Unit II: Cell Structure and

Function
AAAT, PharmD
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:

a. Describe four major processes of living cells.
b. Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
c. Contrast exocytosis and endocytosis
d. Describe the structure and function of other non-membranous organelles
e. Label the structures associated with each of the membranous organelles
Processes of Life
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Responsiveness
• Metabolism
 Processes of Life
Characteristic Bacteria, Archaea, Viruses
Eukaryotes

Growth: Increase in Size Occurs in ALL Growth does NOT occur

Reproduction: Increase in Occurs in ALL Host cell replicates the

number Virus

Reponsiveness: Ability to Occurs in ALL Reaction to host cells seen

react to environmental in some viruses
stimuli

Metabolism: Controlled Occurs in ALL Viruses use host cell’s

chemical reactions of metabolism
organisms

Cellular Structure: Present in ALL Viruses lack cytoplasmic

Membrane-bound structure membrane or cellular
capable of all of the above structure
functions
Overview of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
● Prokaryotes ● Eukaryotes
○ Lack Nucleus ○ Have Nucleus
■ Can read DNA and make ○ Have internal membrane-
protein simultaneously.
bound organelles
○ Lack various internal structures
○ Are LARGER with 10-100 um
bound with phospholipid
diameter
membrane
○ Have more complex structure
○ Typically 1.0 µm in diameter or
smaller
○ Composed of Algae, Protozoa,
○ Composed of bacteria and Fungi, Animals, and Plants
archaea
Typical prokaryotic cell.

Inclusions

Ribosome
Cytoplasm
Nucleoid Flagellum
Glycocalyx Cell wall
Cytoplasmic membrane
Typical eukaryotic cell.

Nuclear envelope

Nuclear pore
Nucleolus
Lysosome
Mitochondrion
Centriole
Secretory vesicle
Golgi body
Cilium
Transport vesicles
Ribosomes Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum

Cytoplasmic
Cytoskeleton membrane
Approximate size of various types of cells.

Virus
Orthopoxvirus
0.3 μm diameter
Bacterium
Staphylococcus
1 μm diameter

Chicken egg
Parasitic protozoan
4.7 cm diameter
Giardia
(47,000 μm)*
14 μm length
*Actually, the inset box on the egg would
be too small to be visible.
(Width of box would be about 0.002 mm.)
External Structures of Bacterial Cells
● Glycocalyces
● Flagella
● Fimbriae
● Pili
External Structures of Bacterial Cells
● Glycocalyces • Two Types of Glycocalyces
○ Gelatinous, sticky substance • Capsule
surrounding the outside of • Composed of organized
the cell repeating units of organic
chemicals
○ Composed of
• Firmly attached to cell surface
polysaccharides,
• May prevent bacteria from being
polypeptides, or both
recognized by host
○ Glycocalyces protect cells • Slime Layer
from desiccation (drying) • Loosely attached to cell surface
and can also play a role in
• Water soluble
the ability of pathogens to
• Sticky layer allows prokaryotes to
survive and cause disease. attach to surfaces
Glycocalyces.

Glycocalyx Glycocalyx
(capsule) (slime layer)
External Structures of Bacterial Cells
● Flagella
○ Are responsible for movement
○ Have long structures that extend beyond cell surface
○ Are not present on all bacteria
○ Structure:
■ Composed of filament, hook, and basal body
● Basal body anchors the filament and hook to cell
wall
Flagella: Structure
Flagella: Arrangement
Flagella: Arrangements

Peritrichous Flagella- Cover the surface of the cell.

Polar Flagellum- Only at the ends.

Tuft of Polar Flagella

Spirochetes

Spirochetes have flagella at both ends that spiral tightly Examples: Treponema pallidum and Borrelia
around the cell instead of protruding into the surrounding burgdorferi
medium. These flagella, called endoflagella, form an axial
filament that wraps around the cell between its cytoplasmic
membrane and an outer membrane.
External Structures of Bacterial Cells
• Flagella
• Function
• Rotation propels bacterium through environment
• Rotation reversible; can be counterclockwise or clockwise
• Bacteria move in response to stimuli (taxis)
• Runs
• Tumbles
Motion of a peritrichous bacterium.

Attractant

Run
Tumbl
e

Run

Tumbl
e
External Structures of Bacterial Cells
• Fimbriae and Pili
• Fimbriae
• Sticky, bristlelike projections
• Used by bacteria to adhere to one another and to
substances in environment
• Shorter than flagella
• Serve an important function in biofilms
• Example:
• Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Gonorrhea)
Flagellum Fimbria
External Structures of Prokaryotic Cells
• Pili
• Special type of fimbriae
• Also known as conjugation pili
• Longer than fimbriae but shorter than flagella
• Bacteria typically have only one or two per cell
• Transfer DNA from one cell to another (conjugation)
Pili.
Pilus
Bacterial Cell Walls

● Gram-Positive Bacterial Cell Walls

● Gram-Negative Bacterial Cell Walls
● Bacteria Without Cell Walls
Bacterial Cell Walls
• Provide structure and shape and protect cell from
osmotic forces
• Assist some cells in attaching to other cells or in
resisting antimicrobial drugs
• Can target cell wall of bacteria with antibiotics
• Give bacterial cells characteristic shapes
• Composed of peptidoglycan
• Scientists describe two basic types of bacterial cell
walls:
• Gram-positive and Gram-negative
Bacterial shapes and arrangements.
Comparison of the structures of glucose, NAG, and NAM.

Glucose N-acetylglucosamine N-acetylmuramic acid

NAG NAM
Possible structure of peptidoglycan.

Sugar
chain

Tetrapeptide
(amino acid)
crossbridge
Connecting chain
of amino acids
Bacterial Cell Walls
• Gram-Positive Bacterial Cell Walls
• Relatively thick layer of peptidoglycan
• Contain unique chemicals called teichoic acids
• Appear purple following Gram staining procedure
• Up to 60% mycolic acid in acid-fast bacteria helps cells
survive desiccation
• Mycobaterium species- with mycolic acid which
makes them difficult to stain with regular water -
based dyes.(acid-fast stain)
Comparison of cell walls of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

Peptidoglycan layer
(cell wall)
Cytoplasmic
membrane

Gram-positive cell wall Lipoteichoic acid

Teichoic acid

Integral
protein
Prokaryotic Cell Walls
• Gram-Negative Bacterial Cell Walls
• Have only a thin layer of peptidoglycan
• Bilayer membrane outside the peptidoglycan contains
phospholipids, proteins, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
• Lipid A portion of LPS can cause fever, vasodilation,
inflammation, shock, and blood clotting
• May impede the treatment of disease
• Appear pink following Gram staining procedure
Figure 3.15b Comparison of cell walls of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

Porin

Outer Porin
membrane (sectioned)
of cell wall
Peptidoglycan Periplasmic space
layer of cell wall
Gram-negative cell wall Cytoplasmic
membrane

Phospholipid layers
Lipopolysaccharide
(LPS) layer, containing
Integral
lipid A
proteins
Prokaryotic Cell Walls
• Bacteria Without Cell Walls
• A few bacteria lack cell walls
• Often mistaken for viruses due to small size and lack of
cell wall
• Have other features of prokaryotic cells such as
ribosomes
• Example:
• Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membranes
• Structure
• Referred to as phospholipid bilayer
• Composed of lipids and associated proteins:
• Integral proteins
• Peripheral proteins
• Fluid mosaic model describes current understanding of
membrane structure
• Mosaic- indicates that the membrane proteins are
arranged in a way that resembles the tiles in a mosaic.
• Fluid-indicates that the proteins and lipids are free to flow
laterally within a membrane.
Figure 3.16 Structure of a prokaryotic cytoplasmic membrane: a phospholipid bilayer.

Head, which
contains phosphate
(hydrophilic) Phospholipid
Tail
(hydrophobic)

Integral
proteins

Cytoplasm
Integral
protein
Phospholipid
bilayer

Peripheral protein
Integral protein
Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membranes
• Function
• Energy storage
• Harvest light energy in photosynthetic bacteria
• Selectively permeable
• Naturally impermeable to most substances
• Proteins allow substances to cross membrane
• Maintain concentration and electrical gradient
Electrical potential of a cytoplasmic membrane.

Cell exterior (extracellular fluid)

–7 –30 0
0 mV

Cytoplasmic membrane

Integral
protein Protein

DNA

Protein

Cell interior (cytoplasm)

Passive Transport: Principles of Diffusion

Passive Transport: Principles of Diffusion

Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membranes
• Function
• Movement across the cytoplasmic membrane occurs by
either passive or active processes.
• Passive Processes:
• Diffusion - net movement of a chemical down its
concentration gradient, from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration.
• Facilitated diffusion - proteins facilitate the process by
providing a pathway for diffusion.
• Osmosis
Passive processes of movement across a cytoplasmic membrane.

Extracellular
fluid

Cytoplasm
Facilitated Facilitated Osmosis
diffusion of diffusion (diffusion of water
Diffusion
several types
of small or through a permease through a specific
of chemicals
lipid-soluble of a specific chemical channel or
through a
chemicals through
nonspecific
through the
membrane
channel the membrane)
Effects of isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions on cells.

Cells without a wall

(e.g., mycoplasmas,
animal cells)
Solutes

Cell wall Cell wall

Cells with a wall

(e.g., plants, fungal
and bacterial cells)

Solutes
Cell membrane Cell membrane
Isotonic Hypertonic Hypotonic
solution solution solution
Prokaryotic Cytoplasmic Membranes
• Function
• Active Processes:
• Active transport - Requires cell to expend ATP to
transport molecules.
• Proteins as “gates”
• Group translocation
• Substance is chemically modified during transport
Mechanisms of active transport.

Uniport

Symport
Uniport Antiport Coupled transport
(in this case, a uniport
and a symport)
Group translocation.

Extracellular
fluid

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm of Bacteria
• Cytosol
• Liquid portion of cytoplasm
• Mostly water
• Contains cell's DNA in region called the nucleoid.
• Cytosol is the site of some chemical reactions
• enzymes within the cytosol function to produce
amino acids and degrade sugar.
• Inclusions
• May include reserve deposits of chemicals
Granules of PHB in the bacterium Azotobacter chroococcum.
Polyhydroxybutyrate
Cytoplasm of Bacteria
• Endospores
• Unique structures produced by some bacteria
• Bacillus and Clostridium
• Defensive strategy against unfavorable conditions
• Vegetative cells transform into endospores when
multiple nutrients are limited
• The process of endospore formation, called
sporulation.
• Resistant to extreme conditions such as heat, radiation,
chemicals
Cytoplasm of Prokaryotes
• Nonmembranous Organelles
• Ribosomes
• Sites of protein synthesis
• Composed of polypeptides and ribosomal RNA
• Cytoskeleton
• Composed of three or four types of protein fibers
• Can play different roles in the cell:
• Cell division
• Cell shape
• Segregate DNA molecules
• Move through the environment
External Structures of Archaea
• Glycocalyces
• Function in the formation of biofilms
• Adhere cells to one another and inanimate objects
• Flagella - a slower speed than bacteria.
• Consist of basal body, hook, and filament
• Numerous differences with bacterial flagella
• Half the thickness of bacterial flagella.
• Fimbriae and Hami
• Many archaea have fimbriae
• Some make fimbria-like structures called hami
• Function to attach archaea to surfaces
Figure 3.26 Archaeal hami.
Hamus

Grappling
hook

Prickles
Archaeal Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic Membranes
• Most archaea have cell walls
• Do not have peptidoglycan
• Contain variety of specialized polysaccharides and
proteins
• Gram Negative Archeal cells have an outer layer of
protein rather than an outer lipid bilayer as seen in
Gram-negative bacteria.
• All archaea have cytoplasmic membranes
• Maintain electrical and chemical gradients
• Control import and export of substances from the cell
Cytoplasm of Archaea
• Archaeal cytoplasm similar to bacterial cytoplasm:
• 70S ribosomes
• Fibrous cytoskeleton
• Circular DNA
• Archaeal cytoplasm also differs from bacterial
cytoplasm:
• Different ribosomal proteins
• Different metabolic enzymes to make RNA
• Genetic code more similar to eukaryotes
External Structure of Eukaryotic Cells
• Glycocalyces
• Not as organized as prokaryotic capsules
• Help anchor animal cells to each other
• Strengthen cell surface
• Provide protection against dehydration
• Function in cell-to-cell recognition and communication
Eukaryotic Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic Membranes
• Fungi, algae, plants, and some protozoa have cell
walls
• Composed of various polysaccharides:
• Cellulose found in plant cell walls
• Fungal cell walls composed of cellulose, chitin, and/or
glucomannan
• Algal cell walls composed of a variety of
polysaccharides
Eukaryotic Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic Membranes
• All eukaryotic cells have cytoplasmic membrane
• Are a fluid mosaic of phospholipids and proteins
• Contain steroid lipids to help maintain fluidity
• Contain regions of lipids and proteins called
membrane rafts
• Control movement into and out of cell
Eukaryotic Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic Membranes
● Eukaryotic membranes do not perform group translocation
● Many perform another type of active transport - Endocytosis
○ Involves physical manipulation of the cytoplasmic membrane around the cytoskeleton.
○ Endocytosis occurs when the membrane distends to form pseudopods that surround a
substance, bringing it into the cell.
○ Endocytosis is termed phagocytosis if a solid is brought into the cell and Pinocytosis if
only liquid is brought into the cell.
● Exocytosis, another solely eukaryotic process, is the reverse of endocytosis in
that it enables substances to be exported from the cell.
● Not all eukaryotic cells can perform endocytosis or exocytosis
Figure 3.30 Endocytosis.
Pseudopod
Active Transport Processes Found Only in Eukaryotes: Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Flagella
• Structure and Arrangement
• Differ structurally and functionally from prokaryotic flagella
• Within the cytoplasmic membrane
• Shaft composed of tubulin arranged to form microtubules
• Filaments anchored to cell by basal body; no hook
• May be single or multiple; generally found at one pole of cell
• Function
• Do not rotate but undulate rhythmically
• Cells do not move in runs and tumbles.
Figure 3.31a Eukaryotic flagella and cilia.

Flagellu
m
Movement of eukaryotic flagella and cilia.

Direction of motion

Flagella
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Cilia
• Shorter and more numerous than flagella
• Coordinated beating propels cells through their
environment
• Also used to move substances past the surface of the
cell
Figure 3.31b Eukaryotic flagella and cilia.
Cilia
Figure 3.32b Movement of eukaryotic flagella and cilia.

Direction of motion

Cilia
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Other Nonmembranous Organelles
• Ribosomes
• Larger than prokaryotic ribosomes (80S versus 70S)
• Composed of 60S and 40S subunits
• Cytoskeleton
• Extensive network of fibers and tubules
• Anchors organelles
• Produces basic shape of the cell
• Made up of tubulin microtubules, actin microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Other Nonmembranous Organelles
• Centrioles and Centrosome
• Centrioles play a role in mitosis, cytokinesis, and
formation of flagella and cilia
• Centrosome is region of cytoplasm where centrioles are
found
• Not found in all eukaryotic cells
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Membranous Organelles
• Nucleus
• Often largest organelle in cell
• Contains most of the cell's DNA
• Semiliquid portion called nucleoplasm
• Contains chromatin
• RNA synthesized in nucleoli present in nucleoplasm
• Surrounded by nuclear envelope
• Contains nuclear pores
Figure 3.35 Eukaryotic nucleus.

Nucleolus
Nucleoplasm
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope
Two phospholipid
bilayers
Nuclear pores

Rough ER
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Membranous Organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Netlike arrangement of flattened, hollow tubules
continuous with nuclear envelope
• Functions as transport system
• Two forms:
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Membranous Organelles
• Golgi Body
• Receives, processes, and packages large molecules for
export from cell
• Packages molecules in secretory vesicles that fuse with
cytoplasmic membrane
• Composed of flattened hollow sacs surrounded by
phospholipid bilayer
• Not in all eukaryotic cells
Figure 3.37 Golgi body.
Secretory vesicles

Vesicles
arriving
from ER
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Membranous Organelles
• Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, Vacuoles, and Vesicles
• Store and transfer chemicals within cells
• May store nutrients in cell
• Lysosomes contain catabolic enzymes
• Peroxisomes contain enzymes that degrade poisonous
wastes
Figure 3.39 Roles of vesicles in endocytosis and exocytosis.
Endocytosis
(phagocytosis)
Bacterium

Smooth
Phagosome endoplasmic
(food vesicle) reticulum
Vesicle (SER)
Transport
fuses with a vesicle
lysosome

Lysosome

Phagolysosome
Golgi body

Secretory
vesicle

Exocytosis
(elimination, secretion)
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Membranous Organelles
• Mitochondria
• Have two membranes composed of phospholipid bilayer
• Produce most of cell's ATP
• Interior matrix contains 70S ribosomes and a circular
molecule of DNA
Figure 3.40 Mitochondrion.

Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Crista

Matrix
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Membranous Organelles
• Chloroplasts
• Light-harvesting structures found in photosynthetic
eukaryotes
• Use light energy to produce ATP
• Have two phospholipid bilayer membranes and DNA
• Have 70S ribosomes
Endosymbiotic Theory

• Eukaryotes formed from union of small aerobic prokaryotes

with larger anaerobic prokaryotes
• Smaller prokaryotes became internal parasites:
• Parasites lost ability to exist independently
• Larger cell became dependent on parasites for aerobic
ATP production
• Aerobic prokaryotes evolved into mitochondria
• Similar scenario for origin of chloroplasts
Nonmembranous and Membranous Organelles of Cells
Comparison of Archaeal, Bacterial, and Eukaryotic Cells