rubber deposits
✓ Fuel and oil removal

6. Removal of Snow and Ice

✓ Procedures for snow removal
✓ Surface de-icing
✓ Surface anti-icing

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7. Drainage

✓ Cleaning of slot drains

✓ Drain pipes or culverts between surfaces and collector basins
✓ Oil and fuel separators
✓ Water hydrants

8. Maintenance of Unpaved Areas

✓ Maintenance of green areas within strips
✓ Maintenance of grass on unpaved runways and taxiways
✓ Maintenance of green areas outside strips
✓ Treatment of cut grass

Summary

Transportation infrastructure plays a vital role in helping our

transportation remain its function, transportation is important
because it enables communication, trade and other forms of
exchange between people, that in turn establishes civilizations.

Though over time some of this infrastructure experience

failures due to a lot of factors.

That’s why Maintenance and rehabilitation is being carried out

regularly to these transportation infrastructure at a fixed
interval or as and when damage is observed.

This maintenance might scale to minor inspection, repairs to

major rehabilitation and as such.

It is important to know that maintenance of transportation

infrastructures ensures safety to users, improves its
performance, reduce possible repair cost, extend its expected
life span and provide information for future engineers,
designers & constructors for future designs and builds of
Transportation Infrastructures.

MODULE 7

FUNDAMENTALS OF
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

References:
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TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS

INTRODUCTION TO TRAFFIC ANALYSIS

Traffic Analysis
Traffic analysis provides basis in measuring the operating
performance of the highway
Primary function of a highway system is providing high level of
transportation service (LOS) and safety

Various dimensions used in traffic analysis

Number of vehicles per unit time (traffic volume).
Vehicle types and speeds.
Variation in traffic volumes over time (e.g., Peak Hour)

Other dimensions that influenced traffic operations

Traffic control devices (i.e., traffic signals, signs and markings)
Types of pavement and geometric design
Selection of the number of lanes.

Most used numerical dimensions of traffic flow

Speed (km/hr)
Flow/flowrate/volume (veh/hr)
Density (veh/km)

FLOW RATE OR VOLUME

Flow rate is defined as the number of vehicles passing a point
during a specified period of time.

SPEED
Speed is defined as the rate of motion in distance per unit
time. When describing traffic streams, two types of speed are
used: time mean speed and space mean speed.

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Time Mean Speed / Spot Speed

- is simply the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles
passing a point within a given interval of time.

Space Mean Speed / Harmonic Mean Speed

- is used to describe the rate of movement of a traffic stream
within a given section of road. It is the speed based on the
average travel time of vehicles in the stream within the section.

DENSITY
Density is defined as the number of vehicles in a given length of
road at an instant point in time.

TIME HEADWAY
Time headway is defined as the time interval between passage
of consecutive vehicles at a specified point on the road with a unit
of time per vehicle.

SPACING
Spacing is the distance between two vehicles measured from
the front bumper of a vehicle to that of another.

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TIME OCCUPANCY
It can only be measured, however, if a detector is installed at
a specific point on the carriageway. It is defined as the total time
a detector is occupied divided by the total time of observation.

RELATIONSHIP OF FLOW, SPEED, AND DENSITY

A relationship exists among the three most important traffic
variables: flow rate, space mean speed, and density. A dimensional
analysis of the units will show that flow rate (veh/hr) is simply the
product of density (veh/km) and space mean speed (km/hr), or

As mentioned earlier, density is the most difficult variable to

measure. It can be obtained indirectly using this relation.

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SPEED - DENSITY RELATIONS

VOLUME - DENSITY RELATIONS

VOLUME - SPEED RELATIONS

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POISSON DISTRIBUTION MODELS

Poisson distribution
A model that accounts for the non-uniformity of flow by
assuming that the pattern of arrivals corresponds to some random
process

Where:P(n) = is the probability of having n vehicles arrive in time t

t = the duration of time interval over which vehicles are counted
λ = average vehicle flow or arrival rate (in vehicle/unit time)

Sample Problem

An engineer counts 720 veh/hour at a specified location.

Assuming the arrivals is Poisson distributed,

Estimate the probabilities of having 0,1,2,3,4, and 10 vehicles

arriving over a 30- second time interval.
Determine the probability that 4 or more vehicles will arrive in
the next 30 second interval.
Also determine the probability that 4 or more vehicles will
arrive in each of the next three 30-second time intervals.

Poisson distribution
Poisson vehicle arrivals also implies a distribution of the time
intervals between the arrivals of successive vehicles (i.e., time
headway)
Determines the probability of delay for vehicle and pedestrian
crossing, length of waiting lines at toll booths and traffic
signals

Limitation Poisson distribution model

Only applicable for lightly congested traffic conditions
Not appropriate for heavy traffic conditions particularly in
urban areas where traffic signals cause cyclical stream
disturbances

References:
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ORIGIN-DESTINATION SURVEY

TRAVEL SURVEY
Travel surveys are conducted to establish a complete
understanding of the travel patterns within the study area. For
single projects (such as a highway project), it may be sufficient to
use traffic counts on existing roads or (for transit) counts of
passengers riding the present system. However, to understand
why people travel and where they wish to go, origin-destination
(O-D) survey data can be useful.

ORIGIN DESTINATION SURVEY

The O-D survey asks questions about each trip that is made on
a specific day such as where the trip begins and ends, the purpose
of the trip, the time of day, and the vehicle involved (auto or
transit)-and about the person making the trip age, sex, income,
vehicle owner, and so on.

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ORIGIN DESTINATION SURVEY

The O-D survey may be completed as a home interview, or
people may be asked questions while riding the bus or when
stopped at a roadside interview station. Sometimes, the
information is requested by telephone or by return postcard. O-D
surveys are rarely completed in communities where these data
have been previously collected.

O-D data are compared with other sources to ensure the

accuracy and consistency of the results. For example, the number
of cars observed crossing one or more bridges might be compared
with the number estimated from the surveys. It is also possible to
assign trips to the existing network to compare how well the data
replicate actual travel. If the screen line crossings are
significantly different from those produced by the data, it is
possible to adjust in the O-D results so that conformance with the
actual conditions is assured. Following the O-D checking
procedure, a set of trip tables is prepared that shows the number
of trips between each zone in the study area.

PARKING STUDIES
Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or another
be parked for either a relatively short time or a much longer
time, depending on the reason for parking. The provision of
parking facilities is therefore an essential element of the
highway mode of transportation. The need for parking spaces is
usually very great in areas where land uses include business,
residential, or commercial activities. In areas of high density,
where space is very expensive, the space provided for
automobiles usually has to be divided between that allocated
for their movement and that allocated for parking them.

Parking studies are therefore used to determine the demand for

and the supply of parking facilities in an area, the projection of
the demand, and the views of various interest groups on how
best to solve the problem.

TYPES OF PARKING FACILITIES

On-Street Parking Facilities

These are also known as curb facilities. Parking bays are provided
alongside the curb on one or both sides of the street.

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These bays can be unrestricted parking facilities if the duration of

parking is unlimited and parking is free, or they can be restricted
parking facilities if parking is limited to specific times of the day
for a maximum duration. Parking at restricted facilities may or
may not be free. Restricted facilities also may be provided for
specific purposes, such as to provide handicapped parking or as
bus stops or loading bays.

Off-Street Parking Facilities

These facilities may be privately or publicly owned; they
include surface lots and garages. Self-parking garages require
that drivers park their own automobiles; attendant-parking
garages maintain personnel to park the automobiles.

DEFINITIONS OF PARKING TERMS

A space-hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of a single

parking space for a period of 1 hour.

Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that park in a study

area during a specific length of time, usually a day.

Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles in a study

area at any specified time. These data can be plotted as a curve of
parking accumulation against time, which shows the variation of
the parking accumulation during the day.

The parking load is the area under the accumulation curve

between two specific times. It is usually given as the number of
space-hours used during the specified period of time.

Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a

parking bay. When the parking duration is given as an average, it
gives an indication of how frequently a parking space becomes
available.

Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking space. It is

obtained by dividing the parking volume for a specified period by
the number of parking spaces.

References:
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METHODOLOGY OF PARKING STUDIES

A comprehensive parking study usually involves

(1) inventory of existing parking facilities
(2) collection of data on parking accumulation, parking turnover
and parking duration
(3) identification of parking generators
(4) collection of information on parking demand.

Information on related factors, such as financial, legal, and

administrative matters, also may be collected.

INVENTORY OF EXISTING PARKING FACILITIES

An inventory of existing parking facilities is a detailed listing
of the location and all other relevant characteristics of each legal
parking facility, private and public, in the study area. The
inventory includes both on- and off-street facilities. The relevant
characteristics usually listed include the following:

Type and number of parking spaces at each parking facility

Times of operation and limit on duration of parking, if any
Type of ownership (private or public)
Parking fees, if any, and method of collection
Restrictions on use (open or closed to the public)
Other restrictions, if any (such as loading and unloading zones,
bus stops, or taxi ranks)
Probable degree of permanency (can the facility be regarded as
permanent or is it just a temporary facility?)

The information obtained from an inventory of parking facilities

is useful both to the traffic engineer and to public agencies, such
as zoning commissions and planning departments. The inventory
should be updated at regular intervals of about four to five years.

COLLECTION OF PARKING DATA

Accumulation.
Accumulation data are obtained by checking the amount of
parking during regular intervals on different days of the week. The
checks are usually carried out on an hourly or 2-hour basis
between 6:00 a.m. and 12 midnight. The selection of the times
depends on the operation times of land-use activities that act as
parking generators. The information obtained is used to determine
hourly variations of parking and peak periods of parking demand.

References:
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Turnover and Duration.

Information on turnover and duration is usually obtained by
collecting data on a sample of parking spaces in each block. This
is done by recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on
each parking space in the sample at the ends of fixed intervals
during the study period. The length of the fixed intervals depends
on the maximum permissible duration. For example, if the
maximum permissible duration of parking at a curb face is 1 hour,
a suitable interval is every 20 minutes. If the permissible duration
is 2 hours, checking every 30 minutes would be appropriate.
Turnover is then obtained from the equation

IDENTIFICATION OF PARKING GENERATORS

This phase involves identifying parking generators (for
example, shopping centers or transit terminals) and locating
these on a map of the study area.

PARKING DEMAND
Information on parking demand is obtained by interviewing
drivers at the various parking facilities listed during the inventory.
An effort should be made to interview all drivers using the parking
facilities on a typical weekday between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m.
Information sought should include (1) trip origin, (2) purpose of
trip, and (3) driver's destination after parking. The interviewer
must also note the location of the parking facility, times of arrival
and departure, and the vehicle type.

ANALYSIS OF PARKING DATA

Analysis of parking data includes summarizing, coding, and
interpreting the data so that the relevant information required for
decision making can be obtained. The relevant information
includes the following:

Number and duration for vehicles legally parked

Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked
Space-hours of demand for parking
Supply of parking facilities

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The analysis required to obtain information on the first two

items is straightforward; it usually involves simple arithmetical
and statistical calculations. Data obtained from these items are
then used to determine parking space-hours.

The space hours of demand for parking are obtained from the
expression

where
D = space vehicle-hours demand for a specific period of time
N = number of classes of parking duration ranges
ti= midparking duration of the ith class
ni = number of vehicles parked for the ith duration range

The space hours of supply are obtained from the expression

where
S = practical number of space-hours of supply for a specific
period of time
N = number of parking spaces available
t;= total length of time in hours when the ith space can be legally
parked on during the specific period
f = efficiency factor

The efficiency factor f is used to correct for time lost in

each turnover. It is determined on the basis of the best
performance a parking facility is expected to produce. Efficiency
factors for curb parking, during highest demand, vary from 78
percent to 96 percent; for surface lots and garages, from 75
percent to 92 percent. Average values of f are 90 percent for curb
parking, 80 percent for garages, and 85 percent for surface lots.

References:
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SAMPLE PROBLEM

The owner of a parking garage located in a CBD has observed

that 20% of those wishing to park are turned back every day
during the open hours of 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. because of lack of
parking spaces. An analysis of data collected at the garage
indicates that 60% of those who park are commuters, with an
average parking duration of 9 hr., and the remaining are shoppers,
whose average parking duration is 2 hr. If 20% of those who
cannot park are commuters and the rest are shoppers, and a total
of 200 vehicles currently park daily in the garage, determine the
number of additional spaces required to meet the excess demand.
Assume parking efficiency is 0.90.

INTERSECTION DESIGN

Intersections play an important role in any network system.

They are the points where traffic flow converges and where
direction of travel changes. Intersections may be categorized
according to shape, type of structure, and type of operation.

Shape
This refers to the configuration of the intersection and would
depend largely on the
number of legs. Carefully planned and properly designed road
networks often lead to intersections with simpler shape having a
lesser number of legs.

References:
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Type of Structure
Most of the intersections are either designed as at-grade
intersections or grade separation such as flyovers or
interchanges. Almost all intersections are initially designed at-
grade and are planned to be grade-separated in the future to
cope with high traffic volume. The type of grade separation
depends largely on the extent of improvement it would provide in
terms of easing congestion or reducing traffic accidents.

Type of Operation
Rules and regulations applied to a given intersection depend
largely on the type of control which is in operation at that
intersection. The main objective is to simplify traffic flow. This
is often achieved by reducing the number of conflicts of
vehicles.
An intersection operates as unchannelized or channelized, and
unsignalized or signalized. Channelization often leads to
simplified movements of vehicles as it leads drivers to one
conflict at a time. On the other hand, signalization greatly
crosses conflicts at the intersection area.

BASIC INTERSECTION DESIGN PRINCIPLES

When designing or improving an intersection, it is very

important to follow some basic principles to avoid costly mistakes
that lead to lack of the intersection’s capacity or to its being
accident-prone.

The maximum number of legs should be four. It has been shown

that the number of conflicts increases exponentially as the
number of intersection legs increases.
Staggered intersections should be avoided. Due to proximity of
the two side roads, inadequate length of storage lane for left
vehicles often causes blockage of the through traffic.
Main traffic flow should be near straight as possible. Sharp
turns, such as left and right turns, cause unnecessary reduction
in traffic speeds.

References:
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BASIC INTERSECTION DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Roads should not intersect at a small angle. Oblique

intersections pose potential hazards and cause high severity of
accidents due to the almost head-to-head collision of vehicles. An
angle of 60 degrees must be considered as the minimum.

Two intersections should be as far as possible from each

other. In addition to the reason cited in (2), adequate weaving
sections may not be provided. As a rule of thumb, the distance
between the two intersections must be

distance = design speed (kph) x number of lanes x 2

For instance, if the prevailing speed is 30 kph and there are

four lanes in one direction, the distance between the two
intersections must be at least 30 x 4 x 2 = 240 m.

References:
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INTERSECTION DESIGN ELEMENTS

Turning geometry
The principal purpose of an intersection is to provide change
in the direction of travel. As a vehicle approaches an intersection,
the driver has to decide whether to go straight or to turn to left or
right. For turning movements, a number of turning geometries may
be considered, the most direct of which is highly preferred.
Configurations of turning geometries are shown below:

These types of turning movements may be found as elements

of the interchanges shown below:

References:
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The different elements of an intersection are shown in Figure

5.1. The adequacy in design of each element must be carefully
checked, considering traffic flow and availability of right of way.

For the left turn storage bay, the recommended length is = 2 x

no. of left turners in one cycle x spacing in queue.
The spacing in the queue may range from 6.0 m to 7.0 m,
depending on the type of vehicles using the intersection.
A factor of 2 is used to take into account randomness of traffic
flow.

The number of lanes for through, right, and left turn vehicles
would depend on traffic volume, saturation flow rates, a simple
circular curve may be adequate for the design of the intersection
corners and the turning roadway. However, simple curve may not b
enough for large intersections. The most common type of
geometry for these intersections is the three-centered curve as
shown in the figure.

References:
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METHODS OF CONTROL OF INTERSECTIONS

Conflicts often occur at intersections. The more the number
of legs an intersection has, the more the number of conflicts it
has.

Conflicts may be classified as merging, diverging, or crossing

conflicts. The table below gives a summary of these conflicts. The
total number increases exponentially with the number of legs of
the intersection. Most of the problems at intersections, like
congestion and accidents, are caused by crossing conflicts.

Conflicts may be classified as merging, diverging, or

crossing conflicts. The table below gives a summary of these
conflicts. The total number increases exponentially with the
number of legs of the intersection. Most of the problems at
intersections, like congestion and accidents, are caused by
crossing conflicts.

References:
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Depending on the traffic volume using the intersection and

the severity of conflicts, intersection control may fall under any
of the following categories:

a. Unsignalized
b. Signalized
c. Grade separation

Conflict diagrams for different types of control for a four-

leg intersections

References:
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Comparison of types of control for a four-leg intersection

Grade separation or interchanges

References:
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ANALYSIS OF UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

A large number of intersections all over the country are still

without traffic signals. It is therefore necessary to have a
means of analysis of the performance of this type of
intersection so as to find appropriate measures to minimized
congestion and reduce the occurrence of traffic accidents.
The method calculates the maximum flow in any given minor
road traffic stream. It is them compared with the existing
traffic flow to estimate the reserve capacity. The probable
delay and level of service are determined based on this reserve
capacity.
Consider the four-leg intersection below. Minor movements are
movements coming from the side road or minor road. In
addition, the left turn movements from the major road are also
considered minor. But in terms of hierarchy, these left turn
movements have higher priority than the movements coming
from the minor road.

The method requires that the traffic movements be dealt with

in the following order:

a. Right turns into the major road

b. Left turns off the major road
c. Traffic crossing the major road
d. Left turns into the major road

References:
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Structure of Major Road Traffic

Critical Gap
The source of capacity of the minor road flows is the available
gaps between major road flows. The critical gap used to describe
the minimum gaps needed by drivers of minor road vehicles.
Values of critical gaps are given in the table for different vehicle
maneuvers, speed limits, and highway type.

References:
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Capacity
In the estimation of capacity of the minor road flow, the
basic capacity is initially determined. Based on the major road
flows given by Mh, and values of critical gap tg, the value of the
basic capacity Mno is read from the graph shown in the figure.

The basic capacity is the maximum minor road flow,

assuming that the following conditions are true:

a. The traffic on the major road Mh does not block the major road.
b. A turning lane is provided for the exclusive use of the minor
road traffic stream.

References:
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If these conditions are not met, correction factors have to be

implied based on the following considerations:

Congestion on the major road

Reduction factor due to possible congestion of movement of

major road

If these conditions are not met, correction factors have to be

implied based on the following considerations:

Shared lanes

References:
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where:
Mn - capacity of all streams using the shared lane
Mna, Mnb, Mnc - capacity of individual streams
a, b, c - contribution of the individual streams to the total
volume using the shared lane.

If these conditions are not met, correction factors have to be

implied based on the following considerations:

Passenger Car Equivalents. Since the calculated capacity is in

pcu/hr, the existing flow has to be converted to the same unit.

PCU values of different vehicle types

If these conditions are not met, correction factors have to be

implied based on the following considerations:

Reserve Capacity

References:
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SAMPLE PROBLEM

Consider the channelized T-intersection with the minor road

controlled by YIELD sign. There is no prevailing speed limit.
Evaluate the performance of the unsignalized intersection.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Evaluate the unsignalized intersection with the two minor road

approaches controlled by STOP signs. The traffic volumes shown
are in vehicles per hour (vph). There is no prevailing speed limit.

References:
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ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ROUNDABOUTS OR ROTONDAS

The elements of the roundabout are shown in figure 5.10.

Roundabout with large central island are known to operate better
as they provide ample weaving sections that normally dictate the
capacity of the intersection.

Design elements of a roundabout

For the analysis and design of roundabouts, British practice

will be discussed in this section (Salter 1976). The focus is the
capacity of the weaving section, which is given by the equation:

References:
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where :
w – the width of the weaving section in meters
e – the average width of entries to the weaving section in meters;
l – the length of the weaving section

The capacity formula is valid under the following conditions,

although there is no reason to believe that the formula does not
hold if any variable lies a little outside the values given:

The design of roundabouts is usually done by trial and error.

Weaving width and length are assumed and then checked for
adequacy of capacity. As roundabouts have a tendency to lock
when overloaded, it is important that they have adequate reserve
capacity.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Consider the Y-junction with the given traffic volume to be

designed as a roundabout.

References:
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MODULE 8

PAVEMENT MATERIALS
AND DESIGN

References:
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PAVEMENT

This is a universal defining the carriageway of vehicles,

pedestrians and bicycles. Based on the traffic loading and
materials used, design of pavement varies. Similar terms used in
the field: highway, road.

PAVEMENT DESIGN

Field Investigation
• Traffic Surveys
• Curvature Surveys
Laboratory Testing
• Soil Classification
• Subgrade

Pavement Design
• Traffic Load
• Subgrade Support Characterization
• Pavement Structural Section
• Minimum Pavement Sections
• Alternative Pavement Design

Construction Materials Specifications

• Soil Preparation
• Sub-Layer Materials
• Wearing Course Preparation
Other Utilities
• Pedestrian and Bicycle Lane
• Drainage
• Presence of Service Utilities

Road Right of Way

• Placement of New Road
• Road Widening

Pavement Monitoring and Maintenance Process

• Monitoring Systems, Process and Schemes
• Pavement Maintenance

References:
Buechner, W. (2006). ‘‘History of the Gasoline Tax.’’ American Roads and Transportation Building Association, (www.artba .org).

FHWA (August 1997). Federal Highway Cost Allocation Study, Federal Highway
Administrationwww.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/otps/costallocation.htm.
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BRIDGES

TYPES OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENT

1. Flexible
• Asphalt Concrete
• Bitumen Binder

2. Rigid
• Portland Cement Concrete
• Portland Cement Binder

Depending on the surfacing, pressure effect on soil

varies

There are three general types of roadway pavements, namely

flexible, rigid, and composite. Flexible pavements typically consist
of asphalt concrete placed over granular base/subbase layers
supported by the compacted soil, referred to as the subgrade.
Some asphalt-paved surfaces consist of a simple bituminous
surface treatment (BST), while other, lighter-duty asphalt-
surfaced pavements are too thin, to be considered as flexible
pavements, (i.e., combined layer thicknesses less than 15 cm).

Rigid pavements typically consist of a Portland concrete layer

placed over the subgrade with or without a middle base layer.
Composite pavements are typically the result of pavement
rehabilitation, whereby Portland concrete is used to cover
damaged asphalt concrete or vice versa.

References:
Buechner, W. (2006). ‘‘History of the Gasoline Tax.’’ American Roads and Transportation Building Association, (www.artba .org).

FHWA (August 1997). Federal Highway Cost Allocation Study, Federal Highway
Administrationwww.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/otps/costallocation.htm.
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The terms flexible and rigid relate to the way asphalt and
Portland concrete pavements, respectively, transmit stress and
deflection to the underlying layers. Ideally, a flexible layer
transmits uniform stresses and nonuniform deflections, while the
opposite is true for a rigid layer. In practice, the stress and
deflection distributions in asphalt concrete and Portland concrete
pavements depend on the relative stiffness of these layers with
respect to those of the underlying granular layers. This ratio is
much lower for asphalt concrete than Portland concrete, which
justifies their generic designation as flexible and rigid,
respectively. As described in later chapters, this affects
significantly the way these two pavement types are analyzed and
designed.

Figure 1.1 shows a typical cross

section of a flexible pavement. The
asphalt concrete layer, which may
consist of two or more sublayers,
or lifts, is placed on top of the
granular base/subbase layers,
which are placed on top of the
subgrade. A tack coat layer may be
applied to provide adhesion
between layers, while a seal coat
may provide a pavement surface
barrier.

A fabric or other geotextile placed between the base and the

subgrade prevents migration of fines between them, and
maintains their integrity. The base layers can be either compacted
gravel, referred to as, simply, granular, or incorporate cement,
referred to as stabilized. Typically, the asphalt concrete layer is
designed with no interconnected voids (i.e., mix air voids 4–8%),
and hence relies on surface runoff for precipitation drainage.
Alternatively, asphalt concretes with interconnected voids, (i.e.,
mix air voids higher than 12%) allow drainage through the surface.
This design requires a lower impermeable asphalt concrete layer,
to prevent water from penetrating the base layer. Water runoff
led to the edge of the pavement can be removed by surface
evaporation, ditches, or drainage pipes.

References:
Buechner, W. (2006). ‘‘History of the Gasoline Tax.’’ American Roads and Transportation Building Association, (www.artba .org).
FHWA (August 1997). Federal Highway Cost Allocation Study, Federal Highway
Administrationwww.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/otps/costallocation.htm.
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Figure 1.2 shows a typical section of

a rigid pavement. The Portland concrete
layer is placed either directly on top of
the subgrade or on top of a granular base
layer. Unreinforced Portland concrete
slabs, such as the one shown in Figure
1.2, tend to crack transversely where
thermally induced tensile stresses
exceed the tensile strength of the
concrete. Hence, they require transverse
joints at prescribed intervals.

They are constructed by cutting a surface groove using a

rotary saw before the concrete is fully cured. These joints, in
addition to relieving thermal stresses, need to provide sufficient
vertical load transfer between advancement slabs. Under a moving
load, sufficient vertical load transfer provides a gradual buildup
of stresses under the downstream slab, which controls the
migration of moisture and fines under the joint and prevents
downstream slab settlement, (i.e., faulting). Load transfer is
accomplished either through aggregate interlock along the jagged
edges of adjacent slabs (Figure 1.3a) or through dowel bars
located at the neutral axis bridging the joint (Figure 1.3b). These
dowel bars are smooth and epoxy-coated, to allow free horizontal
movement while providing vertical displacement coupling between
adjacent slabs. Collapsible end caps allow the expansion of the
slabs without generating compressive stress in the dowel. These
pavements are referred to as jointed plain concrete pavements
(JPCP) and jointed dowel reinforced concrete pavements

FIELD INVESTIGATION

Traffic Surveys
• Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
• Vehicle Classification/Type
• Speed and Density
• Routes and Intersections
• Level of Service of roads

Curvature Survey
• Vertical Curve/Elevation
• Horizontal Curves and Super-elevation
• Mass Diagram
• Road grades

References:
Buechner, W. (2006). ‘‘History of the Gasoline Tax.’’ American Roads and Transportation Building Association, (www.artba .org).

FHWA (August 1997). Federal Highway Cost Allocation Study, Federal Highway
Administrationwww.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/otps/costallocation.htm.
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MATERIAL TESTING

1. Soil 2. Road System

• Soil • Subgrade Materials
• On-site • Road base Materials
• Embankment • Surface Material
• Excavation • Asphalt Concrete
• Treatment • Portland Cement Concrete
• General Soil Parameters • Drainage Materials
• California Bearing Ratio Test • Pedestrian Surface Layer Materials

ROAD SYSTEM MATERIAL TESTING

Material Specification

• Subgrade Course
• Sub-base Course
• Base Course

Field Density Requirements

• Subgrade Course
• Sub-base Course
• Base Course

Material Specification for Surface Layer

• Asphalt Concrete
• Portland Cement Concrete

Material Specification for other Materials

• Drainage pipe/culvert
• Precast materials for gutter
• Concrete mixture
• Special material for pedestrian pavement

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PAVEMENT DESIGN

HIGHWAY DESIGNER
• Location design

-takes place at the earlier stage of project planning

-refers to the macro-level routing of a planned highway
connecting two points through the existing highways,
communities, natural terrain
-Essential inputs are lane-use master plan, existing and projected
population distribution, survey maps; maps of existing
infrastructure; geology, ecological, biological, and environmental
information; and aerial photographs resulting to road routes
overlaid in contour maps

• Alignment design

-alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional problem because

the highway itself negotiates through the terrain in connecting
two points
-Visualized as segments of connected horizontal and vertical
curves (or their combination) best represented by its center line
in a three-dimensional coordinate system (e.g., longitude,
latitude, and elevation) but in practice, convention of plan and
profile views are adopted.

• Cross-sectional design

-A typical cross section of a highway consists of the following

components: traveled way (traffic lanes), shoulders (on both
edges, paved or unpaved)
-Important elements in the geometric design are cross slope of
travel lane, lane width, width and slope of shoulder, and curb (if it
is used)
-The cross-sectional design considered the volume,
characteristics, and speed of the traffic it will service. In addition,
motor vehicle and the driver characteristics are also considered.
-Presents the thickness of each layer of road section, its material
type, the lane width and the cross-slope directing to the drainage
system on each side, and the shoulder

References:
Haas, R. C. G., W. R. Hudson, and J. Zaniewski, (1994). Modern Pavement Management, Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar, FL.
FHWA (2005). ‘‘Highway Statistics; Section V’’: Roadway Extent, Characteristics, and Performance, Federal Highway Administration.
Washington, DC.
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1. Cross-slope/road slope

-a crown or high point in the middle and a cross slope downward

toward both edges
-a high point at one edge, and a cross slope across slope across
the entire width
-slope should be steep enough to direct the rainfall runoff to flow
towards the edge of the roadway (instead of along the slope of a
vertical curve), provide sufficient drainage capacity for the
design storm, but at the same time, avoid the tendency for
vehicles traveling straight to drift towards the low point of the
cross section (unless corrected by steering control)

2. Shoulder

-part of the highway near the edges of the paved surface that is
designed to provide structural lateral support for the pavement.
-provides additional space for drivers to make corrective actions,
for stopped vehicles and for bicycle use, to increase sight
distance on horizontal curves, and to provide clearance for
placement of road signs and guardrails.
-width of a shoulder is measured from the pavement marking of
the outermost lane to the intersection of the shoulder slope and
fore slope planes and may not be paved
-Additional lane in case of congestion and must be continuous
along the roadway

3. Curb

-a steep raised element of a roadway that provides the following

functions: drainage control, roadway edge delineation, right-of-
way control and delineation of pedestrian walkways
-Used extensively in low-speed urban streets, but not on high-
speed rural highways and freeways because a vehicle may
overturn when hitting a curb at high speed.

• Two types: vertical curbs and sloping curbs

- Vertical curbs - Either vertical or nearly vertical, with a height of

150 to 200 mm which may prevent or discourage vehicles from
leaving the roadway.
- Sloping curbs - have slopes that range from 1V: 2H to 1V:1H and
height between 100 to 150 mm; designed such that a vehicle in
emergency may go over the curve.

References:
Haas, R. C. G., W. R. Hudson, and J. Zaniewski, (1994). Modern Pavement Management, Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar, FL.

FHWA (2005). ‘‘Highway Statistics; Section V’’: Roadway Extent, Characteristics, and Performance, Federal Highway Administration.
Washington, DC.
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• Access design
Includes design of intersection, frontage roads

- Considerations
1. ensuring adequate visibility of a connection to drivers, including
the appropriate location, signing, and lighting, are also addressed
2. Identification of intended operations of a specific connection
3. the importance of providing a smooth transition between the
roadway and the area

- Checklist for Intended Operations

(a) Is it acceptable for a passenger car to wait in the traffic lane if
an existing vehicle is present in the driveway?
(b) Is simultaneous exit and entry by passenger cars desired?
(c) Is simultaneous entry and exit by trucks, buses, or other large
vehicles desired?

- Transition Parameters
(a) change in grade between the pavement cross slope and
driveway apron for an appropriate transition
(b) driveway profiles for urban (curbed) and rural (open ditch)
areas that illustrate the use of vertical curves to provide smooth
transitions

- Alternatives to direct access to major roadways include

I. frontage roads,
ii. service roads where the separation from the major roadway
permits development between the service road and the major
roadway, and
iii. a supporting circulation system where access is provided as
part of the site development

PAVEMENT DESIGNER

• Pavement thickness
• Material quality
• Soil Structural Stability
• Life Cycle/Pavement Life Analysis

References:
Haas, R. C. G., W. R. Hudson, and J. Zaniewski, (1994). Modern Pavement Management, Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar, FL.

FHWA (2005). ‘‘Highway Statistics; Section V’’: Roadway Extent, Characteristics, and Performance, Federal Highway Administration.
Washington, DC.
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TRAFFIC LOADING DESIGN

-estimation of traffic levels at opening is of central importance to

the structural design of the upper layers of the road pavement.
-Commercial vehicles are defined as those with an unladen weight
of 15kN. They are the primary cause of structural damage to the
highway pavement, with the damage arising from private cars
negligible in comparison.
-Unladen weight is the weight of the vehicle when it is not
carrying any passengers, goods or other items. It includes the
body and all parts normally used with the vehicle or trailer when
it's used on a road.

VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION

In order to allow the determination of the cumulative design

traffic for the highway in question, therefore, the total flow of
commercial vehicles per day in one direction at the day of opening
(or, for maintenance purposes, at the present time) plus the
proportion of vehicles in the OGV2 category must be ascertained.
If all flow data is two-directional, then a 50-50 split is assumed
unless available data demonstrates otherwise.

OGV = Other Goods Vehicles

References:
PCA (1980). Joint Design for Concrete Highways and Street Pavements, Portland Cement Association, Skokie IL.
AASHTO (1993) AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, ‘‘American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials’’,
Washington, DC.
2Cebon, D. (1999). Handbook of Vehicle- Road Interaction, Swets & Zeitlinger, Rotterdam, NL.
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DPWH VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION

-Classified vehicles allowed to pass through specific highways

especially those with bridges.
-Provided a matrix for the maximum allowable gross vehicle
weight per RA NO. 8794
-Based on the maximum allowable axle load of 13,500 kg.
- Focus on trucks and its maximum allowed vehicle based on their
number of axles
-Trailers have different registration permit from LTO; thus, it is
not allowed to upgrade/downgrade without permit

AVCs record vehicle volumes by vehicle classification. Vehicle

classification is defined in terms of the number of axles by axle
configuration. The majority of state departments of
transportation (DOTs) use a FHWA-established vehicle
classification system involving 13 vehicle classes. AVCs determine
vehicle classification by detecting the number of axles and their
spacing. This is done through a combination of vehicle and axle
sensors.

The most common configuration of AVC involves two inductive

loops and a single-axle sensor (Figure 2.2). Two inductive loops
allow calculation of vehicle speed as the ratio of their spacing
divided by the difference in loop trigger timing. Given the vehicle
speed, axle spacing is calculated from the trigger timing of the
axle sensor. Axle sensor operation is based on mechanical,
piezoelectric, or fiber-optic principles. A variety of manufacturers
supply such axle sensors (e.g., Dynax Corp., Measurement
Specialties Inc., and International Road Dynamics). It should be
noted that not all axle sensors can differentiate between two and
four tires per axle. As a result, not all AVCs can distinguish Class 3
from Class 5 vehicles, nor can identify non-steering truck axles on
single tires.

References:
PCA (1980). Joint Design for Concrete Highways and Street Pavements, Portland Cement Association, Skokie IL.
AASHTO (1993) AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, ‘‘American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials’’, Washington, DC.
2Cebon, D. (1999). Handbook of Vehicle- Road Interaction, Swets & Zeitlinger, Rotterdam, NL.
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Furthermore, some unusual passenger car-trailer

configurations could be hard to distinguish from some tractor-
trailer combinations, (e.g., Class 8 vehicles). Another source of
classification error is the variation in vehicle speed while passing
an AVC system. Since this unavoidable under high-traffic volumes
(e.g., level of service D or E), classifying vehicles through
conventional AVC systems under these conditions is challenging.
Camera-based sensors used for general traffic data collection
purposes are emerging as potential AVC sensors. However, to
date, no software exists that can automatically process vehicle
images for the purpose of obtaining vehicle classes defined as
Table 2.2 AVC system accuracy tolerances.

Accuracy of AVC systems is evaluated on the basis of

manual vehicle classification data obtained from several
independent observers. Clearly, although AVC data contains more
information than ATR data, it still lacks a data element crucial to
the pavement analysis/design process, namely the load of the
axles.

DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

Reinforcement - to reduce the amount of cracking that occurs, as

a load transfer mechanism at joints, or as a means of tying two
slabs together.
• Temperature steel - To control cracks
• Dowel bars - For load transfer mechanism
• Tie bars - Connect two slabs together

Joints
• Expansion joints - usually placed transversely, at regular
intervals, to provide adequate space for the slab to expand.
• Contraction joints - placed transversely at regular intervals
across the width of the pavement to release some of the tensile
stresses that are so induced
• Hinge joints - used mainly to reduce cracking along the center
line of highway pavements.
• Construction joints - placed transversely across the pavement
width to provide suitable transition between concrete laid at
different times.

References:
PCA (1980). Joint Design for Concrete Highways and Street Pavements, Portland Cement Association, Skokie IL.
AASHTO (1993) AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, ‘‘American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials’’, Washington, DC.
2Cebon, D. (1999). Handbook of Vehicle- Road Interaction, Swets & Zeitlinger, Rotterdam, NL.
MODULE 8: PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND DESIGN 157

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

TYPES OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

- Plain concrete pavement has no temperature steel or dowels for
load transfer
- used mainly on low-volume highways or when cement-stabilized
soils are used as subbase

Simply Reinforced Concrete Pavement

- have dowels for the transfer of traffic loads across joints, with
these joints spaced at larger distances, ranging from 30 to 100 ft.

Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)

- no transverse joints, except construction joints or expansion
joints when they are necessary at specific positions, such as at
bridges
- pavements have a relatively high percentage of steel, with the
minimum usually at 0.6 percent of the cross section of the slab.

RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN

Plumbing Considerations
• the discharge of water and subgrade (or subbase) material
through joints, cracks, and along the pavement edges
• caused by the repeated deflection of the pavement slab in the
presence of accumulated water beneath it
• formation of void space beneath the pavement due to plastic
deformation of the soil, due to imposed loads and the elastic
rebound of the pavement after it has been deflected by the
imposed load, or warping of the pavement, which occurs as a
result of temperature gradient within the slab.

Pumping Effect Visual Manifestations

• Discharge of water from cracks and joints
• Spalling near the centerline of the pavement and a transverse
crack or joint
• Mud boils at the edge of the pavement
• Pavement surface discoloration (caused by the subgrade soil)
• Breaking of pavement at the corners

Prevention:
• Joints
• Avoid fine-grained soils in subsurface

References:
PCA (1980). Joint Design for Concrete Highways and Street Pavements, Portland Cement Association, Skokie IL.
AASHTO (1993) AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, ‘‘American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials’’, Washington, DC.
2Cebon, D. (1999). Handbook of Vehicle- Road Interaction, Swets & Zeitlinger, Rotterdam, NL.
MODULE 8: PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND DESIGN 158

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Stress Considerations - developed in rigid pavements as a result

of several factors, including the action of traffic wheel loads, the
expansion and contraction of the concrete due to temperature
changes, yielding of the subbase or subgrade supporting the
concrete pavement, and volumetric changes.

Assumptions:
1. Concrete pavement slabs are considered as unreinforced
concrete beams. Any contribution made to the flexural strength by
the inclusion of reinforcing steel is neglected.
2. The combination of flexural and direct tensile stresses will
inevitably result in transverse and longitudinal cracks. The
provision of suitable crack control in the form of joints, however,
controls the occurrence of these cracks, thereby maintaining the
beam action of large sections of the pavement.
3. The supporting subbase and/or subgrade layer acts as an
elastic material in that it deflects at the application of the traffic
load and recovers at the removal of the load.

RIGID PAVEMENT THICKNESS DESIGN

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

RIGID PAVEMENT TRAFFIC LOADING DESIGN

References:
PCA (1980). Joint Design for Concrete Highways and Street Pavements, Portland Cement Association, Skokie IL.
AASHTO (1993) AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, ‘‘American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials’’, Washington, DC.
2Cebon, D. (1999). Handbook of Vehicle- Road Interaction, Swets & Zeitlinger, Rotterdam, NL.
MODULE 8: PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND DESIGN 160

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

DRAINAGE CONSIDERATIONS

References:
PCA (1980). Joint Design for Concrete Highways and Street Pavements, Portland Cement Association, Skokie IL.
AASHTO (1993) AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, ‘‘American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials’’, Washington, DC.
2Cebon, D. (1999). Handbook of Vehicle- Road Interaction, Swets & Zeitlinger, Rotterdam, NL.
CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

PRACTICE
PROBLEMS

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD

ENGINEERING
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 162

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIMPLE CURVE

1. The intersection angle of a 4° curve is 55°25’, and the PC is

located at station 238 + 44.75. Determine the length of the
curve, the station of the PT, and the chord lengths for setting
out the curve at whole stations from the PC.

2. A horizontal curve with radius equal to 220 m. and intersection

angle of 126 ° is to be realigned by rotating the forward tangent
through an angle of 22° counterclockwise along the P.T. If the
azimuths of the back and forward tangents are 220° and 346°
respectively, stationing of old P.C. is 10+721.20.
a. Compute the central angle of the new curve.
b. Compute the radius of the new curve.
c. What is the stationing of the new P.C.

3. The offset distance of the simple curve from the P.T. to the
tangent line passing through the P.C. is equal to 120.20 m. The
stationing of P.C. is at 2+540.26. The simple curve has an angle of
intersection of 50°.
1. Compute the degree of curve.
2. Compute the external distance.
3. Compute the length of long chord

4. A horizontal curve is designed with a 609.60 radius. The curve

has a tangent length of 121.92 m and the PI is at station 130 + 00.
Determine the stationing of the PT.

5. A horizontal curve on a single-lane highway has its PC at station

123 + 70 and its PI at station 130+ 90. The curve has a
superelevation of 0.06 ft/ft and is designed for 70 mi/h. What is
the station of the PT?

6. A horizontal curve is being designed around a pond with a

tangent length of 1200 ft and central angle of 0.5211 radians. If the
PI is at station 145 + 00, determine the station of PT.
a) 168 + 45.43
b) 156 + 45.43
c) 173 + 94.00
d) 156 + 72.72

7. The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 45° 30' and its

radius is 198.17 m. PC is at Sta. 0 + 700. Compute the right angle
offset from Sta. 0 + 736.58 on the curve to tangent through PC.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 163

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SIMPLE CURVE

8. Find the length of curve and the station at PT if the degree of

curve is 5° and the central angle is 72°30’. Solve also the radius,
tangent distance, external distance and middle ordinate. Use 20-
meter full station.

9. The radius of a simple curve is twice its tangent distance, if the

degree of curves is 6degrees.
a) What is the angle of intersection of the curve.
b) Compute the length of curve.

10. The tangents of a simple curve have bearings of N 20° E and N

80° E respectively. The radius of the curve is 200m.
a) Compute the external distance of the curve.
b) Compute the chord distance.

11. The bearing of the back tangent of a simple curve is N 70° E

while the forward tangent has a bearing of S 82°30' E. The degree
of curve is 4.5°. Stationing of P.C. is at 10+345.43. It is proposed to
decrease the central angle by changing the direction of the
forward tangent by an angle of 7°, in such a way that the position
of the P.T. of the forward tangent and the direction of the back
tangent shall remain unchanged. Determine the new radius of the
curve and stationing of new P.C. (Rnew=454.342 m., Sta. PC new
10+305.093)

12. The tangents of a simple curve have bearings of N 75° 12' E and
S 78° 36' E, respectively. What is the central angle of the curve?

13. A 3-degrees simple curve is to be laid out having a central

angle of 39 degrees. If the station of P.I. is 2+250, what is the
station of P.T.?

14. The tangent of a simple curve has bearings of N20֯E and N80֯W
respectively. If the radius of the curve is 200m. Determine the
middle ordinate of the curve.

15. A straight railroad intersects the curve highway route 180 m

from the vertex along the back tangent which makes a 20°angle
from the tangent. Compute the stationing of the point of
intersection of the railroad and the curve if the radius of the
curve is 600 m and I= 104°. P.C. is at station 50+000.
(Sta. P 50+343.53)
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 164

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIMPLE CURVE

16. The deflection angles of two intermediate points R and S on

the curve measured from the tangent passing through P.C. are
6°15 and 12°15 respectively. The chord distance between R and S is
20m while the long chord is 100 m. Compute the radius of the
curve, compute the angle of intersection of the simple curve,
compute the tangent distance.

17The length of curve of a simple curve having a degree of curve 4°

is equal to 210 m. Compute the middle ordinate and external
distance of the curve.

18. The radius of a simple curve is twice its tangent distance, if

the degree of curve is 4°, what is the length of the curve

19. A simple curve having a radius of 280 m connects two tangents

intersecting at an angle of 50°. It is to be replaced by another
curve with a radius of 180 m. Determine the new tangent of the
simple curve in meters.
A. 92.84
B. 71.85
C. 80.30
D. 83.94

20. From the given problem above, determine the middle ordinate
of the new curve.
A. 16.23
B. 13.21
С. 17.61
D. 16.86

21. A simple curve exists with a degree of curve D 12" and e 0.08. A
structure is proposed on the inside of the curve. Assume the road
is on level grade. Determine the radius of the curve

22. Given a simple circular curve with the following properties:

D=11, bearing on incoming tangent is N 89 27'5"E, bearing on
outgoing tangent is S 60'10'5"E. Determine
a. The intersection angle I
b. The radius
c. The Tangent (T)
d. The external distance (E)
e. The long chord (C)
f. The length of the curve (L)
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 165

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIMPLE CURVE

25. Given the following elements of a circular curve: middle

ordinate = 2 m; length of long chord = 70 m. Find its degree of
curve, use arc basis.
A. 4.5°
B. 5.3°
C. 2.9°
D. 3.7°

26. The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 36° 30'.

Compute the radius if the external distance is 12.02 m.
A. 203.74 m
B. 253.72 m
C. 226.94 m
D. 214.67 m

25. The tangents of a simple curve have bearings of N 20° E and N

80° E, respectively. The radius of the curve is 200 m.
Compute the degree of curve
Compute the tangent distance
Compute the external distance
Compute the middle ordinate

26. A horizontal curve has a central angle of 45° and a Point of

Intersection (PI) at Station 1+000.00 and radius of 1000.00 m.
What is the station of the Point of Tangency (PT)?

27. A horizontal curve has a radius of 1000.00 ft. If the grade is

flat and the distance between the centerline and object is 30 ft,
what is the maximum stopping distance (assume no adjustment to
center of the inside lane). Remember the arc length is
proportional to the circumference of a circle.

28. The relationship between degree of curve and radius involves

the constant 5729.5780. Derive this constant from basic geometric
principles.

29. A circular curve with a radius of 400 m and a long chord of 400
m. The PI Station is 1+000.000
find the following:
a. The PT Station
b. The External distance
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 166

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIMPLE CURVE

30. From the given in Problem 29, determine:

a. A horizontal curve has a deflection angle of 45 R with the PI
at Station 900.00 and a long chord
of 500 m. What is the station of the Point of Curvature (PC)?

31. A horizontal curve with a deflection angle of 30° has a radius of

500 m. At what distance (along the curve) from the PC is the
deflection angle for an observer at the PC equal to 15°?

32. The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 45°30 and its

radius is 198.17 m. PC is at Sta. 0 + 700. Compute the right angle
offset from Sta. 0+ 736.58 on the curve to tangent through PC.
A. 4.79 m
B. 6.28 m
C. 5.92 m
D. 3.37 m

33. The perpendicular distance from a point on a simple curve to a

point Q on the tangent at PC is 64m. If the distance from PC to Q
is 260 m, find the radius of the curve.

34. A 6° simple curve has a central angle of 44°. The stationing of

the point of curvature is 13 + 080.
a.) Find the distance from midpoint of the curve to the
intersection of the tangents at PC and PT.
b.) Find the distance from midpoint of the curve to the midpoint
of the long chord joining the point of curvature and the point of
tangency.

35. Using the given values in Problem 34, Find the stationing of a
point on the curve which intersects with the line making a
deflection angle of 6° with the tangent through the PC.

36. A simple curve has a central angle of 36° and a degree of curve
of 6°.
a.) Find the nearest distance from the midpoint of the curve to
the point of intersection of tangents
b.) Compute the distance from the midpoint of the curve to
the midpoint of the long chord joining the point of tangency and
point of curvature.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 167

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIMPLE CURVE

37. The tangents of a simple curve along the North Diversion Road
bearing of N 20° E and N 80° E, respectively. The radius of the
curve is 200 m.
a.) Compute the external distance of the curve.
b.) Compute the middle ordinate of the curve

38. A 5° curve intersects a property line CD at point D. The back

tangent intersects the property line at point C which is 105.27 m.
from the P.C. which is at station 2+040. The angle that the
property line CD makes with the back tangent is 110°50’
1. Compute the length of curve from the P.C. to the point of
intersection of the line from the center of the curve to point C
and the curve.
2. Compute the distance CD.

39. From the given value in Problem 38, Compute the stationing of
point D on the curve.

40. A sample curve have tangents AB and BC intersecting at a

common point B. AB has an azimuth of 180° and BC has an azimuth
of 230°. The stationing of the point of curvature at A is 10+140.26.
If the degree of curve of the simple is 4°.
1. Compute the length of the long chord from A.
2. Compute the tangent distance AB of the curve.

41. In the Problem 40, using the values gathered compute the
stationing of a point “x” on the curve on which a line passing
through the center of the curve makes an angle of 58° with the
line AB, intersects the curve at point “x”.

42. A simple curve has a radius of 286.48 m. Its distance from P.C.
to P.T. along the curve is equal to 240 m.
1. Compute the central angle of the curve. Use arc basis.
2. Compute the distance from the mid-point of the long chord
to the midpoint of the curve.

43. A circular road having a curve of 8° curvature is to be 6 m. wide

on the tangents and 6.75 m. wide along the main part of the curve.
The P.C. is at station 5+100 and widening is to be completed at
station 5+115.
1. Compute the stationing of the P.C. of the approach curve at
the inner edge.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 168

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIMPLE CURVE

2. Compute the radius of the approach curve at the inner edge.

3. Compute the degree of curve of the approach curve at the
inner edge.

44. Find the length of curve and the station at PT if the degree of
curve is 10° and the central angle is 80°45’. Solve also the radius,
tangent distance, external distance and middle ordinate. Use 20 -
meter full station.

45. It is required to layout a simple curve by deflection angles. The

curve is to connect two tangents with an intersection angle of 32°
and a radius of 240 m. Compute the deflection angles to each 20m
full stations on the curve. If the transit is set up at the P.C. which
is at station 5+767.2. What is the stationing of the P.T.?

46. Two tangents intersect at V at station 12+705.84. The angle of

intersection is 34°. The stationing of P.C. is 12+628. Without
changing the location of P.C. and the sharpness of the curve, it is
desired to shorten the length of curve by 50 meters. Determine
the stationing of the new point of intersection (P.I.) and new point
of tangency (P.T.).

47. A simple curve of the proposed extension of Mantabahadra

Highway have a direction of tangent AB which is due north and
tangent BC bearing N 50° E. Point A is at the PC whose stationing
is 20 + 130.46. The degree of curve is 4°.
a.) Compute the long chord of the curve
b.) Compute the stationing of the point D on the curve along a
line joining the center of the curve which makes an angle of 54°
with the tangent line passing thru the PC.
c.) What is the length of the line from D to the intersection of
the tangent AB?

48. The deflection angles of two intermediate points A and B of a

simple curve are 3° 15’ and 8° 15’, respectively, from the PC. If the
chord distance between A and B is 40 m, find the length of the
curve from PC to B.

49. Two tangents intersecting at V with bearings N75012’E and

S78036’E are connected with a 40 simple curve. Without changing
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 169

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIMPLE CURVE

the direction of the two tangents and with the same angle of
intersection, it is required to shorten the curve to 100.00 m.
starting from the P.C. a) By how much shall the P.T. be moved and
in what direction? b) What is the distance between the two
parallel tangents?

50. The tangent distance or a 3° simple curve is only 1⁄2 of its

radius.
a. Compute the angle of intersection of the curve.
b. Compute the length of the curve.

51. An 8° simple curve connecting two tangent that intersect at an

angle of 88° is to be replaced by a symmetrical three centered
compound curve at the center having 6’ end curves and a 10°
curve at the center maintaining the same P.C. Use chord basis.
1. Find the central angle of the 10° center curve
2. Find the central angle of the 6° end curves.
3. Find the stationing of the P.T. if P.C. is at 10+185.42.

52. Three tangent lines AB, BC, and CD of a traverse have azimuths
of 228° 15’, 253°30’ and 315°18’ respectively. The stationing of B is
(10+585) and that of C is (10+885). A proposed highway curve is to
connect these three tangents.
1. Compute the radius of the simple curve that connects these
tangents.
2. Compute the stationing of the P.C.
3. Compute the length of curve from P.C. to P.T.

53. A simple curve having a radius of 229.18 m. has a back tangent

of N. 28° E. and a forward tangent of N. 66° E. A property line
running parallel to the back tangent crosses the centerline of the
curve at a distance of 10 m. from it. If the P.C. of the curve is at
10+120.60
1. What is the deflection angle at the point of intersection of
the property line and the curve measured from the tangent at sta.
10+120.60.

54. From the given data in Problem 53, What is the stationing at
the point of intersection of the property line and the curve?
Compute the chord distance from P.C. to the point of intersection
of the property line and the curve
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 170

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIMPLE CURVE

55. A simple curve connects two tangents AB and BC with bearings

N 85°30’ E and S 68°30’ E respectively. If the stationing of the
vertex is 4+360.2 and the stationing of PC is 4+288.4.
1. Determine the radius.
2. Determine the external distance.
3. Determine the middle ordinate.
4. Determine the chord distance.
5. Determine the length of curve.

56. A simple curve connects two tangents AB and BC with bearings

N 85°30’ E and S 68°30’ E respectively. Point D along line AB has a
coordinate of 20100 N and 20100 E while point E along line BC has
coordinates of 20086.55 N and 20184.27 E. Find the distance of line
BD. Solve for the degree of simple curve that shall be tangent to
the three lines AB, DE, and BC. If point D is at station 1+052.87
determine the stationing PT

57. It is required to layout a simple curve by deflection angles. The

curve is to connect two tangents with an intersection angle of 320
and a radius of 800 ft. Compute the deflection angles to each full
stations on the curve, if the transit is set up at the P.C. which is at
station 25 + 57.2. What is the station of P.T.?

58. The tangents of a simple curve have bearings of N 35°88' E and

N 60°10' E respectively. The radius of the curve is 455m. a)
Compute the external distance of the curve. b) Compute the
chord distance.

59. Two tangents intersect at V at station 12+705.84. The angle of

intersection is 32°. The stationing of P.C. is 12+630. Without
changing the location of P.C. and the sharpness of the curve, it is
desired to shorten the length of the curve by 50 meters.
Determine the stationing of the new point of intersection (P.I.)
and new point of tangency (P.T.)

60. The tangents of a simple curve have bearings of N 20°18' E and

N 80°17' E respectively. The radius of the curve is 300m.
a) Compute the external distance of the curve.
b) Compute the chord distance.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 171

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

COMPOUND CURVE

1. A compound curve has the following characteristics:

I1 = 24° D1 = 6°
I2 = 36° D2 = 4°
Stationing of P.C. = km 10 + 420, Compute the stationing of P.C.C.

2. The locating engineer a railroad curve runs a 6° curve to the

P.C.C., 300 m long from the P.C. of the compound curve, thence
from the P.C.C., a 1°40′ curve was run towards to the P.T. 600 m
long. (Use Arc basis) Determine the length of the long chord
connecting the P.C. and P.T.

3-4. Two tangents AB & BC are intersected by a line KM. the angles
AKM and KMC are 140° & 145° respectively. The radius of 1st arc is
600m and of 2nd arc is 400m.
a. Find the chainage of tangent points
b. The point of compound curvature given that the chainage of
intersection point is 3415 m.

5. Find the PC, PCC and PT given the following information for a
compound curve:

Δa = 17°18’44’’ left Ra = 726’

Δb = 10°14’28’’ left Rb = 465’
Δb is next to the PC PI station = 110+00.00

6-8. A compound curve is needed for a new piece of highway to tie

into an existing piece. The existing curve is next to the PC and,
once it is tied into the new curve, has the following data:

Δold = 27°14'33" Right Rold = 550'

The new part of the highway that is to tie into the old part has the
following data:
Δnew = 37°15'26" Right Rnew = 780'

The PI is located at 124+26.08.

FIND:
a) STATION PC
b) STATION PCC
c) STATION PT
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 172

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

COMPOUND CURVE

9-11. The following data refer to a right hand compound curve.

(i) Total deflection angle = 800

(ii) Radius of the first arc = 200 m
(iii) Radius of the second arc = 250 m
(iv)Chainage of the point of intersection = 1504.80 m
(v) Deflection angle of the first arc = 500

a)Determine the chainages of the starting

b)the point of compound curve
c)the point of tangency.

12-14. Two straights AB and BC are intersected by a line D1D2. The

angles BD1D2 and BD2D1 are 40° 30’ and 36° 24’ respectively. The
radius of the first arc is 600 m and that of the second arc is 800 m
if the chainage of intersection point B is 8248.10m.

a)Determine the chainages of the starting

b)the point of compound curve
c)the point of tangency.

15-16. A compound consisting of two simple circular curves of radii

350 m and 500 m is to be laid out between two straights T1I and
IT2. PQ is the common tangent and D is the point of compound
curvature. The angle IPQ and IQP are 55° and 25° respectively.
Given the chainages of point of intersection are 1800.00m;

a)Calculate the chainages of T1 and T2

b)Chainage at D

17-19. Two straights AC and BC meet at C at a deflection angle of

63° 29’. They are to be smoothly connected by a compound curve
consisting of two circular branches AD and DB of radii 18 chains
and 36 chains respectively. If the length of the first tangent AC is
15.78 chains, find

(i) The angles subtended by the two branches at their respective

centres
(ii) Length of the second tangent CB,
(iii) Chainages of the straight point, point of compound curvature
and the end point of the curve if the chainage of the intersection
point is 243.60 chains.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 173

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

COMPOUND CURVE

20-21. Two straights AC and CB have bearing of 59°30’ and 127°30’

intersect at C at a chainage of 1456.5 m. Two points M and N are
located on AC and BC so that the bearing of MN is 105°30’. The
straights AC and CB are to be connected by a compound curve
consisting of arcs of radii 220 m and 275 m respectively.

a)If the line MN is the common tangent to the two branches, find
the chainages of the starting point
b) point of compound curvature and the end point of the curve.

22. The common tangent AB of a compound curve is 76.42 m with

an azimuth of 268° 30 ′. The vertex V being inaccessible. The
azimuth of the tangents AV and VB was measured to be 247° 50′
and 262° 50 ′, respectively. If the stationing of A is 43 + 010.16 and
the degree of the first curve was fixed at 4 based on the 20 m
chord. Using chord basis. What is the stationing at P.T.?

23. The long chord from the P.C. to the P.T. of a compound curve is
300 meters long and the angles it makes with the longer and
shorter tangents are 12° and 15 respectively. If the common
tangent is parallel to the long chord. Find the Radius of the first
curve.

24. A broken back curve is characterized by a short tangent

between two curves in the same direction. This type of curve
should be avoided in design since most drivers do not expect
succeeding curves to be in the same direction. The broken back
curve shown is to be replaced by a compound curve R2 = 1.8 R1.
Determine:
a. new values of radii
b. new values of tangents

25-26. A long chord from the PC to PT of a compound curve is 180

m long and the angle it makes with the longer and shorter
tangents are 12º and 18º respectively.

a)Solve for R1 and R2

b)find the difference in radius of the compound curve if the
common tangent will be parallel to the long chord
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 174

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COMPOUND CURVE

27. A village in Mindoro is to be protected by a floodwall and

should start at station 10 + 304 forming two consecutive simple
curves ending at Sta 10 + 544. At point V on the opposite bank of
the river, the azimuth of lines tangents to the PC and PT were
taken to be 60º and 295º respectively. The degree of the first
curve is 4º and that of the second curve is 5º. Compute the
stationing of PCC.

28. A compound curve connects three tangents having azimuths of

254º, 270º, and 280º respectively. The length of the long chord is
320 long measured from the PC to the PT of the curve and is
parallel to the common tangent having an azimuth of 270º. If the
stationing of the PT is 6 + 520, determine the stationing of the PC.

29. A simple curve having a radius of 150 m and central angle of

84º is to be replaced by a symmetrical three centered compound
curve instead of a spiral curve. The radius of the end curves of
this symmetrical three centered compound curve shall be 200 m
and the radius of its center curve shall be 115 m. If P.C. (Sta. 2 +
236.14) and P.T. is to be retained, find the new stationing of P.T.
Use arc basis.

30-31. A compound curve has the following data:

I1 = 28° D1 = 3°
I2 = 31° D2 = 4°
STA P.I. 30 + 120.5

a. Find the tangent distance of the first curve.

b. Find the stationing of PCC

32. The angle of intersection of two tangents is 61°30’. A circular

curve joining these tangents is to pass through the point “A” that
is 129 m. from the P.I. and on a line that makes an angle of 16°20’
with the tangent through the P.C. Determine the radius of the
curve.

33. The P.C. of a 6° curve is inaccessible as well as invisible due to

an obstacle. Point C along the tangent AV is at station 5 + 039.97
and at a distance of 39.44 m. from the point of intersection of the
tangents. Locate the stationing of point B on the curve. Angle of
intersection between tangents is 30°.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 175

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COMPOUND CURVE

34. The azimuths of AB = 240°15’, BC = 284°30’, CD = 340°24’, and

DE = 52°58’. These four tangents shall connect a compound curve
consisting of three simple curve. The stationing of A is 7 + 520, B
is 7 + 815, C is 8 + 118, D is 8 + 318, and E is 8 + 564. If the last curve
is four times sharper than the first, compute the shortest radius
of the compound curve.

35. Given in a compound curve, I1 = 28°, I2 = 34°, D1 = 4°, D2 = 5°

and P.C. is at station 10 + 480.14. What is the stationing of P.T.?
Use arc basis.

36-37. A compound curve laid on their tangents has the following

data shown below. Without changing the direction of two tangents
it is required to change this compound with a simple curve that
shall end at the same point.

a)Find the radius of the new curve

b) stationing of PC if PI1 is at 6 + 425.82.

38-39. The long chord of a compound curve is equal to 250 meters

and the angles it makes with the tangents equal to 8º and 10º,
respectively. Find the radii, R1 and R2 when the common tangent is
parallel to the long chord.

40. The common tangent AB of a compound curve is 82.38 m. The

angles the common tangent makes with the tangents through PC
and PT of the compound curve are 21º 10’ and 15º 20, respectively.
If the degree of the first curve is 3º 30, what is the degree of the
second curve.

41.Two simple curves having angles of intersection of the tangents

equal to 36º and 68º 45’ respectively are joined to form a
compound curve where the P.T. of the first curve becomes the
PCC of the compound curve. If the length of the curve of the first
curve is 427.14 m and the length of curve for the second curve is
235.21 m, find the length of curve from the PC to the new
compound curve.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 176

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COMPOUND CURVE

42-44. The length of the common tangent of compound curve is

equal to 68.62 m. The common tangent makes an angle of 12º and
18º respectively to the tangents of the common curve. If the
length of the tangent of the first curve (on the side of PC) is equal
to 41.02m.

a. Compute the radius of the second curve.

b. Compute the radius of the first curve.
c. Compute the stationing of the PT if PC is at 20+042.20.

45-47. A compound curve has a length of chord of the first curve

passing through the PC to PT of 470 m. If the angle that the long
chord makes with the chord from the PC to PCC and from PT to the
PCC are 6º and 9º respectively. Assume the long chord is parallel
to the common tangent.

a. Find the length of the long chord.

b. Find the radius of the first curve.
c. Find the radius of the second curve.

48-50. The common tangent of a compound curve makes an angle

of 14º and 20º with the tangent of the first curve and the second
curve respectively. The length of chord from the PC to PCC is 93.5
m and that from PCC to PT is 51.3 m.
a. Find the length of the chord from the PC to the PT if it is
parallel to the common tangent.
b. Find the radius of the first curve.
c. Find the radius of the second curve

51. A compound curve has a common tangent 84.5 m long which

makes angles of 16º and 20º with the tangents of the first curve
and the second curves respectively. The length of the tangent of
the first curve is 38.6 m. What is the radius of the second curve.

52-54. A compound curve has a common tangent of 84.5 m long

which makes an angle of 16º and 20º with the tangents of the first
curve and the second curve respectively the length of the tangent
of the second is 42 m.

a. What is the radius of the first curve.

b. Find the radius of the second curve.
c. Find the length of curve from PC to PT.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 177

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COMPOUND CURVE

55-57. Two straights AC and BC meet at C at a deflection angle of

63°29’. They are to be smoothly connected by a compound curve
consisting of two circular branches AD and DB of radii 18 chains
and 36 chains respectively. If the length of the first tangent AC is
15.78 chains, find ;

(i) The angles subtended by the two branches at their respective

58-59. Given the azimuths of the following tangents: Back Tangent

= 225 ͦ; Common Tangent = 275 ͦ and Forward Tangent = 320 ͦ. The
intersection of the back and forward tangent is at STA 2 + 100.
These tangents are required to be connected by 300m long
compound curve. If the length of the two curves are equal, find:

a. stationing of PC
b. length of LC

60. Given a compound curve with a long chord equal to 135 m

forming an angle of 12 degrees and 18 degrees respectively with
the tangents. The common tangent is parallel to the long chord.
Determine the radii of the compound curve.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 178

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REVERSE CURVE

1. The first PI is at 33+50.15 with a 75°20'00"L deflection angle and

second PI is at 40+16.70 with an 83°50'00"R deflection angle. The
first curve has a 375.00' radius. Determine the tangent of the
curve.

2. The parallel tangents of a reversed curve are 12m apart. The

chord length from PC to the PT is 150m. Compute the length of the
common tangent.

3. From problem 2, determine the equal radius of the reversed

curve.

4. Given the data in problem 2, determine PC, PRC, and PT if

station A at the beginning of the tangent with common direction is
3+420.

5. A reversed curve connects two parallel tangents which are

directed due East and are 180m apart. The curve has equal radius
of 790m where the PC is on the upper tangent and the PT lies on
the lower tangent. If the horizontal distance parallel to the
tangent from the PC to the PT is 820m, compute the length of the
intermediate tangent between the curves.

6. From the given data in problem 5, compute the distance

between the centers of the reversed curves.

7. From problem 5, compute the Station PT if station PC is

10+020.40.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 179

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REVERSE CURVE

8. The perpendicular distance between two parallel tangents of

the reverse curve is 30m. The azimuth of the back tangent is 270°,
and the common tangent is 300 degrees. If the radius of the first
curve is 175m, determine the radius of the second curve.

9. The common tangent BC of the reverse curve is 285.75 m and

has a bearing of S 48 E. AB is a tangent of the first curve whose
bearing is N 75° E. CD is the tangent of the second curve whose
bearing is N 40° E. Radius of the first curve is 185.66m and PI of the
first curve is at station 530.47. Find the stationing of the PT.

10. Given the lines and directions as follows: AB=57.6m due East,
BC=91.5m N 68° E, CD=102.6m azimuth of 312°. A reversed curve is
to connect these three lines thus forming the center line of a new
road. Compute the length of the common radius of the reversed
curve.

11. Two parallel railway lines are to be connected by a reverse

curve each section having the same radius. If the lines are 12m
apart and the maximum distance between tangents points
measured parallel to the straight is 48m, find the maximum
allowable radius.

12. Based on the problem 11, if however, both the radii are to be
different, calculate the radius of the second branch is that first of
the branch 60m. Also, calculate the length of both branches.

13. In a railroad layout, the centerline of two parallel tracks is

connected with a reversed curve of unequal radii. The central
angle of the first curve is 18o and the distance between parallel
tracks is 32.50 m. stationing of the PC is 10 + 980 and the radius of
the second curve is 240 m. Compute the length of the long chord
from the PC to PT.

14. From the given data in problem 13, compute the radius of the
first curve.

15. From problem 13, compute the stationing of the PT.

16. A reversed curve AB is to be set out between two parallel

railway tangents 32m apart. If the two arcs of the curve are to
have the same radius and the distance between tangent A and B is
160m, calculate the radius of the curve.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 180

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REVERSE CURVE

17. Based on given data in problem 10, the curve is to be set out
from AB at 10m intervals along that line. Calculate the length of
offsets.

18. Refer to the figure, I1 and I2 are two parallel lines, s=250m. We
would like to connect the two lines by reversed curves consisted
of two simple circular curves, R1=200m and R2=300m. Compute
the main elements of the reversed curves, T1 and T2, θ1, θ2, and θ.

19. The surveyor needs a reverse curve to connect two parallel

tangents. No obstructions exist so it can be made up of two equal
arcs. The degree of curve for both must be 5°. The surveyor
measures the distance p and finds it to be 225.00 feet. Determine
the value of R1.

20. In the figure, a reverse curve is to connect two diverging

tangents with both arcs having a 5-degree curve. The surveyor
locates the PI and measures the I angle as 41 degrees. The PT
location is specified and the Ts is measured as 550 feet. Compute
R1, s, m, and L.

21. A reversed curve with diverging tangent is to be designed to

connect to three traversed lines for the portion of the proposed
highway. The lines AB is 185 m, BC is 122.40 m, and CD is 285 m.
The azimuth is Due East, 242°, and 302° respectively. The following
are the cost index and specification:
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 181

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REVERSE CURVE

Type of Pavement = Item 311 (Portland Cement Concrete

Pavement)
Number of Lanes = Two Lanes
Width of Pavement = 3.05 m per lane
Thickness of Pavement = 280 mm
Unit Cost = P1,800 per square meter
It is necessary that the PRC (Point of Reversed Curvature) must be
one-fourth the distance BC from B. Find the radius of the first
curve.

22. From the given data in problem 21, find the length of road A to
D. Use arc basis.

23. From problem 21, find the cost of the concrete pavement from
A to D.

24. A reverse curve connects two converging tangents that

intersect at an angel of 35°. The distance of this intersection from
the PI of the second curve is 175m. The deflection angle of the
common tangent from the back tangent is 25° and the degree
of curve is 5 degrees. Compute the radius of the second curve.

25. From problem 24, compute the tangent of the second curve.

26. From problem 24, compute the tangent of the first curve and
radius of the first curve.

27. From problem 24, determine the degree of curvature of the

first curve.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 182

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REVERSE CURVE

28. The perpendicular distance between two parallel tangents is

equal to 8 meters. These tangents are connected by a reversed
curvature such that the central angle is 8° and the radius of
curvature of the first curve is equal to 175m. Find the radius of the
second curve of the reversed curvature.

29. Two underground roadways AB and CD are to be connected by

a reverse curve of common radii with tangents point B and C. If
the bearing of the line AB is S 83°15’ E, line CD is S 74°30’ E and
that of the line BC having a length of 350 meters is S 56°35’ E, find
the central angle of 1 and 2.

30. From problem 29, compute the common radii.

31. From problem 29, compute the tangent of the first curve and
stationing of PC B is at station 5+100.

32. From problem 29, compute the degree of the first curve.

33. From problem 29, compute length of the first curve and
stationing of PRC.

34. From problem 29, compute the length of the second curve and
stationing of PT.

35. A reverse curve connects two converging tangents

intersecting at an angel of 30°. The distance of this intersection
from the PI of the second curve is 150m. The deflection angle of
the common tangent from the back is 20°, and the azimuth of the
of the common tangent is 320°. The degree of the second simple
curve is 6 degrees and the stationing of the point of intersection
of the first curve is 4+450. Determine the value of the second
tangent.

36. From problem 35, determine the value of the first tangent.

37. From problem 35, compute the stationing of PC and the first
degree.

38. From problem 35, compute the length of the first curve and
stationing of PRC.

39. From problem 35, compute the length of the second curve and
stationing of PT.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 183

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REVERSE CURVE

40. A tangent of PC has an azimuth of 233° and is 487.5m away

from the tangent of PT. The long chord of reverse curve has an
azimuth of 251°25’5.81”. The radius of the first curve is thrice the
radius of the second curve. The Sta of PC is 25+318. Compute the
radius of the curve.

41. Based on the given in problem 40, compute the first radius of
the curve.

42. From problem 40, compute the length of the curve.

43. From problem 40, compute the stationing of PT.

44. Two tangents converge at an angle of 34°, the direction of the

second tangent is due East. The vertical distance of the PC from
the second tangent is 214.81m. The bearing of the common tangent
is S40°E. Compute the central angle of the first curve.

45. From problem 44, if a reverse curve is to connect these two

tangents, determine the common radius of the curve.

46. From the data in problem 44, compute the stationing of the PT
if PC is located at 15 + 474.

47. The first curve of a reversed curve has a radius of 200m. If the
horizontal distance between PC and PT is 110-m. Determine the
radius of the second curve, so that the curve can connect two
parallel tangents 18m apart.

48. From the given data in problem 47, determine the station of
point of reversed curvature if PI of the first curve is located at
10+095.

49. From problem 47, compute the station of PT.

50. The horizontal distance between PC and PT is 110-m and curve

that connect two parallel tangents are 18m apart. If the radius of
the second curve is 750m and the vertical distance between the
point of intersection of the two curve is 685.676m, compute the
radius of the first curve.

51. From the given data in problem 50, determine the length of the
reverse curve.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 184

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REVERSE CURVE

52. From problem 50, compute the station of PT if PI of the first

curve is located at 8+000.

53. Two parallel railway tracks have a vertical distance of 60m.

They are connected by a reversed curve, each section having the
same radius. And the maximum horizontal distance between PC
and PT is 220m. Calculate the radius.

54. From problem 53, determine the common tangent.

55. From problem 53, determine the long chord.

56. From problem 53, determine the length of the reverse curve.

57. In a railroad layout, the centerline of two parallel tracks is

connected with a reversed curve of unequal radii. The central
angle of the first and second curve is 16° and the distance
between parallel tracks is 27.6m. Stationing of the PC is 15+420
and the radius of the second curve is 290. Compute the length of
the long chord from PC to PT.

58. From the given data in problem 57, compute the radius of the
first curve.

59. From problem 57, compute the stationing of PT.

60. Two parallel tangents 10m apart are connected by a reversed

curve. The chord length from the PC to the PT is equal to 120m.
Compute the length of the tangent with common direction.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 185

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VERTICAL CURVE

1. A descending grade of 6% and an ascending grade of 2%

intersect at Sta 12 + 200km whose elevation is at 14.375 m. The two
grades are to be connected by a parabolic curve, 160 m long. Find
the elevation of the first quarter point on the curve.

2. A grade of -4.2% grade intersects a grade of +3.0% at Station 11

+ 488.00 of elevations 20.80 meters. These two center grade lines
are to be connected by a 260- meter vertical parabolic curve. At
what station is the cross-drainage pipes be situated?

3. With regards to question number two (2), If the overall outside

dimensions of the reinforced concrete pipe to be installed is 95
cm, and the top of the culvert is 30 cm below the subgrade, what
will be the invert elevation at the center?

4. Design a vertical curve appropriate for connecting two lines of

alignment ∆1 and ∆2, of 1st order road, their grades are, g1= -2%
and g2 = +2%. The elevation of Intersection point V is 390.05 m.

5. Using the grades, intersection station and elevation given in

Figure below, it is required to the vertical curve to pass through
station 18+25 at an elevation of 881.20 ft. What should be the new
length of the curve?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 186

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VERTICAL CURVE

6. The grades at a crest are, g1= +2% and, g12= -3% and the design
speed is 60 mph. Compute the lengths of the vertical curves
required for the safe passing sight distance, ssp, and the safe
stopping sight distance snp, recommended by the AASHTO.

7. You are given the following information L = 300ft, g1= -3.2% and,
g2= +1.8%, PVI at 30 + 30 with elevation = 465.92. Determine the
location of the low point and the elevation on the curves at even
stations, as well as the low point.

8. Using the given data from number seven (7), find the tangent
grade line elevations, mid-chord, and tangent offset at PVI.

9. From previous data, compute the vertical curve elevations

directly from parabolic general equation; y = ax2 + bx + c

10. A symmetrical parabolic vertical curve connects to two grades

6% and -3% and is passing thru point A. The Sta. of point A is 5225
and has an elevation of 198 m. If the elevation of the intersection
of grades is 200 m with stationing of 5±24. Determine the
following: A. Length of the curve; B. Stationing of PVC and PVT

11. Using the previous data, determine the following: A. Elevation

of PVC and PVT; B. Location of the highest point of the curve; and
C. Elevation of sta. 5205

12. A descending grade 4.2% intersects an ascending grade of 3%

at station 12350 at elevation of 15m. These two grades are to be
connected by a 265m vertical parabolic curve. A reinforced
concrete pipe culvert with overall diameter of 110cm is to be
constructed with its top 35cm below the subgrade. What will be
the invert elevation of the culvert?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 187

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VERTICAL CURVE

13. A grade of -6% is followed by a grade of ±2%. The grades

intersecting at station 10150 at elevation of 285m. The change of
grade is limited to 0.45% in 18m. Compute the following: A. The
length of the vertical curve; B. The distance of the lowest point
from PVT; and C. Elevation at Station 10,000.

14. Consists of a symmetrical parabolic curve from PC to PT. A, B

another symmetrical parabolic curve tangent to that point A and
PT. Used in provide a smooth and continues curve transition from
PC to PT. Point A is the common tangent point. Find the Elevation
of the curve of the underpass.

15. Used the data from the previous number to find the L2if the
elevation of curve is 22.683 m. Also, find the stationing of the HP
of the curve for question A.

16. On a railroad, a -0.80% grade meets a +0.40% grade at station

90+00 whose elevations is 100.00 ft. The maximum allowable
change in grade per station having a length of 100 ft. is 0.20. It is
desired to place a culvert to drain the flood waters during heavy
downpour. Where must be the location of the culvert? At what
elevation must the invert of the culvert be set if the pipe has a
diameter of 3.00 ft. and the backfills is 1.00 f. high. Neglect the
thickness of the pipe.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 188

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VERTICAL CURVE

17. A -1% grade meets a +2.0% grade at station 470 of elevation

328.605 m. A vertical curve of length 120 m is to be used. The pegs
are to be fixed at 10 m interval. Calculate the elevations of the
points on the curve by (a) tangent corrections and (b) by chord
gradients.

18. g1 = −4.00% intersects, g2 = +3.80% at PVI of 52+00 with elevPVI

=1261.50′ with L=? feet. Design an equal tangent parabolic curve to
meet a railroad crossing, which exists at sta 53+50 with an
elevation of 1271.20’

19. A +3.00% grade intersects a -2.40% at station 46+70.00 and

elevation 853.48 ft. A 400.00 ft curve will be used to connect the
two grades. Compute the station and elevation for the curve’s
endpoints.

20. Used the data from the previous number to find the elevations
and grades at full stations.

21. Used the data from number 19 to find the station and elevation
of the curve’s highest and lowest points.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 189

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VERTICAL CURVE

22. In the crest vertical curve described in the figure below,

determine:
a. Min. vertical curve length (L) based on the stopping sight
distance at 70 mph of design speed
b. PVC station
c. PVC elevation
d. PVT station
e. PVT elevation
23. Using the previous figure, determine the following:
f. The station where the highest elevation is located
g. The highest elevation of the curve
h. The stations where the curve elevation is 995 feet

24. A crest vertical curve joining a +3 percent and a -4 percent

grade is to be designed for 75 mi/h. If the tangents intersect at a
station (345+60.00) at an elevation of 250 feet, determine the
stations and elevations of the BVC and EVC. Also, calculate the
elevations of intermediate points on the curve at the whole
stations.

25. An engineer is assigned to design a vertical curve for a

highway with the design speed is 70 mph. Knowing that the
gradients are 3% uphill and -2% downhill. What is the minimum
design length of the vertical curve?

26. PVI station and location are 74+26.50 and 772.30 ft. What are
the endpoints' stations and elevations of a 750.00 ft long curve
with incoming and outgoing grades of -4.00% and +2.00%?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 190

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VERTICAL CURVE

27. PVI station and location are 56+50.00 and 1325.00 ft. Incoming
and outgoing grades are +5.0% and -3.5%. A 500.00 ft long vertical
curve will be used.

28. From problem 14, using the given, curve table at full station
interval. Include curve point grades.

29. Followed above, stations and elevations of the curve's highest

and lowest points?

30. A 425.00 ft long curve ends at station and elevation 88+00.00

and 1220.00. Its initial and final grades are -4.00% and +2.75%.

31. A curve begins at station 32+00.00 and elevation 912.00 ft; it

ends at station 38+00.00 and elevation 915.00 ft. The PVI elevation
is 918.00 ft.

32. A 400.00 ft vertical curve begins at station 29+00.00 and

elevation 954.00 ft. Its initial and final grades are -1.00% and
-2.25%.
a. What are the station and elevation of the curve's midpoint?
b. What are the stations and elevations of the curve's highest
and lowest points?

33. Given the information show below, compute and tabulate the
curve for stakeout at full 100’ stations.

34. From previous example: g1= + 3 %, g2 = - 2.4%, L = 600’ = 6 full

stations, r/2 = -0.45, ElevBVC = 844.4

35. Computation of values for g1 x and g2 x

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 191

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VERTICAL CURVE

36. Computation of values for

37. Elevation Computations for both Vertical Curves.

38. Computed Elevations for Stakeout at Full Stations.

39. A grade of -5% is followed by a grade of 1%, the grades

intersecting at the vertex (Sta. 10 + 060). The change of grade is
restricted to 0.4% in 20 m. Compute the length of the vertical
parabolic sag curve in meters.

40. The length of a summit vertical curve is 200 m. Tangent grades

for the vertical curves are +3% and -2%. Determine the radius of
the summit curve?

41. A 500-meter equal-tangent sag vertical curve has the PVC at

station 100+00 with an elevation of 1000 m. The initial grade is -4%
and the final grade is +2%. Determine the stationing and elevation
of the PVI, the PVT, and the lowest point on the curve.

42. A current roadway is climbing a hill at an angle of +3.0%. The

roadway starts at station 100+00 and elevation of 1000 m. At
station 110+00, there is an at-grade railroad crossing that goes
over the sloped road. Since designers are concerned for the
safety of drivers crossing the tracks, it has been proposed to cut
a level tunnel through the hill to pass beneath the railroad tracks
and come out on the opposite side. A vertical crest curve would
connect the existing roadway to the proposed tunnel with a grade
of (-0.5) %. The prospective curve would start at station 100+00
and have a length of 2000 meters. Engineers have stated that
there must be at least 10 meters of separation between the
railroad tracks and the road to build a safe tunnel. Assume an
equal tangent curve. With the current design, is these criteria
met?

43. Given the following measurements taken in the field find the
length of vertical curve and the station of the high point of the
curve.

44. The line of sight from an observer to an object along a crest

vertical curve is tangent at the high point of the curve. If the
length of the curve is 1000 ft and the observer’s eye height is 3.0
ft above the pavement, what is the Station of the observer if the
Station of the PIVC is 10+00.00.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 192

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VERTICAL CURVE

45. An observer is 6 ft (eye height) and is looking up station from

the PC. He is just able to see the head of another person 5 ft 6 in.
tall. What is the required length of vertical curve? Assume they
are both on the curve, at the same elevation, G1 = 3% and G2 = -5%.

46. A pipe 6 ft in diameter passes over a highway sag vertical

curve with a clearance of 16 ft. What is the lowest elevation and
station of the bottom of pipe? Assume the length of the vertical
curve is 400 ft, G1 = -3, G2 = 4%, PC Station is 5+00.00 and
elevation is 100.00.

47. The equation for a parabolic vertical curve is

If the observer is at the point of curvature for the vertical curve

(VCPC=STA 10+78.61), what is the station at the point of tangency
of the line of sight to the curve if the observer is at the VCPC, L =
1000 ft, G1=3%, G2=-2% and the observer eye height is 3.5 ft above
the pavement.

48. A line of sight is tangent to a parabolic crest vertical curve at

Sta 9+00.00. The observer is on the curve at Sta 6+00.00, what is
the height of the observer’s eye for the given conditions. Assume
G1 = 2%, G2 = -3%, the PI Sta is 10+00.00 and the length of curve is
1000 ft. If all else fails remember y = ax2 + bx and solve for the
offset relationship.

49. If a highway with traffic normally running at 65 mph has an

inclined section with a 3% grade, how much can the elevation of
the roadway increase before the speed of the larger vehicles is
reduced to 55 mph?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 193

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

VERTICAL CURVE

50. You have been instructed to design a crest vertical curve that
will connect a highway segment with a 3% grade to an adjoining
segment with a -1% grade. Assume that the minimum stopping
sight distance for the highway is 540 feet. If the elevation of the
VPC is 1500 ft, what will the elevation of the curve be at L/2?

51. If a stopping sight distance of 400 ft. is to be maintained on a

sag vertical curve with tangent grades of -3% and 0%, what should
the length of the curve be? Assume a headlight beam upward
divergence angle of 1°.

52. A + 2.5% grade is connected to a +1.0% grade by means of a 180

m vertical curve. The P.I. station is 100 + 00 and the P.I. elevation
is 100.0 m above sea level. What are the station and elevation of
the lowest point on the vertical curve.

53. A vertical curve joins a +1.2% grade to a +0.8% grade. The P.I. of
the vertical curve is at station 75 + 00 and elevation 50.90 m
above sea level. The centerline of the roadway must clear a pipe
located at station 75 + 40 by 0.80 m. The elevation of the top of
the pipe is 51.10 m above sea level. What is the minimum length of
the vertical curve that can be used?

54. A forward tangent having a slope of -4% intersects the back

tangent with a slope of 6.5% at point V, at station 4,310 with
elevation of 240 m. The curve will pass thru point A with elevation
of 238 m at station 4,285. The length of the curve is 60 m on the
side of the back tangent. Determine the length of the curve on the
side of the forward tangent.

55. Using the data given in number 54, determine the following:
a. Determine the stationing of the highest point.
b. Determine the elevation of the highest point.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 194

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

VERTICAL CURVE

56. A 500 ft long sag vertical curve passes under a bridge at sta
82+45. The point of vertical curve (PVC) is at sta 81+00. A -3.6%
curve meets a +4.4% curve at the point of vertical intersection
(PVI), which is at elevation 425.38 ft. What is most nearly the
elevation of the point under the bridge?

57. Consider the following general equal-tangent sag vertical

curve. Derive mathematical equations (as function of G1, G2, L,
and yPVC) for the elevations if the PVI and PVT.

58. Consider the data given in the previous number, determine the
Rate of Change of Slope, Equal Tangent, and the Elevation of PVC.

59. From the data given in number 58, find the elevation of PVT,
offset curve from PVI, and horizontal distance both form PVC to
the low points.

60. A forward tangent of 6% was designed to intersect a back

tangent of -2.5% at a proposed underpass so as to maintain a
minimum clearance allowed under a bridge which crosses
perpendicular to the underpass. A 220m curve lies on the side of
the back tangent while a 150m curve lies on the side of the
forward tangent. The stationing and elevation of the grade
intersection is 5,535 and 100m, respectively. The centerline of the
bridge falls at 5,585. The elevation of the underside of the bridge
is 115m. Determine the minimum clearance of the bridge if it has a
width of 10m.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 195

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SPIRAL CURVE

1.A 350-m-radius circular curve will be used to connect two

tangents intersecting at 72°. It is desired to provide a spiral curve
for smooth transition between the tangent and the circular curve.
If the center of the curve is moved back at 1.2 m, determine the
length of the spiral.

2. From Problem 1, determine the tangent distance and the length

of the spiral curve.

3. From Problem 1, if the radius will be decreased by 10% of its

original length, determine the new length of spiral. Consider the
other parameters as it is.

4. Determine the maximum velocity that a car could pass through

the curve from the following values attained in Problem no. 4.

5. Compute the deflection angle at the end point of the spiral if

the length of the spiral is 52 m, with a degree of curve of the
central curve of a spiral easement curve 7.5°.

6. An 80m long spiral curve is to be connected to a central curve

having a radius of 280 m. The angle of intersection between the
tangents for the spiral is 60°.
a. Find the offset distance at the first quarter point of the spiral.
b. Find the spiral angle at the third quarter point of the spiral.

7. A spiral curve having a length of 100 m is connected to a simple

curve having a radius of 350 m. If the angle of intersection for the
simple curve is to be 42°, what will be the angle of intersection
for the spiral curve?

8. The tangents of a spiral curve has azimuths of 2260 and 2210

respectively. The minimum length of spiralis 40 m with a minimum
super-elevation of 0.10 m/m width of roadway. The maximum
velocity to passover the curve is 70kph. Assume width of roadway
to be 9 m. Determine;
a. ) The degree of simple curve
b. ) The length of spiral at each end of simple curve

9. The central angle for a curve is 24 degrees, and the radius of

the circular curve selected for the location is 1000 ft. Determine
the location of the curve (with no spiral).
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 196

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SPIRAL CURVE

10. A transition curve is required for a single carriageway road

with a design speed of 85 km/hr. The bearings of the two straights
in question are 17° and 59°. Assume a value of 0.3 m/s3 for C.
Calculate the transition length, L.

11. In line with Problem 7, calculate the shift, S.

12. Calculate the length along the tangent required from the
intersection point to the start of the transition, IT, in Problem 7.

13. Based on Problem 7, calculate the form of the cubic parabola

and the co-ordinates of the point at which the transition becomes
the circular arc of radius R.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 197

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SPIRAL CURVE

14. Given: ∆= 16°38′ , R = 1000 ft ,

PI Sta. @ 6 + 26.57
Find: BC and EC stations, length of chord (C), middle ordinate (M),
and external distance (E).

15. Given: 11° 21′35′′ , degree of curve D = 6°,

PI Sta. @ 14 + 87.33
Find: BC and EC stations

16. A spiral easement curve has a length of 85 m and the radius of

central curve is 200 m. Determine the maximum velocity that a car
could pass through the curve.

17. A spiral curve was laid out. It has a length of spiral of 90 m and
an angle of intersection of the two tangents of 42 degrees. If the
degree of curve is 4o, determine the following elements of the
spiral curve to be laid out. Determine the length of the long and
short tangent.

18. Determine the external distance of the problem given above

(Problem 17).

19. Determine the length of throw of the spiral curve from Problem
17.

20. A 70 m. spiral easement curve has a radius of 150 m. for its

central curve. Determine the length of the throw of the spiral
curve.

21. The tangent of a spiral curve forms an angle of intersection of

30 degrees at station 2+069. For a radius of 350 m and a length of
52.10 m, find the stationing at the point where the spiral starts.

22. A spiral 75m long connects a tangent with a 6 degrees and 45

minutes circular curve. If the stationing of TS is 5000 and the
gauge of the track on the curve is 1.75m. Determine the the
elevation of the outer rail at the midpoint, if the velocity of the
fastest train to pass over the curve is 50kph.

23. In line with Problem 22, determine the spiral angle at the first
quarter point.

24. In Problem 22, determine the deflection angle at the end point
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 198

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SPIRAL CURVE

25. Calculate the offset from the tangent at the 2nd quarter point
in Problem 22.

26. The length of a spiral curve is 95 m with a radius of 285 m at

the central curve. Determine the offset distance from a tangent of
the first quadrant point of the spiral.

27. Compute the length of throw for the spiral curve in Problem
26.

28. In line with Problem 26, What is the max velocity of the car
pass thru the easement curve?

29. The tangent of a spiral curve forms an angle of intersection of

40 degree at station 140 + 026.003. Design speed is 76 kph. For a
radius of central curve of 207 m. Compute the angle of
intersection of simple curve.

30. In Problem 29, compute the long and short tangent.

31. Compute the maximum superelevation in Problem 29.

32. A spiral curve having a length of 80 m was connected at the

end of a 60 simple curve. Calculate
the short tangent.

33. The two tangents that cross at a 67° angle is connected by a

circular curve with a 400 m radius. To provide a seamless
transition from the tangent to the circular curve, a spiral curve is
preferred. Calculate the length of the spiral if the curve's center
is pushed back by 1.00 m.

34. If the spiral is 45 meters long and its easement curve has a 8.5°
degree central curve, calculate the deflection angle at the spiral's
end point.

35. A center curve with a radius of 350 meters must be attached to

an 75 meters long spiral curve. The spiral's tangents cross at an
angle of 40 degrees. Find the offset distance at the first quarter
point of the spiral.

36. In Problem 35, find the spiral angle at the third quarter point
of the spiral.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 199

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SPIRAL CURVE

37. The spiral curve's tangents have azimuths of 2240 and 2220,
respectively. With a minimum super-elevation of 0.30 m/m, the
minimum spiral length is 20 m. The bend may be traversed at a
maximum speed of 60kph. Assume that the road is 10 meters wide.
Determine the degree of simple curve.

38. In line with Problem 38, determine the length of spiral at each
end of simple curve.

39. A simple curve with a radius of 450 m is linked to a spiral curve

with a length of 200 meters. What will the spiral curve's angle of
intersection be if the simple curve's angle of intersection is 42°?

40. What is the maximum velocity that a car could pass thru an
easement curve having a length of
spiral equal to 120 m. if the radius of the central curve is 260 m.?

41. Determine the maximum velocity that a car could pass through
a spiral easement curve having a length of 100 m if the design
constant rate of change in the centripetal acceleration is 0.5 m/s2
per second. The radius of the central curve equal to 320 m.

42. A spiral curve has length of 100 m and the angle of

intersection of its tangents through T.S. and S.T. is 43°30′. It is
connected to simple curve having a radius of 300 m. If this curve
should be replaced by a simple curve having a larger radius with
T.S. as PC and S.T. as PT, determine the deviation of the new curve
from the old curve at their midpoint.

43. A 3° curve has a middle ordinate of 8.35 m. What is the central

angle? Use chord basis.

44. An engineer is setting out a simple curve, having a radius of

191.073 m, along the FALCON Highway. The instrument was set up
at P.C. (Sta. 5 + 060) and deflection angles were taken to lay out
the curve. Due to obstruction in the line of sight through Sta. 5 +
120, the engineer decided to set up at Sta. 5 + 100 and take a back
sight reading through P.C. and rotated the horizontal angle of the
telescope by 180°. Determine the deflection angle of Sta. 5 + 120
from this new line of sight. Use chord basis in the computing the
degree of curve.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 200

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SPIRAL CURVE

45. The perpendicular offset from a point 75 m from P.C.

(measured along the tangent through P.C.) to a simple curve is 6
m. Determine the radius of the curve.

46. A simple curve has a radius of 120 m and a central angle of

42°24′. The curve is to be revised such that the PT should be
moved out a perpendicular distance of 12 m, without changing the
directions of the tangents and the stationing of PC. Find the
length of the new tangent distance.

47. A circular curve of 610 m radius deflects through an angle of

40°30'. This curve is to be replaced by one of smaller radius so as
to admit transitions 110 m long at each end. The deviation of the
new curve from the old at their midpoint is 0.50 m towards the
intersection point. Determine the amended radius assuming the
shift can be calculated with sufficient accuracy on the old radius.

48. A simple curve having a radius of 285m connects two tangents

intersecting at an angle of 45degrees. It is to be replaced by
another curve having 75m spirals at its ends such that the point
of tangency shall be the same. Determine the radius of the new
circular curve.

49. Determine the distance that the curve will be nearer the vertex
in Problem 48.

50. In Problem 48, determine the central angle of the circular

curve.

51. In line with Problem 48, Determine the deflection angle at end
point of the spiral.

52. Determine the offset from the tangent at the end of the point
of the spiral in Problem 48.

53. In Problem 48, determine the distance along the tangent at the
midpoint of the spiral.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 201

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SPIRAL CURVE

54. Two tangents having an azimuth of 240 degrees and 285

degrees are connected by an 85m spiral curve with a 5-degree
circular curve. The width of the roadway is 10m. If the design
velocity is 65kph. Determine the following:

a. The super elevation at quarter points.

b. The deflection at the end point.
c. The external distance.

55. The tangents of a spiral curve formed and an angle of

intersection of 30 degrees is at station 5050. The design is 80kph
for a radius of central curve of 250m and a length of spiral of 50m.
Find the stationing at the point where the spiral starts

56. Find the stationing of the start of central curve in Problem 55.

57. In line with Problem 55, Find the length of the central curve.

58. The tangents of a spiral curve have azimuths of 3480 and 3450
respectively. The minimum length of spiral is 65 m with a minimum
super-elevation of 0.12 m/m width of roadway. The maximum
velocity to pass over the curve is 90kph. Assume width of roadway
to be 8m. Determine;

a. The degree of simple curve

b. The length of spiral at each end of simple curve

59. A spiral curve having a length of 300 m is connected to a

simple curve having a radius of 650 m. If the angle of intersection
for the simple curve is to be 48°, what will be the angle of
intersection for the spiral curve?

60. The azimuth of the back tangent of a simple curve is 200°30’,

while that of the forward tangent is 240°30’. If the external
distance of the simple curve that connects these two tangents is
14.20 m., compute the length of curve. Use arc basis.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 202

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SUPERELEVATION

1. Calculate the super elevation required for road of 7 m wide on a

curve of 250 m radius for permissible speed of 80 kmph. Let the
coefficient of friction be 0.15.

2. Determine the angle of the super elevation for a 200 m hi-way

curve so that there will be no slide thrust at a speed of 90 kph.

3. Calculate the superelevation required for a road 7.5m wide on a

curve of 240m radius for a permissible speed of 80 Km/h. Assume
the coefficient of lateral friction as 0.15.

4. Calculate super elevation for a circular road having radius 300

meters and it is 8 meter wide. Take 50 km/hr. as speed of vehicle.

5. A highway curve has a superelevation of 0.15 m and a design

speed of 90 kph. Determine the radius of the curve.

6. The radius of a horizontal circular curve is 100 m. The design

speed is 50 kmph and the design coefficient of lateral friction is
0.15. Calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is
assumed to develop.

7. Given the same data from Problem 6, calculate the coefficient

of friction needed if no superelevation is provided.

8. Design the rate of superelevation for a horizontal highway curve

of radius 500 m and speed of 100 kmph.

9. The design speed of a highway is 80 kmph. There is a horizontal

curve of radius 200m on a certain locality. Safe limit of transverse
coefficient of friction is 0.15. Calculate the superelevation
required to maintain this speed.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 203

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SUPERELEVATION

10. Referring to Problem 9, if the maximum superelevation of 0.07

is not to be exceeded, calculate the maximum allowable speed on
this horizontal curve as it is not possible to increase the radius.

11. Calculate the value of the ruling minimum radius of horizontal

curve of a National Highway in a plain terrain. Assume ruling
design speed value as 100 kmph.

12. Calculate the value of the absolute minimum radius of the

horizontal curve of a National Highway in a plain terrain. Assume
minimum design speed value as 80 kmph.

13. The design speed of the highway is 75 km/hr. and the radius for
horizontal curve is 140 m. Calculate the superelevation needed to
maintain that speed.

14. Referring to Problem 13, if the maximum superelevation is 7%,

then calculate the allowable speed on this curve.

15. Calculate the super elevation required on a curve of 120 m

radius with a speed of 90 kmph. Let the coefficient of friction be
0.15.

16. What is the speed required for the vehicle to move in a curve
with a radius of 240m. Assume coefficient of friction and
superelevation with a value of 0.15 and 0.07, respectively.

17. Design the rate of superelevation for a horizontal highway

curve of radius 320 m and speed of 80 kmph.

18. A highway curve has a superelevation of 0.18 m and a design

speed of 85 kph. Determine the radius of the curve.

19. Determine the angle of the super elevation for a 180 m hi-way
curve so that there will be no slide thrust at a speed of 70 kph.

20. A roadway is designed to have a maximum speed of 75

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SUPERELEVATION

21. Determine the super elevation needed for a road that is 12

meters wide and has a 280-meter-radius curve with a speed limit
of 60 kph. Let the coefficient of friction be 0.15.

22. A horizontal curve of radius 600 m on a two-lane highway with

width of 7 m is to be designed to cater for mixed traffic at a speed
of 65 kmph. Find the raise of outer edge of the pavement with
respect to ground level if pavement is rotated about its inner
edge.

23. Given the same data from Problem 22, find the raise of outer
edge of the pavement with respect to ground level if pavement is
rotated about its center line.

24. A highway is designed for a speed of 65 kmph to carry a mixed

traffic, the superelevation is not to exceed 7% and coefficient of
lateral friction is 0.15. Radius of horizontal curve is 125 m, then
which of the following statement is correct?

a. Design speed of 65 kmph is allowed

b. Maximum speed can be allowed up to 30 kmph
c. Maximum speed can be allowed up to 50 kmph
d. Speed up to 80 kmph can be allowed

25. A two-lane road with design speed of 90 kmph has R = 480 m.

Design e for mixed traffic.

26. In relation to Problem 25, if width of the pavement at

horizontal curve is 7.9 m, how much should the outer edge of the
pavement be raised.

27. Design the rate of superelevation for a horizontal highway

curve R = 500 m and speed of 100 kmph.

28. MOR with thin bituminous pavement surface in low rainfall

area has R = 1400 m. If design speed is 65 kmph, what should be
the superelevation.

29. Calculate the super elevation required for road of 3 m wide on

a curve of 180 m radius for permissible speed of 80 kmph. Let the
coefficient of friction be 0.15.

30. Assuming a speed of 85 kph, calculate the angle of the super

elevation for a 240 m highway curve to prevent sliding thrust.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 205

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SUPERELEVATION

31. In order to maintain a speed limit of 90 km/h, determine the

superelevation needed for a 5 m wide road on a 290 m radius
curve. Consider a 0.15 lateral friction coefficient.

32. Calculate super elevation for a circular road having radius 480
meters and 7-meter width. Assume 60 km/hr. as speed of vehicle.

33. Superelevation on a highway bend is 0.07 m, and the design

speed is 100 kph. Calculate the curve's radius.

34. A horizontal circular curve has a radius of 300 m. Design

lateral friction coefficient is 0.15 and design speed is 80 kmph.
Determine the necessary superelevation if it is anticipated that
full lateral friction will arise.

35. Given the same data from Problem 6, calculate the coefficient
of friction needed if no superelevation is provided.

36. The design speed for a highway curve is 120 kph, with a
superelevation of 0.15 m. Identify the curve's radius.

37. For a horizontal highway curve with a radius of 600 m and a

speed of 90 kmph, calculate the rate of superelevation.

38. A highway's design speed is 90 kmph. On a specific location,

there is a horizontal curve with a radius of 180 meters. If
transverse coefficient of friction should not exceed 0.15.
Determine the superelevation needed to keep this speed in place.

39. Calculate the maximal speed that may be driven on this

horizontal curve, keeping in mind that the radius cannot be
increased, if the maximum superelevation of 0.07 is not to be
exceeded.

40. Determine the value of the controlling minimum radius of a

domestic highway's slope in a simple terrain. Assume that the
controlling design speed is 150 kmph.

41. Determine the value of the uppermost minimal radius of a

national highway's horizontal curve in a flat terrain. Assume that
120 kmph is the minimum design speed.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 206

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SUPERELEVATION

42. The highway's design speed is 105 km/hr. and the horizontal
curve's radius is 200m. Determine the necessary superelevation to
sustain that speed.

43. Referring to Problem 13, if the maximum superelevation is 7%,

then calculate theallowable speed on this curve.

44. Determine the super elevation needed to travel at 80 kmph

around a curve with a 275 m radius. Allow 0.15 as the coefficient of
friction.

45. What speed is necessary for a vehicle to travel around a 320-

meter-radius curve? Assume that the superelevation and friction
coefficients have values of 0.15 and 0.07, respectively.

46. What speed is required for a car to navigate a 650-meter

radius curve? Assume that the friction and superelevation
coefficients are 0.07 and 0.15, respectively.

47. The design speed for a highway curve is 75 kph, with a

superelevation of 0.15 m. Identify the curve's radius.

48. For a 220 m highway curve, calculate the angle of the super
elevation to ensure that there is no sliding thrust at a speed of 90
kph.

49. A roadway is intended to support a top speed of 80 km/h. A

simple circular curve with a radius of 210 meters is intended for
one of its horizontal curves. What should the roadway's angle with
the horizontal be in order to prevent vehicle overturning? The
value of the side friction coefficient is 0.15.

50. Find the required super elevation for a road that is 8 meters
wide, has a 350-meter- radius curve, and has a 100 kph speed
restriction. Allow 0.15 as the coefficient of friction.

51. On a two-lane roadway with a width of 6 m, a horizontal curve

with a radius of 720m must be planned to accommodate mixed
traffic moving at 80 kmph. If the pavement is rotated about its
inner edge, determine the elevation of the outside edge in relation
to ground level.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 207

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SUPERELEVATION

52. Find the raise in the pavement's outer border relative to

ground level if it is rotated about its center line using the same
information from Problem 22.

53. A highway is intended to transport mixed traffic at a speed of

80 kph, with a maximum superelevation of 7% and a 0.15
coefficient of lateral friction. Which of the following statements
about a horizontal curve that has a radius of 190 m is true?

a. Design speed of 90 kmph is allowed

b. Maximum speed can be allowed up to 70 kmph
c. Maximum speed can be allowed up to 80 kmph
d. Speed up to 90 kmph can be allowed

54. A two-lane road with design speed of 60 kmph has R = 720 m.

Design e for mixed traffic.

55. In relation to Problem 25, if width of the pavement at

horizontal curve is 9 m, how much should the outer edge of the
pavement be raised.

56. Calculate the superelevation rate for a horizontal highway

curve with a radius of 400 meters and a speed of 110 kph.

57. Determine the super elevation needed for a road that is 4

meters wide and has a 200-meter radius curve with a 75-
kilometer-per-hour speed limit. Allow 0.15 as the coefficient of
friction.

58. Determine the angle of the super height for a 320 m highway
curve to avoid sliding thrust using an assumption of a speed of 90
kph.

59. Find the superelevation required for a 3 m wide road on a 340

m radius curve to maintain a 90 km/h speed restriction. Use a
lateral friction coefficient of 0.15.

60. For a circle with an 840-meter radius and a 10-meter width,

calculate the super elevation. Use 60 km/h as the prevailing
speed.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 208

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIGHT DISTANCE (Stopping Sight Distance)

1. A vehicle is moving at 40 km/h, and its driver will soon crash

into a 2-meter wall 25 meters away if he does not take
appropriate action. Will the driver hit the wall if he applies the
brakes 1 second after spotting the barrier and the friction
coefficient between the road and tires is 0.35? The highway is
completely level.
2. If the driver of a car traveling at 45 km/h does not move
quickly, the car will shortly collide with a 2-meter wall located
30 meters away. If the driver stops 3 seconds after spotting the
barrier and the friction coefficient between the road and tires
is 0.30, will he hit the wall? The road is entirely level.
3. A 1-meter wall is placed 35 meters distant, and if a motorcycle
driver going 55 km/h does not act promptly, the motorcycle will
soon crash into it. Will the driver strike the wall if he responded
two seconds after spotting the barrier and the friction
coefficient between the road and tires is 0.35? The highway is
completely level.
4. A delivery truck traveling at 38 km/h is 40 meters away from a
1-meter wall, and if the truck driver does not react quickly, the
truck will shortly collide with the wall. If the driver reacts three
seconds after spotting the barrier and the 0.35 friction
coefficient between the road and tires, will he hit the wall? The
road is entirely level.
5. A 2-meter wall is 55 meters away from a cab driver traveling at
65 km/h, and if the diver does not move fast, the truck will soon
crash into the wall. Will the driver hit the wall if he reacts in
one second after spotting the barrier and the 0.25 coefficient
of friction between the road and tires? The highway is
completely level.
6. A driver is traveling at 50 km/h, and spots something on the
road that is 45 meters away from his car. Using a driver reaction
time of 2.5 seconds and if the friction coefficient between the
road and the tires is 0.20, will the driver strike the object?
7. Calculate the stopping sight distance of a car traveling at 70
km/h which is about to hit a truck in its opposite direction that
is 63 meters away. The coefficient of friction is 0.37 and the
reaction time of the driver is 2 seconds.
8. A car is traveling at 40 km/h on a flat highway. If the coefficient
of friction between road and tires is 0.38 and the reaction time
of the driver is 2.5 seconds, will the car hit the wall that is 22
meters away?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 209

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIGHT DISTANCE (Stopping Sight Distance)

9. A man is driving his motorcycle to return to his office at a speed

of 55 km/h. Suddenly a child which is 36 meters away is crossing
the road to pick up his ball. Will the man hit the child if he applies
the brake 2.5 seconds after spotting the child and the friction
coefficient is 0.37?

10. A truck containing 70 sacks of feed is traveling at a speed of

60 km/h. The driver then noticed a dog standing 55 meters away in
the middle of the road. He immediately applies the brake 1 second
after noticing the dog and the coefficient of friction is 0.26, will
he hit the dog?

11. A motorist traveling at 75 km/h on a steep rural road with

reaction time of 3 seconds and coefficient of friction 0.42
between road and tires, sees an obstruction 72 meters away on
the carriageway ahead of him. Calculate the minimum stopping
sight distance required.

12. An ambulance with a speed of 52 km/h is traveling back to the

hospital. While traveling the driver noticed a road that is under
construction about 48 meters away. The drivers’ reaction time is 2
seconds and the friction coefficient is 0.21. How far from the road
under construction will it stop?

13. After seeing an oil spill 30 meters away the brake is applied
within 3.5 seconds, a test car traveling at 40 km/h was brought to
a stop. Calculate the stopping sight distance given the coefficient
of friction between the tires and road which is 0.34.

14. A car traveling at an initial velocity of 80 km/h on a road

suddenly sees an obstruction 64 meters ahead. If the reaction
time of the driver is 0.5 second and the coefficient friction
between the road and the tires is 0.41, how far from the
obstruction will it stop?

15. An engineering student is driving on a level road with a velocity

of 10 m/s and sees a construction sign 39 m ahead in the middle of
the roadway. The reaction time of the driver is 2 seconds and the
friction coefficient is 0.15. What is the minimum sight distance for
the student to stop without colliding at any point in the
construction?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 210

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIGHT DISTANCE (Stopping Sight Distance)

16. A car is traveling 90 km/h when the driver sees an accident 75

meters ahead and presses the brake 1.5 seconds after seeing the
accident. With a friction coefficient of 0.47, what stopping sight
distance is required to avoid the accident ahead?

17. Jane is driving a car 30.28 m/s on a dry road when she sees a
container in front of her 56 meters ahead on the highway. Jane has
a reaction time of 1.8 seconds and the coefficient of friction
between the tires and the road is 0.54. Calculate the stopping
sight distance.

18. Alex is driving at 23 m/s when he sees an animal 42 meters

ahead in the middle of the road. Calculate the stopping sight
distance if he slams the break at 1 seconds and the friction
coefficient is 0.42.

19. A driver is driving a car on a slippery road with a velocity of 67

km/h. An old woman 74 meters away crossing the road suddenly
appeared. He puts on the break 1 second after seeing the old
woman. The coefficient of friction between tires and the road is
0.17. What is the minimum stopping sight distance of the car?

20. Mr. Buenafes’ car is traveling at 50 km/h inside their

subdivision. She puts on the brakes when he sees another car
which is 30 meters away moving in his direction. The friction
coefficient is 0.60 and the reaction time of Mr. Buenafe is 2.2
seconds. What is the stopping sight distance of the car before it
completely hits the other car?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 211

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD and Crest Vertical Curve)

1. Determine the length of the vertical curve with a stopping

distance of 250 meters. Its initial and final grades are +2% and
-2.15% respectively. The driver’s eye level above the roadway
surface is 180 centimeters and the height of obstruction is 120
centimeters
2. Find the vertical curve's length with a 300-meter stopping
distance. Its initial and final grades are respectively 1.8% and
-2.2%. 200 centimeters is the distance between the truck
driver's eye level and the road surface, and 100 centimeters is
the height of the barrier.
3. Find the vertical curve's length with a 320 meter stopping
distance. The initial and final grades are respectively +2.3% and
-1.9%. The obstacle is 200 centimeters high, and the cab
driver's eye level is 120 cm above the road surface.
4. With a 280 meter stopping distance, identify the vertical
curve's length. The initial and final grades are respectively
+2.1% and -2.2%. The height of the obstruction is 180
centimeters, while the driver's eye level above the road surface
is 220 centimeters.
5. Determine the vertical curve's length with a 350 meter stopping
distance. The first and final grades are +2.5% and -2.8%,
respectively. Drivers' eyes are 220 centimeters above the road
surface, but the obstacle is 220 centimeters tall.
6. Estimate the length of the vertical curve with a stopping
distance of 320 meters. The first and final grades are +2.3% and
-1.5%, respectively. Drivers' eyes are 150 centimeters above the
road surface and the fence’s height is 120 centimeters tall.
7. Calculate the vertical curve's length using a 200-meter
stopping distance. The final grade is -3.6%, and the first grade
is +5%. The height of the signs is 100 centimeters, and drivers'
eyes are 180 centimeters above the road surface.
8. What will be the vertical curve’s length with a 360 m stopping
distance if the final grade is -3.4 and the first grade is +2.5. The
height of the wall is 300 centimeters and the height of the
driver’s eye from the road is 140 centimeters.
9. A road has an initial grade of +1.9 and final grade of -2.3. What
will be the length of the vertical curve with a 300 m stopping
sight distance? The truck driver’s eye is 180 cm above the
ground and the obstruction’s height is 400 cm.
1 0 .A r o a d h a s a + 2 i n i t i a l g r a d e a n d a - 1 . 9 5 f i n a l g r a d e . W h a t w i l l
the vertical curve's length be at a stopping distance of 275
meters? The obstruction is 225 cm tall, and the taxi driver's eye
is 160 cm above the ground.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 212

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD and Crest Vertical Curve)

11. What would be the length of the vertical curve of a road if it has
a stopping distance of 315 m and its grades are +1.25 and -2.15
respectively. The student’s eye while driving the car is 180 cm
above the ground and the parked car’s height is 225 cm.

12. How long would a road's vertical curve be if it had a 245-meter

stopping distance and had slopes of +1.65 and -2.35, respectively.
While driving, the taxi driver’s eye is 150 cm above the ground,
while the height of the parked automobile is 200 cm.

13. Using a 335 meter stopping distance, calculate the vertical

curve's length. The initial and final grades are respectively +2.33%
and -2.12%. Although the obstruction is 180 centimeters tall,
drivers' eyes are 180 centimeters above the road's surface.

14. What will be the vertical curve’s length with a 316 m stopping
distance if the final grade is -1.8 and the first grade is +2.65. The
height of the wall is 150 centimeters and the height of the driver’s
eye from the road is 160 centimeters.

15. What would be the length of the vertical curve of a road if it has
a stopping distance of 285 m and its grades are +1.65 and -2.45
respectively. The student’s eye while driving the car is 140 cm
above the ground and the parked car’s height is 175 cm.

16. With a 380 meter stopping distance, identify the vertical curve's
length. The initial and final grades are respectively +2.18% and
-2.17%. The height of the obstruction is 200 centimeters, while the
driver's eye level above the road surface is 200 centimeters.

17. A road has an initial grade of +1.37and final grade of -2.66. What
will be the length of the vertical curve with a 356 m stopping sight
distance? The truck driver’s eye is 195cm above the ground and the
obstruction’s height is 150 cm.

18. Find the vertical curve's length with a 377-meter stopping

distance. Its initial and final grades are respectively 1.4% and -2.3%.
176 centimeters is the distance between the truck driver's eye level
and the road surface, and 169 centimeters is the height of the
barrier.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 213

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD and Crest Vertical Curve)

19. Calculate the vertical curve's length using a 456 meter

stopping distance. The initial and final grades are respectively
+2.4% and -1.69%. The height of the fence is 140 centimeters, while
the drivers' eyes are 170 centimeters above the road surface.

20. Determine the vertical curve's length with a 330 meter

stopping distance. The first and final grades are +2.5% and -2%,
respectively. The driver's eye level above the road surface is 130
centimeters, whereas the impediment is 160 centimeters tall.

SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD and Sag Vertical Curve)

1. A vertical curve is to be designed with a stopping sight

distance of 350 meters. Its initial and final grades are -1.5% and
+2.4% respectively. The average height of the headlights of the
vehicles that will pass through this road is 50 centimeters and
is set at 1°. Determine the length of the curve.
2. The stopping sight distance for a road with a vertical curve is
300 meters. Its initial grade is -1.8%, while its final grade is
+2.2%. The headlights of the cars that will travel along this road
have an average height of 70 centimeters and an angle of 1°.
What would the curve's length be?
3. Imagine a road with a stopping distance of 225 m, with initial
and final grades of +2.1% and final grade of -2.1%. The
headlights of the vehicles that travel on that road have an
average height of 65 centimeters and an angle of 2°. Find the
length of the vertical curve.
4. Mang Jose wants to construct a road with initial and ending
gradients of +2.4% and -2.2%, respectively, and a stopping
distance of 345 m. The estimated average height of the
headlights on the cars that use the road is 50 centimeters and
the is set at 2°. Determine the vertical curve length.
5. BonBon Nachos is traveling on a road with average headlight
height of 58 centimeters and angle of 1°. The initial and final
grades of the roads are +1.6% and -2.4%, it has a stopping
distance of 338 m, what is the length of the vertical curve of
the road?
6. A road with a difference in grades of 4.3% has a stopping
distance of 286 m. What would be the length of the vertical
curve if the average height of the headlights in this road is 66
centimeters and inclined angle of 1°?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 214

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD and Sag Vertical Curve)

7. Cane Alfonso is studying a road, upon studying he gathered data

such as the road's stopping distance which is 376m, its initial
grade which is +1.65% and its final grade of -2.53%. He is also able
to determine the average height of the vehicles’ headlight which
is 54 centimeters in an incline angle of 1°. What is the length of
the vertical curve of the road Cane Alfonso is studying?

8. Richard Revithick was inspired by his colleague so he also did

his own study of a road, the initial grade of the road he studied is
+2.3% and its final grade is -1.8%. It has a stopping distance of 348
m and the vehicles that pass here have an average height of the
headlights of 56 centimeters which is inclined by 2°. What would
be the length vertical curve of the road?

9. Consider a road that has a final grade of -2.3%, an initial grade

of +2.12%, and a stopping distance of 458 m. The average height of
the headlights on the cars that use the road is 44 centimeters and
have an inclined angle of 2°. Determine the vertical curve length.

10. A vertical curve that has a stopping sight distance of 320

meters must be designed. The initial and final grades are,
respectively, -1.9% and +2.6%. The headlights of the cars passing
through this road have an average height of 55 cm and an angle of
1°. Identify the curve's length.

11. What should the length of the curve be if a stopping sight

distance of 400 meters is to be maintained on a sag vertical curve
with initial grade of -3% and final grade of 1.5%? Assume a 1°
upward divergence angle for the headlight beam and an average
height of 42 cm.

12. Carlo is asked by his friend to study a road with him. Their task
is to identify the length of the vertical curve of the road with a
100 m stopping sight distance. The initial and final grades are
-2.5% and 3.0% respectively. Assume that the height of headlights
is 0.67, aimed upward at an angle of 1 degree. What is the total
length of the vertical curve?

13. A road with a 4.25% gradient differential has a 333 m stopping

distance. If the headlights on this road are 49 centimeters high on
average and inclined at a 1 degree angle, what is the length of the
vertical curve?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 215

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD and Sag Vertical Curve)

14. It is necessary to create a vertical curve with a 298-meter

stopping sight distance. The first and final grades are -1.57% and
+2.43%, respectively. The average height of the headlights on the
cars that are traveling down this road is 63 cm and the inclined
angle is 1°. Determine the length of the curve.

15. Nico travels on a road with a stopping distance of 88.29 m and

a difference in grades which is 3.7%. What would be the length of
the vertical curve if the average height of the headlights in that
road is 38 centimeters and has an inclined angle of degrees?

16. For a route with a vertical curve, the stopping sight distance is
567 meters. It receives an initial grade of -2.8% and a final grade
of +2.5%. The average height of the headlights on the vehicles that
will be using this road are 40 cm and 2° inclined angle. What would
be the length of the curve?

17. What length of a sag vertical curve with a beginning gradient

of -2.34% and a final grade of 1.43% should be maintained to
maintain a stopping sight distance of 375 meters? Assume a 77 cm
average height and a 1° inclined angle for the headlight beam.

18. A bridge is being designed to pass over a rural two-lane

highway with a stopping distance of 90.94 m and gradients of 1.4%
and -2.7%. Assume that the height of the car's headlight that is
going to pass the bridge is 31 cm and 1 degree inclined angle. Find
the length of the vertical curve.

19. Juan Dela Cruz is researching a road. He has learned that the
route has a stopping distance of 222 meters, an initial grade of
1.47%, and a final grade of 2.53%. Additionally, he is able to
determine the average headlight height of the vehicles, which is
56 cm at a 1° inclined angle. What is the radius of the road's
vertical curve, which Cane Alfonso is measuring?

20. Consider a road that has a stopping distance of 366 meters, a

final grade of -1.86%, and an initial grade of +2.12%. The headlights
on the cars that use the route are typically 59 cm tall and 2°
inclined. The vertical curve's length should be known.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 216

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EARTHWORKS

Situation A: The cross-section notes shown below are for a ground

excavation.

1. What is the area of the cross-section in station A?

2. What is the volume of excavation between the two stations

using End Area Method?

3. What is the volume of excavation between the two stations

using Prismoidal Formula?

Situation B: From the given cross section of earthworks between A

(20+210) and B (20+230) assuming both have same slope and width
of base:

4. What is the value of cut at station B if it has an area of 16.815

m2?

5. Compute the volume between A and B with End Area Method.

6. Compute the volume between A and B with Prismoidal

Correction.

Situation C: Given the cross section of earthworks between A and

B:
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 217

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EARTHWORKS

7. Compute the side slope of the cross section.

8. Compute the width of the base of the cross section.

9. Compute the volume between A and B with End Area Method.

10. Compute the volume between A and B with Prismoidal

Correction.

11. The cross-section notes shown below are for ground excavation
for a 10-m wide roadway. What is the volume of excavation
between two station using End Area Method.

12. Compute the volume of the cross-section using Prismodial

Formula.

13. Given the cross-section notes of an earthworks for the

proposed extension of NLEX. Compute the width of the road base.

14. What is the area of the cross-section given above?

15. The cross-sectional area of a road with width of 10m is 42.9

square meters. The cross-sectional area is as follows. Determine
the value of x.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 218

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EARTHWORKS
From the given cross section of earthworks between A (30+240)
and B (30+270) assuming both have same slope and width of base:

16.What is the value of cut at station B if it has an area of

16.82m2?

17. What is the volume of excavation between the two stations

using End Area Method?

18. What is the volume of excavation between the two stations

using Prismoidal Formula?

From the given cross section of earthworks between A (20+210)

and B (20+230) assuming both have same slope and width of base:

19. What is the value of cut at station B if it has an area of 16.815

m2 ?

20. Compute the volume between A and B with End Area Method.

21. Compute the volume between A and B with Prismoidal

Correction.

Given the cross section of earthworks between A and B:

22. Compute the side slope of the cross section.

23. Compute the width of the base of the cross section.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 219

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EARTHWORKS

24. Compute the volume between A and B with End Area Method.

25. Compute the volume between A and B with Prismoidal

Correction.

26. The cross-section notes shown below are for ground

excavation for a 10-m wide roadway. What is the volume of
excavation between two station using End Area Method.

27. Compute the volume of the cross-section using Prismodial

Formula.

28. Given the cross-section notes of an earthworks for the

proposed extension of NLEX.

Compute the width of the road base.

29. What is the area of the cross-section given above?

30. The cross-sectional area of a road with width of 10m is 42.9

square meters. The cross-sectional area is as follows. Determine
the value of x.

31. The following notes are for irregular cross- section. Compute
the cross-sectional area.
Width of roadway is 12 m. with side slopes of 1:2.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 220

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EARTHWORKS

32. A particular station has the following earthwork cross-section.

If the width of the road base is 9 m. and the side slopes are
1V:1.5H, the quantity of x and y is equal to what?

33. Given the following cross-section notes for a road grading

work. The road bed is 9 m wide and the side slope for cut is 1:1 and
for fill is 1.5:1. Determine the area of cut of the section.

34. A highway fills at stations 5 + 040 has a uniform ground slope.

It has a side slope of 2:1 and width of roadway is 12 m. Find the
area of sta. 5+ 040.

35. The cross-section notes of the ground surface at sta. 1+ 200 of

a road survey, shows that the ground is sloping at a 10% grade
downward to the right. The elevation of the ground along the
center line of the proposed road at this station is 150 m. and that
of the finished subgrade is 152 m. Width of subgrade is 7.00 m.
with side slopes of 1.5: 1. Compute the distance of the right slope
stake from the center of the road.

36. The Engineering Battalion of the Phil. Army constructed a road

of the vicinity of Maguindanao. The width of the road at the
formation level is 20 m, with side slopes of 1:1 for cut and 1:2 for
fill. The original ground transverse to the center of the road has a
slope of 1.5. If the depth of excavation at the center of the section
is 0.80 m, compute the eccentricity of the centroid of the area in
cut measured from the centerline of the road.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 221

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EARTHWORKS

37. The areas in cut of two irregular sections 65 m. apart are 36

sq.m. and 72 sq.m respectively. Base width is 10 m., side slope of
3H: 2V. Using prisoidal correction formal, find the corrected
volume of cut in cu.m. between the two stations.

38. A highway fill stretches between stations 5+040 and 5+ 140

with a uniform ground slope.
It has a side slope of 2:1 and width of roadway is 12 m.

Stations Area
Sta. 5+ 040 126 m2
Sta. 5+ 140 206.75 m2

Compute the curvature correction between the two stations if the

road is on a 5 degree curve which turns to the right of the cross
sections in cu.m.

Situation: A roadway had a base of 12 m and side slopes 2:1. At

station 5 + 100, the elevation of the proposed grade is 55.03 m.
and the H.I. is 54.35 m.

39. What is the rod reading for grade at station 5 + 100?

40. If the rod held at the surface of the ground reads 0.78 m, what
is the amount of cut or fill at his point?

41. In setting a slope stake a total distance from the center of

roadway is 10.05 m. and the rod reading at this point is 1.33 m.
Should the point be moved towards or away from the roadway?
What is the amount of cut or fill at this point?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 222

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EARTHWORKS

Situation: In determining the position of the balance line in the

profile diagram, a horizontal grade line is drawn such that the
length of the cut is 850 m. and that of fill is 1200 m. The profile
area between the ground line and the grade line in the cut is 7800
sq.m. while that of fill is 8500 sq.m. If the road bed is 10 m. wide
for cut and 8 meters wide for fill and if the side slope for cut is
1.5:1 while that for fill is 2: 1.

Assume a level section with an average value of cut and fill for
each stretch.

42. Determine the volume of cut.

43. Determine the volume of fill.

44. If the shrinkage factor is 1.2, the volume borrow or waste.

The cross-section notes shown below are for a ground excavation.

Base = 6 m.

45. What is the area of the cross-section in station A?

46. What is the volume of excavation between the two stations

using End Area Method?

47. What is the volume of excavation between the two stations

using Prismoidal Formula?

Situation: From the given cross section of earthworks between A

(3+210) and B (3+230) assuming both have same slope and width of
base:
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 223

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EARTHWORKS

48. What is the value of cut at station B if it has an area of

16.82m2?

49. Compute the volume between A and B with End Area Method.

50. Compute the volume between A and B with Prismoidal

Correction.

51. Given the cross-section notes of an earthworks for the

proposed extension of SLEX. Compute the width of the road base.

52. What is the area of the cross-section given above?

53. The cross-sectional area of a road with width of 6m is 49

square meters. The cross-sectional area is as follows. Determine
the value of x.

54. The cross-sectional area of a road with width of 8m is 49

square meters. The cross-sectional area is as follows. Determine
the value of x.

55. The cross-sectional area of a road with width of 20m is 36

square meters. The cross-sectional area is as follows. Determine
the value of x.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 224

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EARTHWORKS

From the given cross section of earthworks between A (8+210) and

B (8+230) assuming both have same slope and width of base:

56. Compute the value of the base.

57. What is the area at station B?

58. What is the area at station A?

59. Compute the volume between A and B with End Area Method.

60. Compute the volume between A and B with Prismoidal

Correction.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 225

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

POISSON DISTRIBUTION

1. If the random variable X follows a Poisson distribution with

mean 3.4, find P(X = 6).

2. The number of industrial injuries per working week in a

particular factory is known to follow a Poisson distribution
with mean 0.5. Find the probability that a. in a particular week
there will be: i. less than 2 accidents, ii. more than 2
accidents; b. in a three-week period, there will be no
accidents.

3. Consider a computer system with Poisson job-arrival

stream at an average of 2 per minute. Determine the
probability that in any one-minute interval there will be i. 0
jobs; ii. Exactly 2 jobs; iii. at most 3 arrivals.

4. From previous data, what is the maximum jobs that should

arrive one minute with 90% certainty?

5. The Poisson distribution with parameter λ = 0.3 has been

assigned for the outcome of an experiment. Let X be the
outcome function. Find P (X = 0), P (X = 1), and P (X > 1).

6. An airline finds that 4 percent of the passengers that make

reservations on a particular flight will not show up.
Consequently, their policy is to sell 100 reserved seats on a
plane that has only 98 seats. Find the probability that every
person who shows up for the flight will find a seat available.

7. Suppose that cars take an average of 5 seconds at a stop

sign. If 9 cars per minute arrive at the sign what is the
probability of having 5 in the system what is the probability
of having five or fewer.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 226

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

PARKING STUDIES AND PARKING SPACE HOURS

1. If the spacing between vehicles is 500 feet what is the density?

2. From problem 1, if the space mean speed is 45.6 mph, what is

the flow rate?

3. Two sets of students are collecting traffic data of two sections

A and B of a highway 200m apart. Observation at A shows that 5
vehicles pass that section at interval of 8.18 seconds, 9.09
seconds, 10.23 seconds, 11.68 seconds, and 13.64 seconds,
respectively. If the speed of the vehicles were 80, 72, 64, 56, and
48 kph, respectively. Compute the following:

a. Compute the density of traffic in veh/km.

b. Compute the time mean speed in kph.
c. Compute the space mean speed in kph.

4. Determine the accumulation for the following off-street parking

counts.

5. The speeds of 25 cars were observed. 10 cars were noted to

travel at 35kph, 8 cars at 40kph, 2 cars at 50kph, and 5 cars at
45kph. Assuming that each car was traveling at constant speed,
determine the time mean speed.

6. The peak hour volume on an expressway at the vicinity of the

merging area of an entrance ramp was determined to be 1620 vph.
Assume that the arrival of the vehicles on the expressway can be
described by Poisson distribution.

a) Given that t ranges from 0 to 6 sec with increments of 0.5 sec,

calculate the probability and number of gaps greater or equal to t
and the probability and number of gaps less than t, for a period of
one hour.
b) If the critical gap for a merging vehicle is 4 sec, what is the
expected number of acceptable gaps for ramp vehicles during the
period of one peak hour?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 227

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

PARKING STUDIES AND PARKING SPACE HOURS

7. The peak hour volume on an expressway at the vicinity of the

merging area of an on-ramp was determined to be 1800 veh/hr. If
it is assumed that the arrival of expressway vehicles can be
described as Poisson distribution. What is the probability that the
headway between successive vehicles will be less than 4 seconds?
(a) 0.865
(b) 0.135
(c) 0.271
(d) 0.729

8. The peak hour factor for a traffic during rush hour is equal to
0.60 with a highest 5 min. volume of 250 vehicles. The space mean
speed of the traffic is 90 kph. Compute the traffic flow in
vehicles/hour.

9. The number of vehicles that can enter the on-ramp of Subic-

Clark Expressway is controlled by a metering system. If the
vehicles can enter the expressway at a rate of 500 veh/hr, and the
rate of arrival of the vehicles at the on-ramp is 400 veh/hr during
the peak hour. Determine the expected number of units waiting to
be served in the system.

10. A vehicle pulls out onto a highway that has a flow rate of 300
veh/hr (Poisson distributed). The driver does not look for
oncoming traffic. Road conditions and vehicle speeds on the
highway are such that it takes 1.7 seconds for the oncoming
vehicle to stop once the breaks are applied. If driver
perception/reaction time is 2.5 seconds what is the probability
that the vehicle pulling out will get in an accident with an
oncoming vehicle.

11. A volume of 1200 vph is observed at an intersection approach.

Find the peak flow rate within the hour for the following peak –
hour factors:

1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70

Plot and comment on the result.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 228

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

PARKING STUDIES AND PARKING SPACE HOURS

12. When designing an on-street parking facility, the number of

spaces required when the angle of inclination is zero (O) degrees
and the curb length is 500 feet will be _____?

13. When using the parking space hour supply equation, you must
take into account efficiency of the facility during its highest
demand period. What is the average efficiency factor that you
must use if you are addressing curb parking.

14. Data collected at a parking lot showed that the total - space
hours of demand is 2047 space hours. The current number of
available parking bays can serve only 85% of the demand. The
efficiency factor of the parking lot is 90%, and the opening hours
of the parking lot is 12 hours. The current number of parking bays
is:
a) 161.1
b) 494.6
c) 224.7
d) 137.2
e) 282.9

15. From the given data in Problem 3, The additional number of

parking bays that must be provided so that the total space hours
of demand are meet is:

a) 74.9
b) 11.9
c) 14.8
d) 54.9
e) 28.4

16. A convenience store has four available parking spaces. The

customer arrival rate to this store during the peak hour is 20 per
hour and their inter-arrival times are exponentially distributed.
The time that a customer's vehicle will occupy a parking space is
6 minutes on average (that's how long it takes for the customer to
shop). It is observed that the four parking spaces are evenly
utilized.

17. In Najran city, the number of spaces in a parking lot is 500 and
the parking turnover is 4. What is the parking volume of this lot. If
the price of a [using one space for an hour is 3 SR, what is the
maximum daily income for this parking lot.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 229

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EVALUATION OF INTERSECTION
For problems 1-6.

1. With the above given illustration, determine the structure of the

major road traffic of the right turn into major road.

2. Given the following illustration above of an un-signalized road,

analyze the right turn into major road and its evaluation.

3. Determine the structure of the major road traffic of the left

turn off the major road.

4. Analyze the left turn off major road and its evaluation.

5. Determine the structure of the major road traffic of the left

turn into the major road.

6. Analyze the left turn off major road and its evaluation.

For problems 7-12.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 230

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EVALUATION OF INTERSECTION

7. Identify the major road traffic pattern at the right turn into the
major road.

8. Given the following illustration above of an un-signalized road,

analyze the right turn into major road and its evaluation.

9. Analyze the traffic pattern on the major road before making a

left turn.

10. Analyze the left turn off major road and its evaluation.

11. Determine the structure of the major road traffic of the left
turn into the major road.

12. Analyze the left turn off major road and its evaluation.

For problems 13-18.

Consider the channelized T-intersection with the minor road
controlled by YIELD sign. There is no prevailing speed limit.

13. Determine the structure of the major road traffic of the right
turn into major road.

14. Analyze the right turn into a major road and its evaluation
using the aforementioned un-signalized route as an example.

15. Determine the structure of the major road traffic of the left
turn off the major road.

16. Analyze the left turn off major road and its evaluation.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 231

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

EVALUATION OF INTERSECTION

17. Determine the structure of the major road traffic of the left
turn into the major road.

18. Analyze the left turn off major road and its evaluation.

For problems 19-24.

Evaluate the unsignalized intersection with the two minor road

approaches controlled by STOP signs. The traffic volumes shown
are in vehicles per hour (vph). There is no prevailing speed limit.

19. Analyze the major road traffic pattern at the right turn into the
major road.

20. Given the following illustration above of an un-signalized road,

analyze the right turn into major road and its evaluation.

21. Determine the structure of the major road traffic of the left
turn off the major road.

22. Analyze the left turn off major road and its evaluation.

23. Determine the structure of the major road traffic of the left
turn into the major road.

24. Analyze the left turn off major road and its evaluation.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 232

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

ROUNDABOUTS

1.Which roundabout has a greater capacity for any of the

approaches and how would the conflicting volume difference
between the two intersections? Traffic flow id the same in both
pictures.

2. Maryam pushes the roundabout shown to the right from rest to

a final angular speed of 1.50 rev/s with constant angular
acceleration. In doing so, the roundabout completes 4 revolutions.

a) What is the angular displacement of the roundabout (in rad)?

3. At a highway junction shown in Figure Q4(b), traffic conflicts

are to be controlled by a traffic signal system. The design hour
traffic volumes are given in Table Q4(b). (i) Design a fixed-time
traffic signal system for the junction without considering the
presence of pedestrians. The average passenger car unit is 1
vehicle = 1.1 pcu and the average correction factor for saturation
flow is 1.0. In all red period may be taken as 3 sec/phase, starting
delay equal to 2 sec/phase and amber period of 3 sec.

4. Show the traffic phase sequence and timing diagrams for the
proposed design
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 233

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

ROUNDABOUTS

5. A car circulates around a roundabout (diameter=3.5 m) as

shown in the image. Note that the driver stops before entering the
roundabout and has a speed of 11.3m/s when exiting. How long did
the car stay on the curved path of the roundabout if the angular
acceleration of the car is 1.9 rad/s2 ?

6. Determine values of w, e, and l of the weaving section,

considering the boundary conditions where the capacity formula
is valid.
REFERENCES 234

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel Traffic & Highway Engineering,

Fouth Edition.pdf

Roger Roess, Elena Prassas, William McShanel Traffic

Engineering.pdf

Daily Civil Types of Curves in Surveying Retrieved on December 21,

2022, from

https://dailycivil.com/types-of-curves-in-
surveying/#:~:text=A%20simple%20curve%20is%20a,known%20as%
20a%20back%20t

https://www.brandedcivil.com/2020/01/highway-engineering-
introduction.html

https://blog.mihlfeld.com/the-6-modes-of-transportation

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/transportatio
n-infrastructure

https://www.glassdoor.com/Career/transportation-engineer-
career_KO0,23.htm

https://www.mcgill.ca/civil/undergrad/areas/transportation

https://www.civilengineeringterms.com/pavement-and-
foundation/definition-of-road-or-
pavement/#:~:text=Pavement%20or%20Road%20is%20an,of%20bet
ween%2020%20%E2%80%93%2030%20years.

https://www.aboutcivil.org/classification-of-roads-highways.html

https://civiconcepts.com/blog/classification-of-
roads#Classification_Of_Roads

https://www.eltis.org/glossary/

https://community-planning.extension.org/what-are-the-
differences-between-mobility-accessibility-and-connectivity-in-
transportation-planning/
REFERENCES 235

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

https://www.virginiadot.org/Functional_Classification_Comprehen
sive_Guide.pdf

https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/technological-
university-of-the-philippines/bachelor-of-science-in-civil-
engineering/highway-development-and-planning-importance-
classification-of-roads-road-patterns-planning-surveys-highway-
alignment-and-surveys/9521269

American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials, A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets, 4th Edition, Exhibit 3-58, pg. 231,
Washington DC, 2001.

Factors Affecting the Stopping Sight Distance on Road - Civil

Engineering Soft Studies (civilengineering-
softstudies.com)

Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel Traffic & Highway Engineering,

Fouth Edition.pdf

Roger P. Roess, Elena S. Prassas Traffic Engineering.pdf

Roger Roess, Elena Prassas, William McShanel Traffic

Engineering.pdf

Yale University Press, C. Tunnard and B. Pushkarev, Munmade

America, New Haven, CT, 1963

https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/negros-oriental-state-
university/bachelor-of-sscience-in-civil-engineering/design-
criteria-for-highways

https://www.coursehero.com/file/99251421/DESIGN-CRITERIA-
FOR-HIGHWAYS-and-Railwaysdocx/

http://www.metromaniladirections.com/2010/04/light-rail-
transit-line-2-lrt-2.html

https://history-ph.blogspot.com/2017/04/lrt-2-names.html

https://arpwe.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Ebook-Railway-
Engineering-.pdf
REFERENCES 236

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

https://pnr.gov.ph/about-contact-us/who-we-are/pnr-in-
philippine-history/24-
history/126-pnr-historical-highlights

https://stalucialand.com.ph/news_press/lrt-2-east-extension-
allows-for-east-travel-seen-
to-proper-growth/

https://www.bworldonline.com/property/2022/10/04/478141/mrt-
7-completion-to-
boost-property-values-along-its-route/

https://www.adb.org/countries/philippines/south-commuter-
railway-project

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/transportatio
n-infrastructure

https://www.civilconcept.com/classification-of-roads-in-civil-
engineering/

https://www.lonestarpavingtx.com/what-is-pavement-failure/

https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/transport/brief/railways

https://www.slideshare.net/YashPatel61/railway-failure-and-its-
type

https://prosertek.com/en/blog/importance-port-maintenance/

Buechner, W. (2006). ‘‘History of theGasoline Tax.’’ American

Roads andTransportation Building Association, (www.artba .org).

FHWA (August 1997). Federal Highway Cost Allocation Study,

Federal Highway Administration www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/otps/
costallocation.htm.

Haas, R. C. G., W. R. Hudson, and J. Zaniewski, (1994). Modern

Pavement Management, Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar, FL.

FHWA (2005). ‘‘Highway Statistics; Section V’’: Roadway Extent,

Characteristics, and Performance, Federal Highway
Administration. Washington, DC.
REFERENCES 237

CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

PCA (1980). Joint Design for Concrete Highways and Street

Pavements, Portland Cement Association, Skokie IL.

AASHTO (1993) AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement

Structures, ‘‘American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials’’, Washington, DC.

2Cebon, D. (1999). Handbook of Vehicle- Road Interaction, Swets &

Zeitlinger,Rotterdam, NL.

https://courseware.cutm.ac.in/wpcontent/uploads/2020/05/com
pound-curve.pdf

https://www.scribd.com/doc/263684308/Lecture-1-CurvesSimple-
Compound-pdf#

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TYZZxtAiGf4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cBLjT5_3d9E

https://gecchamarajanagara.ac.in/wpcontent/uploads/2020/03/M
odule-3-Curves.pdf

https://pdfslide.net/documents/review-questions-in-
surveying.html?page=9
238
AUTHORS
CE 408 - HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY

ANGELES, SHERWIN A.
BATRONEL, JAMES LORENZ M.
CANARIAS, ALYSSA CAMILLE E.
CASANOVA, FYONNA MARIE M.
COLLARIN, JANELLA D.
LALUSIN, VEENA LOREIN C.
MARTINEZ, MICHA NYL F.
ROXAS, JOHN DANIEL D.
UNICO, MONIQUE T.

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