To my very own “Grandmother” : Helena Peirce © Copyright 1969 by Prindle, Weber & Schmidt, Incorporated, 53 State Street, Boston, Massachusetts, 02109. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 69-13516 Printed in the United States of America SBN 87150-048-7 SECOND PrintING: August 1970preface This text is designed to give the student a background in the foundations of algebra and analysis. The algebra of symbolic logic and the concept of set are introduced early in the text so that the main definitional development of the complex number system flows easily from a set of postulates for the natural numbers. Important concepts are introduced when needed to provide better motivation through immediate usage. Thus, the approach is integrated for a greater continuity of ideas than would be possible if a course in sets were followed by a course in the number systems. A preliminary edition of the text was class-tested in a two-course sequence of two semester-hours each at the University of Maine. It was taught, pri- marily, to freshman and sophomore students who intended to.major in or to teach mathematics. This sequence provided a total of sixty class sessions, or about one fifty-minute class period for each section of the text. There was more than enough material for such use, but most topics were covered in the allotted time. At least ten exercises at the end of each section, providing a total of more than 1100 exercises, allow the student ample opportunity to reinforce the ideas presented in the text. The exercises develop concurrently with the text and thus are not always listed in order of increasing difficulty. Attention is called to the Table of Symbols and Notations, the Hints for Selected Exercises, and the Answers for Selected Exercises. Other items of constant reference are the tautologies of Theorem 3.4, the postulates for the natural numbers in Definition 22.1, and the field postulates of Definition 43.1. Such often-used pages might well be indexed with paper clips. In the hints and answers sections one will find hints for the solutions of approximately one-fifth of the exercises, and answers for about half of the exercises—generally the odd-numbered ones—and for the alternate parts of vvi PREFACE most multi-part exercises. An Instructor’s Manual is available from the pub- lisher at no cost to teachers using this text. It includes answers to most of the other exercises, supplementary questions, and suggestions for the use of this book. If the reader enjoys the historical sketches located in unnumbered sections at the beginning of each chapter, he should also enjoy such books as E. T. Bell’s Men of Mathematics and H. Eves’ An Introduction to the History of Mathematics. The following copyrighted material has been used with the kind per- mission of the publishers. How to Solve It by G. Polya (Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1945) provides the basis for Section 8. The selections from Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll at the beginning of each of Chapters 2 through 7 and 9 are from The Annotated Alice with notes by M. Gardner (Clarkson N. Potter, Inc., New York, 1960). The material on a high school for mathematics immediately preceding Chapter 8 is enlarged from a letter by Lewis Carroll found on pages 201 and 202 of A Scrap-Book of Elementary Mathematics, 4th ed., by W. F. White (The Open Court Publishing Company, La Salle, Ill., 1942). A listing of these and other source books is found in the Bibliography. The kind help and encouragement from my wife, Donna, and from many friends at the University of Maine are deeply appreciated. Many errors and oversights have been rectified through the suggestions of my colleagues George S. Cunningham, John J. Dranchak, Howard W. Eves, Charles A. Green, the late Spofford H. Kimball, Frank J. Mestecky, Peter G. Sawtelle, William F. Stearns, John W. Toole, and others. My thanks are also extended to the publishers, especially to Paul E. Prindle and Bruce B. Thrasher for their most patient and efficient production of this work, the first in a series of texts in this general subject area. CLayTon W, DopGE Orono, Mainecontents PREFACE, 0 TABLE OF SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS, Xi 1 LOGIC Thales, 1 1. Introduction, 3 2. Statements and Connectives, 5 3, Tautologies, Absurdities, and Contingencies, 0 4. The Mathematics of Logic, /4 5. Quantifiers, /9 6. The Logic of Mathematics, 24 7. A Simple Logical Discourse, 29 8. Proof, 34 2 SETS Pythagoras, 43 9. Sets and Subsets, 45 10, Union and Intersection, 57 11. Some Basic Properties, 53 12. Complement, 56 13. Power Set, 59 14. Relations, 62 15. Equivalence Relations, 66 16. Functions, 7/ 17. Operations, 75 viiCONTENTS BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 18. 19. 20. Archimedes, 83 Boolean Algebra, 85 Logic, 91 Switching Circuits, 93 NATURAL NUMBERS 21. 22. 23. 24, 25. 26. 27. 28. 29, 30. 31. End of the Greek Era, 103 Motivation, /05 The Natural Numbers, 1/0 Order, 115 Subtraction and Division, 118 Mathematical Induction, 122 Exponents and Inequalities, 128 Two More Principles, 132 An Independent Postulate Set, 134 The Peano Postulates, /39 Cardinal Numbers and Addition, 142 Cardinal Numbers and Multiplication, /47 INTEGERS 32. 33. 34, 35. 36. 37. Fibonacci, 151 Ordered Pairs, 153 Basic Properties, 158 Inequality, 163 Absolute Value, 165 Mathematical Induction, 169 The Integers, 173 RATIONAL NUMBERS 38. 39, 40. 4l. 42. 43. 44, 45, Newton, 177 Ordéred Pairs, 179 Identities, 182 Subtraction and Division, 184 Inequality, 186 Miscellaneous Properties, 190 The Field, 194 Modular Arithmetic, 198 Rings and Integral Domains, 204CONTENTS = ix a) REAL NUMBERS Gauss, 211 46. Sequences and Limits, 2/2 47. Cauchy Sequences, 220 48. Equivalence, Addition, Multiplication, 224 49. Basic Properties, 227 ; 50. Order, 230 51. Completeness, 233 52. Real Numbers, 236 53. Dedekind Cuts, 241 8 COMPLEX NUMBERS Cauchy, 247 54. Ordered Pairs, 249 55. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, 253 9 INFINITY AND BEYOND Weierstrass, 259 56. Infinity, 261 57. Beyond Infinity, 265 58. Cardinal Arithmetic, 277 59. The March of the Ordinals, 273 60. Three Paradoxes, 276 61. Two Axioms, 279 APPENDICES Umbugio, 283 Proof of a Completeness Theorem, 285 Synthetic Division, 286 Proofs of Some Set Theorems, 291 pOP> Hints FOR SELECTED EXERCISES, 295 ANSWERS FOR SELECTED EXERCISES, 303 BrBuioGRAPHY, 335 INDEX, 339table of symbols and notations These symbols are defined on the pages indicated. [ye (x) & anoguec } {| ph, {5 ph @,{ } u in es eee (ae | negation, 6 and, 6 or, 6 implies, 7 equivalence, 7 if and only if, 7 Sheffer’s stroke, 14 therefore, 15 open sentence, 19 for all, for every, 20 there exists, 20 such that, 20 end of proof, 30 is an element of, 45 set, 45 equals, 46 set builder, 46 null or empty set, 47 universe, 48 subset, precedes, 48, 89, 240, pi, 50 intersection, cap, 51, 85, 240 union, cup, 57, 85, 240 xixii TABLE OF SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS BA, A’, ~A, (A) HA) (a, 6) AxB eee +1 P(r) a nt Sa HS) vd E(a, b) —x, % complement, 56 power set, 59 ordered pair, 62, 154 Cartesian product, 63 domain, 65 range, 65 relation properties, 67 equivalence relation, 68, 142 equivalence class, 68 partition, 69 function, 7/ one-to-one, 72 inverse, 72, 185, 194, 228, 238 identity map, 75 binary operations, 75, 78 Boolean identities, 85 inverse, 86 addition and multiplication, 105, 107, 110, 139, 140, 143, 147, 155, 156, 173, 180, 181, 194, 201, 204, 205, 209, 225, 238, 242, 244, 250, 274, 275 natural numbers, 110, 139 one, 110, 139, 174, 183, 194, 205, 227, 238 inequality, 115, 116, 163, 164, 187, 231, 267 subtraction, 118, 161, 184, 221, 227 division, 119, 161, 185, 229 divides, 120 proposition, 122 exponents, 128 factorial, 132 Fibonacci number, 133, 173 successor, 139 cardinal number, 142 integers, 154, 156, 173 equivalence, congruence, 154, 179, 199, 207, 224 integer, 156 zero, 159, 174, 183, 194, 205, 226, 238 negative, 160, 174, 184, 194, 205, 227, 238, 243TABLE OF SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS |x| absolute value, 65, 232 Jt positive integers, 174 [a, 5] ordered pair of integers, 179 R’,R rational numbers, 179, 180 Ela, 6}, a/b rational number, 180, 183 F field, 194 {a] residue class, 199 i 7 matrix, 205 (a/b) quotient, 207 Uh f sequence, 2/4 lim limit, 214, 234 e epsilon, 214 max maximum, 2/6 min minimum, 2/6 P.(n) polynomial, 217 E', EE real numbers, 224, 225, 238, 241 vl real number, 225 ft reciprocal sequence, 228 Fy {FndD sequence of real numbers, 233 lub least upper bound, 236 glb greatest lower bound, 236 A Dedekind cut, 241 Zz zero cut, 243 E, complex numbers, 250 (a; 6) ordered pair of real numbers, 250 i imaginary unit, 257 x aleph, 26] d #(N), 261 LH unit intervals, 266, 269 c #(E:), 267 ST, Sym powers, 268 = similarity, 273 A) order type, 273 A* reversed order, 274 « O(N), 274 a ordinal number, 277x oe A - Some things are not what they seem to be.l logic THALES Any study is more meaningful and interesting when one is acquainted with those who developed its concepts. Mathematics is no exception. The makers of mathematics are people with people’s weaknesses and strengths. By some stroke of fate they saw beyond the limits set by their predecessors. Many looked from lofty heights, others from the depths of despair and con- fusion. Some led exemplary lives, while others were reprobates. All were blessed with a spark of genius and the opportunity to use their talents. But above all, they were human. It seems fitting to use the first page or two in each chapter to recount selected incidents from the lives of these mental giants. Thus the reader should gain an appreciation of the human side of some of those responsible for the mathematics he is studying. The mathematics of ancient times was quite mystical and empirical. For example, the ancient Egyptians knew that a triangle having sides of length 3, 4, and 5 is a right triangle, but why this is true, and how it should be established as true, were not known until about 600 B.c. The ancients were of a practical bent and not at all concerned with theory. Much of mathe- matics is still taught from that same point of view. Deductive reasoning first appeared in-ancient Greece about 600 B.c. Thales of Miletus, a merchant, traveled extensively throughout the Medi- terranean region, learning much of the mathematics and mysticism of Egypt and elsewhere. He appears to have been the first to attempt a proof of any sort. He is credited with discovering that vertical angles formed by inter- secting lines are equal, that the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal, and other similar geometric facts. Furthermore, his discoveries were 12 cH.1 Logic supported by some sort of deductive reasoning. Here we find the very beginnings of modern ideas in mathematics. Little is known of Thales’ life, but some interesting tales are related concerning the personality of this famous merchant, statesman, philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer, one of the “seven wise men” of antiquity. Thales is reported to have owned a salt mine, which was located on a moun- tain, and used a train of mules to bring the salt to market. It is said that while crossing a stream on the way down the mountain, one of the mules accidentally stumbled, and by the time he had regained his footing, much of the salt had dissolved, lightening his load considerably. It was a long trip, so the mule had a long time to consider just why he had a lighter burden than usual. Remem- bering the incident, this clever beast began wallowing in the stream on each A diameter of a circle bisects the circle. downhill trip. Now, in an attempt to remedy this situation, most of us would probably beat the animal unmercifully the instant he started to wallow in the stream. But not Thales. He would not stoop to using such a method. He merely gave the mule another long trip to remember by loading him with sponges instead of salt. The cure was immediate. On another occasion Thales demonstrated to a friend how easy it wasINTRODUCTION SEC. 1 3 to get rich. One spring, he quietly purchased all the oil presses in the region. ‘When the fall olive crop was harvested, he realized a fortune renting his presses at high rates. One night when he tripped and fell into a ditch while watching the stars, an old lady standing nearby asked him how he could possibly see anything in the sky when he could not even see what was at his own feet. When asked what was the strangest sight he ever saw, he replied, “An aged tyrant.” To lead better lives, Thales advised people to “refrain from doing what we blame in others.” 1 | INTRODUCTION Mathematics deals largely with numbers: natural numbers, integers, rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers, and many others. It is important, therefore, for the earnest student of mathematics to understand the basic structure of our complex number system. Consider the following questions: (1) Is 5 > —172 Why? (2) Is|—al = a? Always? (3) Since 3 + 27 # 2 + 3%, where /? = —I, is 3 + 2i < 2 + 3ioris 34+ 2i>24 3:7 (4) Is there just one infinity? What is infinity? (5) Is there a smallest positive real number? If so, what is it? (6) Assuming that the null set @ is the set having no elements, and that set A is contained in set B, A © B, if and only if every element in A is also in B, how can one prove that # < A for every set A? (1) Why does (—a)(—6) = +ab? (8) Suppose the statement “if it is raining, then the ground is wet” is true. Suppose also that it is not raining. Can one logically conclude that the ground is not wet? (9) Is the statement “no books on this shelf are blue” equivalent to the statement “‘it is false that all books on this shelf are blue”’? (10) Remembering that complex roots of polynomial equations come in conjugate pairs x = a + bi, why does the polynomial equation x — 2 —3i 0 have only x = 2 + 3as a root and not x = 2 — 3 also? These are but a few of the basic questions which this book attempts to answer. These questions concerning sets, logic, and numbers, while quite elementary, are certainly not easy to answer. Many times, the most basic concepts require the most careful examination.4 cH.1 Locic The complex number system is approached with the goal of under- standing its foundations. First the natural numbers 1, 2, 3,... are discussed, then the integers are built up from them, then the rational numbers, the real numbers, and finally the complex numbers. To give a better understanding of how these systems are logically structured, we develop set notation and study elementary logic prior to examining these number systems. After completing this course, the student should have a better apprecia- tion of the logical foundations of mathematics in general and of the number systems of mathematics in particular. Thus he will be much better able to comprehend the subtleties of more advanced mathematical studies. EXERCISES I-1 through 1-10. Answer the questions (1) through (10) posed in this section. Give examples where possible. Prove your answers. Your intuition should not be trusted in mathematics. Many times your ‘first impression is incorrect. Answer quickly each of the questions or problems in Exercises 1-11 to 1-26, then work out each correct solution. 1-11. Do they have a fourth of July in England? 1-12. A car drives 27 miles at 40 m.p.h., then 27 miles at 60 m.p.h. What is its average speed? 1-13. A car drives 27 min at 40 m.p.h., then 27 min at 60 m.p.h. What is its average speed? 1-14, Guess how many letters are in this “sentence.” 1-15. A large clock takes 30 sec to strike six. How long will it take to strike twelve? 1-16. Would you consider working 30 days at a job paying | cent the first day, 2 cents the second day, 4 cents the third day, 8 cents the fourth day, and so forth? 1-17. By what percentage does #; exceed 345? 1-18. If a ball of yarn 3 in. in diameter costs 30 cents, how much should a ball of yarn 5 in. in diameter cost? 1-19, If A can do a job in 3 days and B can do it in 5 days, how long will it take them together to do the job? 1-20. One glass contains some milk and another glass some hot choco- late. A teaspoonful of hot chocolate is taken from the second glass and put in the first. Then a teaspoonful of the mixture is taken from the first and returned to the second. Which glass now contains more of the other liquid? 1-21. A plane leaves Boston flying at 250 m.p.h. Fifteen minutes later a plane leaves Bangor, Maine, 200 air miles away, flying at 150 m.p.h. When they meet, which one is farther from Boston?STATEMENTS AND CONNECTIVES SEC.2 5 1-22. Is the statement “this statement is false” true or is it false? 1-23. Why cannot a man living in the United States be buried in Canada? 1-24. Is it legal for a man to marry his widow's sister? 1-25. From the bottom of a 30-ft well, a frog can climb up 3 ft each day, sliding back 2 ft each night. In how many days does he escape the well? 1-26. You wish a long night’s sleep, so at 8 P.M. you set your alarm for 9.4m. How much sleep does this permit? 2 | STATEMENTS AND CONNECTIVES Under what circumstances is the statement “x? — 2x =0 or x? + 2x = 0" true? In particular, is it true for x = 0? Again, consider the statement “if it is raining, then the ground is wet.” Is this statement true if the ground is wet, but it is not raining (as when a sprinkler is on)? To find the mathematician’s answer to these and related questions, we now turn our attention to the study of symbolic logic. 2.1 DEFINITION. By a statement, or a proposition, is meant a sentence which is either true or false, but not both. Statements are generally denoted by lower case letters p,q, r,.... Some examples of statements are: (1) Today is hot. (2) Today is Friday (3) 2 is a prime number. (True) (4) 5+ 5 = 12, (False) (5) George Washington is the current president of the United States of America. (False) The following are not statements: (6) Are you listening? (7) The whipplecork is plockled in the aardvinch. (8) Wow, what a day! ) xisay. (10) This statement is false.6 cH.1 Loaic A statement ends in a period, not a question mark or an exclamation point. Thus (6) and (8) are not statements. Because (7) makes no sense, it cannot be true or false. Similarly (9) is not a statement, even though it has the proper ‘form, until the variables x and y are replaced by meaningful terms. Sentence (10) is deceiving; it looks like a statement. If it is a proposition, then it is either true or false, but not both. Suppose it is true. Then what it says is true, and it is false. But it cannot be both true and false. Hence (10) cannot be true. Well, suppose (10) is false. Then what it says is false, and (10) is not false, it is true. Again, it cannot be both true and false. Therefore, (10) cannot be classified as either true or false. Hence it is not a statement. Various ways exist for obtaining new statements from old ones. A few of them are considered here. 2.2. DEFINITION. The statement p’, read “not-p” and called the negation of statement p, is defined to be the denial of statement p. That is, p’ is false if p is true, and p’ is true if p is false. We use truth tables to illustrate the truth values of statements, where T stands for “true” and F for “false.” Thus we have the truth table for negation in Fig. 2.1. This table simply restates that p’ is false when p is true, and p' is true when p is false. Since it gives a picture of the truth values for negation, the truth table may be more easily remembered than the verbal definition. P P ae aoe F T Figure 2.1. Negation. Any proposition symbolized by a single letter is called a primitive propo- sition. Connectives are logical symbols between (or connecting) two state- ments to form a new statement, called a compound statement. We define four such connectives: 2.3 DEFINITION. The proposition p A q, read “‘p and q” and called the conjunction of p and q, is true when both p and q are true and is false otherwise. 2.4 DEFINITION. The proposition p v g, read “p or g” and called the disjunction of p and q, is false when both p and q are false and is true otherwise.STATEMENTS AND CONNECTIVES SEC.2 7 2.5 DEFINITION. The proposition p —> q, read “p implies q” or “if p, then q” and called an implication or conditional, is false when p is true and q is false, and is true otherwise. 2.6 DEFINITION. The proposition p<>4, read “‘p if and only if q” and called an equivalence ot biconditional, is true if and only if both p and q are true or both are false. We also write iff to mean “if and only if.” Truth tables for these four connectives appear in Fig. 2.2. Ficure 2.2. Logical connectives. The meaning of each connective should be explained further. Conjunc- tion has the usual meaning given “and,” except that the two statements need not be related. Thus we state 2 42 =4and January is a month as being a true conjunction. Disjunction is used logically in the inclusive “and/or” sense of the Latin word vel. Indeed the symbol v looks like the initial letter of that word. Then 2+ 2 =4 or January is a month is a true disjunction. When one says, “If it rains, then I will stay home,” the meaning usually includes the inverse statement, “If it does not rain, then I will not stay home.”” This is not the case in a logical implication. As a logical implication, this statement gives absolutely no information for the case when it does not rain. To illustrate the plausibility of our definition for implication, consider the statement: “if a figure is a square, then it has four right angles.” Let p denote the statement “this figure is a square,” and q the statement “this figure has four right angles.” Certainly this implication is to be con- sidered true—always true. In Fig. 2.3 notice that the case where p is true and q is false, is missing. This is the one situation that cannot occur; a figure8 cH.1 LOGIC cannot be a square and not have four right angles. Since each of the other three cases can occur, it is reasonable to call the implication true in all of them. Figure Square fel Oblong Trapezoid Z_] Figure 2.3, Implication. Equivalence has the expected meaning, again remembering that the two statements need not be related. A true equivalence is, for example, 2+ 2 = Siff July 4 is New Year’s Day. Truth tables are especially convenient for examining compound propo- sitions such as (p v q')->p’. In Fig. 2.4, the first, second, and last columns constitute the truth table for the given proposition. The intermediate columns merely serve as an aid to constructing the last column. Thus the values for PV q’ ate determined by remembering that a disjunction is false only when both members are false. But p and q’ are both false only in the third line; at least one of them is true in each of the other lines. Now the entire statement is an implication, and an implication is false only when truth implies falsity; in this case, only when p V q’ is true and p’ is false. That combination occurs in the first two rows only. @vg)>r Ficure 2.4. (pv q)>p’. Note that (p v q’) > p’ has the same truth values as p’ has. Then these two statements are equivalent; one could be used in place of the other in any logical discussion. Finally we agree to write, in any truth table, the symbols for the primitive propositions p,g,r,... in alphabetical order, and to make the rightmost column T, F,T,F,..., the next column leftward T,T,F,F,..., and so forth. For three statements, we would have the arrangement of Fig. 2.5. ThisSTATEMENTS AND CONNECTIVES SEC.2 9 is not the only system in use, but we adopt it here for the sake of standardiza- tion of our discussions. madam naa|s nana mans Figure 2.5. Truth table heading. EXERCISES » Decide which of the following are statements. Every general statement has its exceptions. Some triangles are equilateral. Some goobs are feekles. All sociologists believe in public housing. When the swallows return to Capistrano. Are you studying? Today is February 18th. Don’t get angry. Five is a number and “five” is a numeral. j. Apples are good and red or yellow. rm OS BOTS 2-2, Answer the questions posed in the opening paragraph of this section. 2-3. Write a negation for each statement without using “it is not true that...” a. Five is a prime number. b. Today is hot. ¢. This book is purple. 2-4. Complete these truth tables, where possible. a ple b. T F 742-5. Decide the truth value of each statement. a, If2+2=4, then 6-7 = 42. b. If2+2=4, then 5°9 = 59. c. If2 +7 =27, then 6 + 8 = 542. a. 1f2+7=3,then5+1=6. 2-6. Decide the truth value of each statement. 5$+3=8and2+6= 14. 54+3=80r2+6= 14 343=8if246= 14. 24+3=5and2-3=6. 243=5o0r2+3=6. S41 =9if3+7=8. Write a truth table for each proposition in Exercises 2-7 to 2-15. 27. (PAg—-(PvQy. 28. (Pv g>(P \4). 2.9. (pq) v (pod). 2-10. (p vg >(P Aq). 211, (pg) A (qr) (pr). 212. (p’ >p)op. 2-13. (p> 9) ro (p> (qr). 214. (p Ag)>(p vr’). 215. (p> Ar (P>9) A (Pr). mepaogse 3 | TAUTOLOGIES, ABSURDITIES, AND CONTINGENCIES 3.1 DEFINITION. A logical statement that is always true is called a tautology; a proposition that is always false is an absurdity; one that is sometimes true and sometimes false is a contingency. One of the main purposes of logic is to ferret out tautologies, for these are the theorems, or laws, of logic. We shall be concerned only with testingTAUTOLOGIES, ABSURDITIES, AND CONTINGENCIES SEC. 3 i for tautologies, checking the truth tables of propositions for the last column having only T’s. Figure 3.1 shows some examples. In particular, p-> (p A q) is a contingency; (p A q)->p, (p Aq) (q A p), and p V p’ are tautolo- gies; whereas p A p’ is an absurdity, whence (p A p’y isa tautology. That is, whenever any statement s is an absurdity, then s’ is a tautology. PAG |p>@ ag) mamas] s amma] mammals mansi]s Ficure 3,1, Some compound statements. Statements having the same truth tables are equivalent. Figure 3.1 shows that p> (p Aq) is equivalent to p->q, and that p Aq is equivalent to q A p. Inany logical argument a statement can be replaced by any equivalent one. Some interesting equivalent statements appear in Fig. 3.2. It also shows that each of the connectives can be expressed in terms of negation and just one of the three connectives A, V, or —r, since also p++q is equivalent to the conjunction (pq) A (q—>p). It is left to the reader to verify these equivalences. Statement Equivalent statements PAG pvG (Pi agy oq (Na) | ee vg. Figure 3.2. Some equivalent statements.12 cH.1 Logic 3.2. DEFINITION. Calling the implication p->q the given statement, we then call q-p the converse, p'->q the inverse, and q — p' the contrapositive. As an example, consider the given statement: if it is February, then thirty days hence will be March. Its converse is: if thirty days hence will be March, then it is February; its inverse: if it is not February, then thirty days hence will not be March; and its contrapositive: if in thirty days it will not be March, then it is not February. Observe that the given implication and its contrapositive are both true in this case. Also, if today is January 31, then thirty days hence is March, but now is not February. Thus the converse and the inverse are not true. One must be very careful, when using a theorem stated as an implication, not to assume the converse without its having been proved. The next theorem indicates this logical relation between these four statements in the general case. 3.3 THEOREM. The given statement and its contrapositive are logically equivalent; the inverse and the converse are equivalent. The given statement is not equivalent to its converse. Symbolically, >) >P), @'> 9) 49>?) but (pq) (q¢-> Pp) is not true. We conclude this section by listing some important tautologies, leaving their proofs for the reader to supply. The reader is urged to clip a paper clipTAUTOLOGIES, ABSURDITIES, AND CONTINGENCIES SEC. 3 13 on this page for quick reference. It is important to have ready access to these tautologies as they will be referred to by name from time to time. 3.4 THEOREM. The following are tautologies: (1) (pA py. Law of contradiction. Q) pvp’. Law of excluded middle. QB vga vp) and (p Ag) (q Ap). Commutative laws. @ (vavVNe(PV|@V n)and(p rg ane (pA @ An). Associative laws. OS PAGV (Ag V@Ar))and (pV (GAT) (» vq) A(@ vr). Distributive laws. (© pp". Law of double negation. (1) (pq) (q'>p'). _ Law of contraposition. (8) (p>q) \(Q>n)> (pr). Law of syllogism. 0) (PA (~~>q)>4. __Law of detachment. (10) (p Aq)->p. Law of simplification. Also p(p vq). Law of addition. GD ( A(pvq)—>¢. Law of disjunction. (12) (p A p)pand (p Vv p)++p. —_Idempotent laws. (13) (p Ag)’ Oo’ Vv q)and (p Vv 9)’ (e' Aq’). De Morgan’s laws. (14) (pg) (pq) A (Gp). —_Biconditional law. EXERCISES 3-1 through 3-14. Verify lines (1) through (14) of Theorem 3.4 by truth tables. In Exercises 3-15 to 3-22, decide whether each statement is a tautology, an absurdity, or a contingency. 3-15. (g A (p> 9) >P- 316. (q' A(po ge. 317. (pA (pag) g. 3.18. (p Ag)> >"). 3-19. p'—> (pq). 3-20. (p A p')>-4. 321. (PV p> Ag). 3-22. (p vg) (q V py14 cH. 1 Logic 3-23. In Fig. 3.2, verify the equivalence of the three statements given in the a. first line. b. second line. c. third line. 3-24. Rewrite each statement as an implication. a. Ifp, theng. b. gifp. c. qonly if p. d. gis necessary for p. e. qis sufficient for p. f. A necessary condition for p is g. g. A sufficient condition for p is q. 3-25, Rewrite each statement in the form “if..., then...”. a, A necessary condition for two triangles to be congruent is that the three sides of one be equal respectively to the three sides of the other. b. A sufficient condition for two triangles to be congruent is that the three sides of one be equal respectively to the three sides of the other. c. The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal. 3-26. Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of each statement. a. If today is Monday, then tomorrow is Tuesday. b. The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal. c x+y =z implies x < z. 3-27. State whether the converse of each theorem is true or false. a. Ifa = 5, then ac = be. b. The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal. c. Ifatriangle has sides of length a, 6, and c with a? + 5 = c?, then it is a right triangle. 3.28. Define p/q to mean p’ v q'. a. Show that p’< (p/p). b. Show that (p v 4)+> (p/p)/(a/a)). Since negation and disjunction can be expressed in terms of this Sheffer’s stroke symbol | only, and since all the logical connectives can be expressed in terms of negation and disjunction, it follows that all the logical connec- tives may be expressed in terms of stroke only. Find expressions, in terms of p,q, and | only, for ce pag d. pq. e perg. 4 | THE MATHEMATICS OF LOGIC Many arguments can be readily reduced to symbolic logic, so let us consider the analysis of such arguments. A logical argument consists of someTHE MATHEMATICS OF LOGIC SEC.4 15 assumed statements, called the hypothesis, and a derived statement, called the conclusion. It is called valid iff the hypothesis implies the conclusion; that is, iff the statement “the hypothesis implies the conclusion” is a tautology. Otherwise the argument is called invalid. It is interesting to note that a statement such as (PAP)>49 is a tautology. It shows that a false hypothesis (p A p’ is an absurdity) implies any conclusion whatsoever. It follows that if the hypothesis is never true, then the argument is automatically valid. Some authors do not permit the term “valid” to apply in such a case, but we do not so restrict its use here. Note also that p>(ava) is a tautology; that is, any statement implies a tautology. Thus, if the con- clusion is a tautology, then the argument is automatically valid. A rule for testing arguments is now stated. Remember that we call a statement “true” or “false,” and an argument “valid” or “invalid”; the terms “true” and “false” are never applied to an argument. 4.1 RULE. Any tautology may be assumed. If p<+q is a tautology, then any occurrence of p may be replaced by q in any statement. From pq and p, we may derive g. From p A q, we may derive p. From p, we may derive p v q. By the above rules, an argument is valid only when the conclusion can be derived from the hypothesis (the given statements). Otherwise it is invalid. An argument may be proved invalid by finding a set of truth values for the primitive statements p,q, r,... which makes the hypothesis true and the conclusion false. Consider the argument Pe ro q PAS a where the three statements given above the line are hypothesis, assumed true, and the statement below the line is the conclusion. The three-dot triangle .". is read “therefore.” We must show that (>) A >a) AP ASNr is a tautology. The form of Fig. 4.1 serves to analyze the argument.16 cH.1 Locic rog pAS “gor D P>4q por por r Figure 4,1. A valid argument. From r’—-q', we obtain its contrapositive g—> r. From p->g andg—>r, obtain p—>r by the law of syllogism. From p A s, obtain p by the law of simplification. From p and p— r, obtain r by the law of detachment. Thus this argument is valid. It is interesting to note that statement s was not used. That is, statement P A Stells us that both p and s are true, but we had no use for s. Occasionally such unnecessary information will appear in the hypothesis. Now consider the argument and analysis of Fig. 4.2. From p V q and p’, obtain g, the law of disjunction. Now from g and r—>g, we can obtain nothing; from the table for implication, if the conclusion q is true, then the hypothesis r can be either true or false. This line of reasoning yields no results, so we suspect that the argument is invalid. Let us search for a set of truth values for p, g, and r which will verify the hypothesis and deny the conclusion. Clearly we must have p’ and r’. From p v q, since p’ (p is false), then q (q must be true). Thus p’, q, and r’ are a possible set of values. Since q is true, then p V g and rg are true, and p’ is true. However, r is false. This proves that the argument is invalid. PYG Pvq mq - ee : og ee rq 2 Figure 4.2, An invalid argument. An alternative method is available provided there are not too many primitive propositions p, q, r,... involved. Consider the argument Doge poe gr Form a truth table which includes each of the statements involved. Since the conclusion must be true whenever all the hypothesis is true, we are not at all concerned with what occurs when the hypothesis is not all true. Thus cross out any row containing a statement from the hypothesis that is false. If theTHE MATHEMATICS OF LOGIC sEC.4 17 conclusion is true in every remaining row, the argument is valid; otherwise it is invalid. In this case (see Fig. 4.3) we have rows 1 and 2 crossed out because p—>q’ is false there; rows 3, 4, 7, and 8, because q is false there. In rows 5 and 6, all three statements in the hypothesis are true. In row 5, r is true, but r is false in row 6, whence the argument is invalid because the conclusion is not true in every row that is not crossed out. ei q |erd| por iy Te er r T|T/FI/F] F F Tier) i | f T Peet) 7 F FIT/T/F] T T ElG Ele) fF r Belt) 7 FI F| F/T] T Tx Figure 4.3, Truth table analysis of an argument. A few words of caution are appropriate here. From the implication pq, given p, one can conclude g. Alternatively, given q’, one can conclude p’ by the contrapositive. However, no conclusion is possible when either p’ or q is given. Drawing a conclusion in such a case is called arguing from the converse. It is never permissible. From the disjunction p v , given p’, one can conclude g. However, given p, it is not possible to conclude either g or q’. That is, no conclusion is possible in this case. Finally, given p—>g and g->r, we can conclude p-»r by the law of syllogism. From p-»q and r—>q, no such conclusion is possible. Also, from p> qand p—>r, no conclusion of this form is possible. EXERCISES Test the validity of each argument in Exercises 4-1 to 4-10. 41. p3q r>p, qon op. 4-2. pv gq qr, 43. pA, r>p. 44. pVg pV. 4-5. p>q', qvr, 46. PVG Gor 47 pVG pPvg. 3. peg18 cH.1 Loaic 48. pog rp ros fs. 49. pq. ee 5 410. poq, gon ros. sive. In Exercises 4-11 to 4-25, rewrite each argument in symbolic form using the suggested letters. Then check the validity of the argument. 4-11. IfJohn is sane (J), then he can do logic (Z). If he is not sane, then he cannot serve on a jury (let S denote “he can serve”). John cannot do logic. Therefore, he cannot serve on a jury. 4-12. If Henry is a professor (P), then he is a fool (F). If he is not a fool, then he is learned (Z). Hence, if he is a professor, then he is not learned. 4-13. If today is Friday (F), then yesterday was Thursday (T). But yesterday was Thursday. Hence, today is Friday. 4-14. The train is late (L) if it snows (S). It is not snowing. Therefore, the train is not late. 4-15. The train is late (L) only if it snows (S). It is not snowing. Therefore, the train is not late. 4-16. If this car is made in England (4), then parts are difficult to obtain (D). This car is expensive (E) or it is not difficult to obtain parts. But this car is not expensive. Hence it was not made in England. 4-17. If I do not study (S), then I will sleep (/). I will not sleep if Lam worried (W). Hence, if I am worried, I will study. 4-18. Unless Jones is elected (/), we will lose the airbase (L). Jones will be elected iff he has your support (S). If we save the airbase, then Jones will be elected. We will save the airbase. Hence Jones has your support. 4-19 The professor assigns homework (H) iff he lectures (Z). If class is dismissed (D), then there will be no lecture. There will not be both class and homework, but there will be one or the other. Hence we have homework. 4-20. My vacation will be in June (J) or in December (D). It cannot be at both times. If it is in December, then I can expect snow (S), but surely it would not snow in June (W). If the vacation is not in December, then it will be quite hot (H). Hot weather implies a June vacation. Hence it is either hot or snowy when I take my vacation. 4-21. Either John and Dick are the same age (A), or John is older than Dick (0). If they are the same age, then Mary and John are not the same age (M). If John is older than Dick, then John is also older than Susy (S). Hence either Mary and John are not the same age, or John is older than Susy. 4.22. If Sam is in jail (J), then he is not a bother to his family (B). If he is not a bother, then he is in the army (A). If he is a disgrace (D), then he is a bother, Hence he is either in the army or not a disgrace.QUANTIFIERS SEC.5 19 4-23. Either Carl has been paid (C) or Sam is spending more than he can afford (S). If Sam is spending more than he can afford, then his bank account is empty (£). But Sam’s bank account is not empty. Therefore, Carl has been paid. 4-24. Mary is married (M) and Sally is single (S). If Arthur has a job (J), then Mary is married. Hence Arthur has a job. 4-25. Either logic is difficult (D) or not many students like it (Z). If mathematics is easy (E), then logic is not difficult. Therefore, if many students like logic, then mathematics is not easy. 5 | QUANTIFIERS Until the word “the” is replaced by a meaningful term, a statement such “he was a prize fighter” is not a proposition, even though it has the form of a proposition. A set of objects that make a sentence a proposition is called a meaningful set for that sentence, and such a sentence is called an open sentence. The word (or symbol) to be replaced is called a variable. Here a meaningful set is the set of all people. The replacement of “he” by “Joe Louis” makes the statement true; hence Joe Louis is a truth value for this open sentence. “Clayton W. Dodge” does not make this sentence true; hence it is not a truth value. The set of all objects in a given meaningful set that make a sentence true is called its truth set. The truth set in this case is the set of all past prize fighters. In the meaningful set of natural numbers, the open sentence x? + 6 = 5x has the truth set {2, 3}, as the reader can readily verify. In this same meaning- ful set, 6x? + 7x — 3 = 0 has no truth values. In the meaningful set of rational numbers, it has {—#, 4} as truth set. Now it makes no sense to set x = Joe Louis in the open sentence 6x? + 7x — 3 = 0, so we do not permit such a replacement. That is, re- placements must come from a meaningful set for that particular open sentence. ‘An example of an open sentence involving more than one variable is x + 2y = 2x. A truth value here is (2, 1) meaning x = 2andy = 1. 5.1 DEFINITION. Two statements that can be made about an open sentence p(x) having variable x are (1) for all x, p(x) is true, and (2). there exists an x such that p(x) is true.20 cH. 1 Locic Statement (1) is symbolized by Vx, p(x) or simply P(x). The “upside down A” is read “for all” or “for each.” Statement (2) is symbolized by ax 3 p(x) or Ax, p(x). The symbol 3 is read “there exists,” and the comma, or the symbol 9, an upper case Russian letter pronounced “er,” means “such that.” The statement Yx, p(x) is taken as true iff every meaningful value for P(x) is a truth value; 3x 3 p(x) is true iff p(x) has at least one truth value in its meaningful set. Thus 3x 9 6x? + 7x — 3 = Ois a true statement, but Vx, 6x? + 7x — 3 = 0 is false. On the other hand, the statement Vx, 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2) is true, for whenever x is replaced by a meaningful term (a number), then the statement (equation) is true; it is an identity. The statement 3x 3 p(x) means that at least one meaningful value exists which makes the statement true. It could even occur that every meaningful value is a truth value. Thus it is perfectly correct to say Ix 32x +4 = 2(x + 2), for there is a truth value (x = 3, for example) verifying the state- ment. In stating ¥x, p(x) we mean that whenever there is a meaningful replace- ment for x, then that value makes the statement p(x) true. It does not require any meaningful values to exist. For example, “all kings of the United States are bald” is a true statement because the United States has no kings. If the meaningful set is taken as the set of all kings of the United States, then the statement might read Vx, x is bald; its meaningful set is the empty set, and the statement is taken as true. This convention means that for the statement Vx, p(x) to be false, there must exist a meaningful value of x which makes the statement p(x) false. We have established the first part of the following theorem, whose second part we shall not formally prove. We agree to write p’(x) to denote that p(x) is false.QUANTIFIERS sEC.5 = 21 5.2 THEOREM. (Vx, p(x)’ @x 9 p(x) and (ax 3p(x))'o (vx, P(x). An example will help to clarify these ideas. Consider a shelf of black blocks and white blocks. What possibilities could occur? We could have all black blocks, all white blocks, some of each, or no blocks at all. See Fig. 5.1. The statement 3x 9 x is black is true on shelves 3 and 4 only. Hence its negation Vx, x is white (not black) is true on shelves 1 and 2 (only). Similarly, Vx, x is black is true on shelves | and 3, whence its negation ax 9 x is white (not black) must be true on shelves 2 and 4. 1. 2) Ble) 3. an 8 4/00 © Ficure 5.1. Negations of quantifiers. Arguments involving quantifiers are most easily handled by means of specialized diagrams called Euler diagrams, in which the interiors of circles represent the sets of objects involved and are so placed as to satisfy the hypothesis and, if possible, to deny the conclusion. Consider the argument: Some cats are felines. All felines are quadrupeds. .. All cats are quadrupeds. Let C denote the set of all cats, F, felines, and Q, quadrupeds. Draw a circle and label it C for the set of all cats. See Fig. 5.2. By the hypothesis, the circle F must have at least one point in common with circle C. We are forced to draw circle F with at least the overlap indicated.22. cH. 1 Logic Figure 5.2. Cats. Now (see Fig. 5.3), circle @ must be drawn completely surrounding circle F. Two possibilities are shown. It is possible to draw these circles so that the conclusion is not satisfied. The right-hand figure is such a case. This argument, then, is invalid, regardless of the truth or falsity of the conclusion. The conclusion, even though it is true, does not logically follow from the hypothesis. We say the argument is invalid; we do not say that it is false. 0) Ficure 5.3. More cats. 2 The argument: All bats are rats. All rats are mats. «', All bats are mats. is valid, as Fig. 5.4 shows. It is not possible to draw the circles to satisfy the hypothesis and not satisfy the conclusion. Again, we are not in the least Ficure 5.4. Bats.QUANTIFIERS SEC.5 23 concerned with the truth or falsity of the statements involved; our only concern is with the logic of the argument, devoid of all real meaning. EXERCISES 5-1. Write a negation for each statement. a. Vx, p(x) A q(x). b. Vx, p(x) V g(x). ce. ¥x, px) > g(x). Vx, a(x) g(x). e. Wx, p(x). 5-2. Write a negation for each statement. a. Ax D p(x) A g(x). b. 3x D p(x) v g(x). c. ax D p(x) q(x). d. 4x3 p(x) g(x). e. dx Dp'(x). 5-3. Write a negation for each statement. a. All cats are felines. b. Some dogs are not blue. c. All birds are nonswimmers. d. Some animals are quadrupeds. In Exercises 5-4 to 5-17, test each argument for validity by means of Euler diagrams. 5-4. All men are rich. Socrates was a man. Hence Socrates was rich. 5-5, Platinum is heavy. Nothing but platinum will satisfy him. Hence nothing light (not heavy) will satisfy him. 5-6. Some freshmen are undergraduates. Some undergraduates are students. Therefore some freshmen are students. 5-7. No dogs are fish. Some guppies are fish. Hence some guppies are not dogs. 5-8. Some girls are teachers. Mary Jones is a teacher. Therefore, Mary Jones is some girl. 5-9. Some horses eat hay. Henry eats hay. Hence Henry is a horse. 5-10. All lions are fierce. Some lions do not drink milk. Thus some creatures that drink milk are not fierce. 5-11. All gerbles are glops. All glops are gurkles. Some gurkles are geebers. Hence some gerbles are geebers. 5-12. All timid creatures are bunnies. All timid creatures are dumb. Some cows are timid creatures. Thus some cows are dumb bunnies.24 cH. 1 LOGIC 5-13, All men are bipeds. Some wolves are bipeds. Some men are carnivorous. Hence some wolves are carnivorous or some men are wolves. 5-14. All mathematics professors are absent-minded. All absent- minded people are slightly crazy. Hence some mathematics professors are slightly crazy. 5-15. All murders are immoral. Some murders are justifiable. Thus some immoral acts are justifiable. 5-16. No apes are buttercups. No buttercups are whales. Thus no apes are whales. 5-17. All horses are animals. Some animals are quadrupeds. Hence some horses are quadrupeds, 5-18. For each of the eight possibilities of valid or invalid argument and true or false hypothesis and conclusion listed below, construct a simple argument, where possible, illustrating the situation. 1 2245 6 7 6 Arcument = Vo VY v1 tt Hypothesis T T F F T T F F Concusion T F T F T F T F 5-19. In Exercise 5-18, which case or cases cannot occur? 6 | THE LOGIC OF MATHEMATICS Consider the problem of constructing a logical discourse. The ultimate goal is the development of a body of true statements, theorems, or tautologies about the objects in the discourse. Suppose, for example, one wanted to write a Euclidean geometry textbook. First one might make a list of the topics to be discussed, such as congruent figures, similar figures, circles, and so forth. Next one might state specific theorems, such as the Pythagorean theorem, to be established. Consider how to prove a theorem in the discourse. How would one Prove the Pythagorean theorem, Generally, one would expect to prove it from other true statements (theorems) already established. But these state- ments should also be proved from still other statements, and so forth. Clearly this process must end. That is, there must be a body of initial statements that are taken as true without proof. These are called the axioms or postulates of the discourse and are statements about the objects of the discourse that are accepted as true for the purposes of the discourse. An axiom for Euclidean geometry might very well be: Two distinct points determine exactly one line on which they both lie.THE LOGIC OF MATHEMATICS SEC.6 = 25 Returning to the Pythagorean theorem, let us consider the terms that are involved. Obviously “triangle” is one of them. To be sure that the student is fully aware of the meanings of such terms, they should be defined carefully. One might say: A triangle is the figure composed of three points not all lying on the same straight line and the three line segments determined by pairs of these points. Observe that we have defined triangle in terms of point, line, line segment, and figure. Now these terms must also have been defined. Any definition presupposes a knowledge of the technical terms used in that definition. Our definition of triangle assumed the understanding of each of the four terms mentioned above. It follows that not all terms can be explicitly defined, for we do not have an endless supply of terms upon which to draw. And, of course, it is un- thinkable to commit the “sin of circularity” by defining point in terms of line (say, as the intersection of two lines), and then turning around and defining line in terms of point (as a special collection of points). A dictionary has to commit this sin of circularity, since it must assume the reader already has a basic knowledge of the language. Therefore, an English dictionary is of no help to a person who knows no English. Thus some basic terms, called primitive terms, must be purposely left undefined. No definitions are given for these primitive terms. They may be informally explained to guide the reader’s thinking, but such explanations are not to be confused with definitions. In his Elements, Euclid explained that a point is “that which has no dimension.” This is not a definition; it serves only to give the reader a partial understanding of the basis upon which the discourse is to be built. How, then, are the primitive terms to be given precise meanings? By the postulates. These assumed statements involve the primitive terms and state their properties implicitly. The statement, two points determine exactly one line, tells something about points and lines. It helps to clarify the meanings of both these terms. By stating enough such properties, we narrow down the possible meanings to just exactly what we intend. This is the only definition given any primitive term. : Logically, words are not necessary; all the axioms can be stated sym- bolically, and the primitive terms can be merely symbols. Thus one can state two x’s determine exactly one y instead of two points determine exactly one line.