Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Chemistry 9th Chapter 02 (Structure of Atoms)
Written by: M.Sabir Chhohan (m.sabir940)
Unique Academy Bahawalpur
Concept Of Atom According To Democritus:
Ancient Greek philosopher Democritus suggested that matter is composed of
tiny indivisible particles called atoms. The name atom was derived from the Latin
word 'Atomos' meaning indivisible.
Concept Of Atom According To John Dalton:
In the beginning of 19 century John Dalton put forward Atomic Theory.
According to it 'all matter is made up of very small indivisible particles called
atoms'.
THEORIES AND EXPERIMENTS RELATED TO STRUCTURE
OF ATOM:
Dalton Atomic Theory:
Main points of Dalton Atomic Theory:
➢ An atom is an indivisible, hard, dense sphere.
➢ Atoms of the same element are alike.
➢ They combine in different ways to form compounds.
Plum Pudding Theory:
Thomson put forth his “plum pudding” theory.
He postulated that atoms were solid structures of positively charge with tiny
negative particles stuck inside. It is like plums in the pudding.
Cathode rays and Discovery of Electron
Introduction: In 1895 Sir William Crooks performed experiments by passing
electric current through gases in a discharge tube at very low pressure.
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Apparatus (Construction): He took a glass tube fitted with two metallic
electrode which were connected to a high voltage battery. The pressure inside
the tube was kept 10-4 atm.
Experiment (Working):
When high voltage current was passed through the gas, shiny rays were emitted
from the cathode which travel towards the anode as shown in figure.These rays
were given the name of “cathode rays” as these were originated from the
cathode.
Properties of Cathode Rays:
o Straight line motion:
These rays travel in straight lines perpendicular to the cathode surface.
o Shadow formation:
They can cast a sharp shadow of an opaque object if placed in their path.
o Nature of charge:
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
They are deflected towards positive plate in an electric field showing that
they are negatively charged.
o Increase in temperature:
They raise temperature of the body on which they fall.
o Charge to mass ratio:
JJ. Thomson discovered their charge/mass (e / m) ratio.
o Light production:
Light is produced when these rays hit the walls of the discharge tube.
o Nature of the rays:
It was found that the same type of rays were emitted no matter which gas
and which cathode was used in the discharge tube.
Conclusion:
• All these properties suggested that the nature of cathode rays is
independent of the nature of the gas present in the discharge tube or
material of the cathode.
• The fact that they cast the shadow of an opaque object suggested that
these are not rays but they are fast moving material particles.
• They were given the name electrons.
• Since all the materials produce same type of particles, it means all the
materials contain electrons. As we know materials are composed of
atoms, hence the electrons are fundamental particles of atoms.
Discovery Of Proton:
Apparatus (Construction):
He used a discharge tube having perforated cathode as shown in figure.
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Experiment:
In 1886 Goldstein observed that in addition to cathode rays, other rays were
also present in the discharge tube. These rays were traveling in opposite
direction to cathode rays.
Canal Rays:
He found that these rays passed through holes(canals) present in the cathode
and produced a glow on the walls of the discharge tube. He called these rays as
“canal rays”.
Properties Of Positive Rays:
o Straight line motion:
These rays travel in straight lines in a direction opposite to the cathode rays.
o Nature of charge:
Their deflection in electric and magnetic field proved that these are positively
charged.
o Nature of the rays:
The nature of canal rays depends upon the nature of gas, present in the
discharge tube.
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
o Production of positive rays:
These rays do not originate from the anode. In fact these rays are produced
when the cathode rays or electrons collide with the residual gas molecules
present in the discharge tube and ionize them as follows:
e + M → M+ + 2e
o Mass of rays:
Mass of these particles was found equal to that of a proton or simple multiple
of it. The mass of a proton is 1840 times more than that of an electron.
Conclusion:
These rays are made up of positively charged particles. The mass and charge of
these particles depend upon the nature of the gas in the discharge tube.
Hence,different gases produce different types of positive rays having particles
of different masses and different charges. Keep in mind that positive particles
produced by a gas will be of the same type i.e. positive rays produced by the
lightest gas hydrogen contain protons.
Discovery of Neutron
Rutherford observed that atomic mass of the element could not be explained
on the basis of the masses of electron and proton only. He predicted in 1920
that some neutral particle having mass equal to that of proton must be present
in an atom.
Experiment:
In 1932 Chadwick discovered neutron, when he bombarded alpha particles on a
beryllium target. He observed that highly penetrating radiations were produced.
These radiations were called Neutron.
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Properties of neutron:
Nature of charge:
Neutrons carry no charge i.e. they are neutral.
Highly panetrating:
They are highly penetrating.
Mass of rays:
Mass of these particles was nearly equal to the mass of a proton.
Rutherford’s Atomic Model (Discovery Of Nucleus)
Purpose:
Rutherford performed ‘Gold Foil’ experiment to understand how negative and
positive charges could coexist in an atom.
Experiment:
o He bombarded alpha particles on a 0.00004 cm thick gold foil.
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
o Alpha particles are emitted by radioactive elements like radium and
polonium. These are actually helium nuclei ( He ). They can penetrate
through matter to some extent.
o He observed the effects of alpha particles on a photographic plate or a
screen coated with zinc sulphide.
➢ He proved that the ‘plum-pudding’ model of the atom was not
correct.
Observations of Rutherford atomic model:
✓ Almost all the particles passed through the foil un-deflected.
✓ Out of 20000 particles, only a few were deflected at fairly large angle.
✓ Very few bounced back on hitting the gold foil.
Results of the Rutherford experiment
➢ Volume of atom:
Since most of the particles passed through the foil undeflected, therefore most
of the volume occupied by an atom is empty.
➢ Nucleus:
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
The deflection of a few particles proved that there is a ‘center of positive
charges’ in an atom, which is called ‘nucleus’ of an atom.
➢ Nature of nucleus:
The complete rebounce of a few particles show that the nucleus is very dense
and hard.
➢ Size of nucleus:
Since a few particles were deflected, it shows that the size of the nucleus is very
small as compared to the total volume of an atom.
➢ Location of electron:
The electrons revolve around the nucleus.
➢ Atom as a whole neutral:
An atom as a whole is neutral,therefore the number of electrons in an atom is
equal to the number of protons.
➢ Nucleons:
Except electrons, all other fundamental particles that lie within the nucleus, are
known as nucleons.
Defects in Rutherford’s Model
➢ According to classical theory of radiation, electrons being the charged
particles should release or emit energy continuously and they should
ultimately fall into the nucleus.
➢ If the electrons emit energy continuously, they should form a continuous
spectrum but in fact, line spectrum was observed.
Chemistry 9th Chapter 02 (Structure of Atoms)
Written by: M.Sabir Chhohan (m.sabir940)
AIMS School and College Lodhran
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Bohr’s Atomic Model:
Keeping in view the defects in Rutherford's Atomic Model, Neil Bohr presented
another model of atom in 1913.
Foundation: The Quantum Theory of Max Planck was used as foundation for
this model.
Basic Assumptions: According to Bohr’s model,
➢ Revolving electron in an atom does not absorb or emit energy
continuously.
➢ The energy of a revolving electron is ‘quantized’ as it revolves only in
orbits of fixed energy, called ‘energy levels’ by Model.
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model:
(1)Path of electrons (Orbit):
The hydrogen atom consists of a tiny nucleus and electrons are revolving in one
of circular orbits of radius ‘r’around the nucleus.
(2)Quantized Energy:
Each orbit has a fixed energy that is quantized.
Emission and absorption of energy:
As long as electron remains in a particular orbit, it does not emit or absorb
energy. The energy is emitted or absorbed only when an electron jumps from
one orbit to another.
Energy change:
When an electron jumps from lower orbit to higher orbit, it absorbs energy and
when electron jumps from higher orbit to lower orbit it emits energy. This
change in energy,ΔE is given by following Planck’s equation
ΔE = E2- E1 = hv
Where, h is Planck’s constant equal to 6.63 x 10-34 Js, and v is frequency of light.
Fixed angular momentum:
Electron can revolve only in orbits of a fixed angular moment mvr, given as: mvr
= nh/2π
Where ‘n’ is the quantum number or orbit number having values 1,2,3 and so
on.
Quantum:
Quantum means fixed energy. It is the smallest amount of energy that can be
emitted or absorbed as electromagnetic radiation.Quanta is plural of quantum.
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Q.Why Planck was awarded noble prize?
In 1918 Noble prize in physics was awarded to German physicist Max Planck for
his work on the quantum theory.
ISOTOPES
Definition: Isotopes are defined as the atoms of an element that have same
atomic number but different mass numbers.
Explanation:
➢ They have same electronic configuration and number of protons but they
differ in the number of neutrons.
➢ Isotopes have similar chemical properties because these depend upon
electronic configuration.
➢ They have different physical properties because these depend upon mass
numbers.
➢ Most of the elements have isotopes.
Examples:
✓ Isotopes of Hydrogen:
The naturally occurring hydrogen is combination of its three isotopes, present
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
in different abundances. The three isotopes of hydrogen are named as protium(
1
H), ( 2H or D) and tritium( 3H or T). Each one of them has 1 proton and 1 electron,
but number of neutrons are different.
o The isotopes are represented as:
✓ Isotopes of Carbon
There are two stable isotopes of carbon 12C and 13C and one radioactive isotope
14
C. The isotope 12C is present in abundance of 98.9 %, while 12C and 13C are both
present only 1.1 % in nature. All of them have the same number of protons and
electrons but differ in number of neutrons.
They are represented as follows:
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
✓ Isotopes of Chlorine
There are two isotopes of chlorine,
✓ Isotopes of Uranium
There are three isotopes of uranium i.e.
U-238 is found In nature nearly 99%.
Uses(Applications) Of Isotopes:
✓ Radiotherapy (Treatment of Cancer):
▪ For the treatment of skin cancer, isotopes like P-32 and Sr-90 are
used because they emit less penetrating beta radiations.
▪ For cancer affecting within the body, Co-60 is used because it emits
strongly penetrating gamma rays.
✓ Tracer for Diagnosis and Medicine:
The radioactive isotopes are used as tracers in medicine to diagnose the
presence of tumor in the human body.
Examples:
▪ Isotopes of Iodine-131 are used for diagnosis of goiter in thyroid gland.
▪ Technetium is used to monitor the bone growth.
✓ Archaeological and Geological Uses:
The radioactive isotopes are used to estimate the age of fossils like dead plants
a and animals and stones etc.
➢ Radioactive-isotope dating:
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
The age determination of very old objects based on the half-lives of the
radioactive isotope is called radioactive-isotope dating.
➢ Carbon Dating:
An important method of age determination of old carbon containing objects
(fossils) by measuring the Radioactivity of C-14 in them is called radio-carbon
dating or simply carbon dating.
✓ Chemical Reaction and Structure Determination:
The radioisotopes are used in a chemical reaction to follow a radioactive
element during the reaction and ultimately to determine the structure.
For example: C-14 is used to label CO2 . As CO2 is used by the plants for
photosynthesis to form glucose, its movement is detected through the various
intermediate steps up to glucose.
✓ Applications in Power Generation:
Radioactive isotopes are used to generate electricity by carrying out controlled
nuclear fission reactions in nuclear reactors.
Example:
When U-235 is bombarded with slow moving neutrons, the uranium nucleus
breaks up to produce Barium-139 and Krypton-94 and three neutrons.
A large amount of energy is released which is used to convert water into steam
in boilers. The steam then drives the turbines to generate electricity. This is the
peaceful use of atomic energy for development of a nation.
Chemistry 9th Chapter 02 (Structure of Atoms)
Written by: M.Sabir Chhohan (m.sabir940)
AIMS School and College Lodhran
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
Written by: Muhammad Sabir Chhohan
