Module 9
Biological Transformation I-Composting
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MSWM
Primary collection
Secondary
collection
Lecture 24
Definition and phases of composting
COMPOSTING
Composting is the biological decomposition and stabilization of
Organic materials
+ O2
organic substrate under conditions that allow development of
thermophilic temperatures as a result of biologically produced
heat, to produce a final product that is stable, free of pathogens,
plant seeds and can be beneficially applied to land.
Source: Haug, R.T. and Haug, H.T. (1993) Practical Handbook of
Compost Engineering. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.
TEMPERATURE PROFILE
Compost heat is produced as a by-product of the microbial
breakdown of organic material.
The heat production depends on the size of the composting
system, its moisture content, aeration, C/N ratio and
ambient temperature.
Steam coming from turned compost piles
Source: http://www.city-data.com/forum/garden/1855940-hot-
compost.html
HEAT INACTIVATION
Heat inactivation of human, animal, plants pathogens and weed
seeds is one of the major benefit of thermophilic composting.
Heat death of a cell means thermal inactivation of its enzymes.
Without enzymatic activity a cell cannot function and will die.
Pathogens are also destroyed or controlled by: Competition with
other microbes, Antagonistic relationship, Antibiotic of inhibiting
substances produced by microbes and time of survival.
But temperature is the only factor that a operator can measure and
control during composting. Compost and microbes
Source: Kuhad R.C., Chandna P., Lata, Singh A. (2011)
USEPA recommended 53 ºC for 5 days, 55 ºC for 2 days Composting of Lignocellulosic Waste Material for Soil
Amendment. In: Singh A., Parmar N., Kuhad R. (eds)
and 70 ºCMicrobes
for 30 minutes for destruction
at different of pathogens
phases of composting Bioaugmentation, Biostimulation and Biocontrol. Soil Biology,
vol 108. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Source: http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/chapter1.pdf
HEAT INACTIVATION (Cont..)
At higher temperature non-pathogenic organism survive by forming endospores, thick-walled spores that are
highly resistant to heat, cold, dryness, or lack of food.
They are ubiquitous in nature and become active whenever environmental conditions are favorable.
The numbers and types of mesophilic microbes that recolonize compost as it matures depend on what spores and
organisms are present in the compost as well as in the immediate environment.
Average bacterial population during composting can be 106-1012 and fungal population 102-105.
Functional group of organisms in compost
Feeding interactions among organisms in compost
Source: http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/chapter1.pdf
Source: http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/chapter1.pdf
Bacteria
Bacteria and fungi in compost
under electron microscope
Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Compost-
under-an-electron-microscope-showing-a-
diverse-ecosystem-of-flourishing-
bacteria_fig8_301731986
Fungi
Temperature ranges for compost microorganisms
Source: http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/chapter1.pdf
Actinomycetes
Compost microorganisms
Actinomycetes potentially including: Actinobifida
chromogena, Microbispora bispora, Micropolyspora
faeni, Nocardia sp., Pseudocardia
thermophilia, Streptomyces rectus, S. thermofuscus, S.
thermoviolaceus, S. thermovulgaris, S. violaceus-
ruber, Thermoactinomyces sacchari, T.
vulgaris, Thermomonospora curvata, T. viridis, etc.
Fungi potentially including: Aspergillus
fumigatus, Humicola grisea, H. insolens, H.
lanuginosa, Malbranchea pulchella, Myriococcum
thermophilum, Paecilomyces variotti, Papulaspora
thermophila, Scytalidium thermophilim, Sporotrichum
thermophile, etc.
Mostly (+80%) Bacteria that may potentially include: Alcaligenes faecalis,
Bacillus brevis, B. circulanscomplex, B. coagulans, B. licheniformis, B.
megaterium, B. pumilus, B. sphaericus, B. stearothermophilus, B. subtilis,
Clostridium thermocellum, Escherichia coli, Flavobacterium sp.,
Pseudomonas sp., Serratia sp., Thermus sp., etc.
Source: https://sabacooperative.wordpress.com/permaculture-
compost-microorganisms/
INVERTEBRATES
Classification of compost organisms according to body weight
Source: http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/chapter1.pdf
Phylogenetic classification of common compost organisms
Source: http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/chapter1.pdf
PHASES OF COMPOSTING
Composting proceeds in three stages-
An initial lag period (lag phase).
A period of exponential growth and
accompanying intensification of
activity (active phase).
Eventually tapers into one of final
decline, which continues until ambient
levels are reached (curing phase or
maturation phase).
Chemical decomposition during thermophilic stage
Source:http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/chapter1.pdf
PHASES OF COMPOSTING (Cont.)
Lag Phase
The lag phase begins as soon as composting conditions are established.
Microbes begin to proliferate, by using sugars, starches, simple celluloses, and amino acids present in the
raw waste.
Pseudomonads are in abundant in this phase while, protozoa and fungi are not discernible.
This phase is very brief when putrescible and/or herbaceous wastes are involved, somewhat longer when
woody and/or MSW wastes are involved and very protracted with dry leaves and resistant waste such as, dry
hay, straw, rice hulls, and saw dust.
PHASES OF COMPOSTING (Cont.)
Active Phase
Exponential increase in microbial numbers and activity manifested by precipitous and uninterrupted rise in temperature
of the composting mass can be observed.
The temperature may peak at 70 °C or higher followed by flattening of the temperature curve called the plateau phase.
Duration of the entire active stage (exponential plus plateau) varies with substrate and with environmental and
operational conditions.
Maturation or curing Phase
When the easily decomposable material is depleted, maturation stage begins.
The proportion of resistant materials steadily rises and microbial proliferation correspondingly declines.
Temperature begins an inexorable decline, which persists until ambient temperature is reached.
The time involved in maturation is a function of substrate and environmental and operational conditions.
Compost morphology in different stages Compost morphology in different stages
Source: Alkoaik FN (2019) Integrating aeration and Source: https://www.smuragro.com/decomp-waste-
rotation processes to accelerate composting of decomposing-solution/
agricultural residues. PLoS ONE 14(7): e0220343.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220343)
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