Cambridge Lower Secondary

STAGE 7: STUDENT'S BOOK

Mark Levesley, Chris Meunier,

Fran Eardley, Gemma Young
Contents
-o w to use this book V

Chapter 1 • Living things

1.1 Characteristics of living things 3 1.5 Cells as the building blocks for life 22
1.2 Plant structures 10 1.6 Comparing plant and animal cells 24
1.3 Skeleton, joints and muscles 13 1.7 Specialised cells 28
1.4 Human organs and organ systems 18 End of chapter review 32

Chapter 2 • Microorganisms and disease

2.1 Microorganisms 37 2.4 Useful microorganisms 49
2.2 Louis Pasteur 41 End of chapter review 52
2.3 Infectious diseases 45

Chapter 3 • Habitats and the environment

3,1 Adaptations of organisms 56 3.3 Human impact on the environment 69
3.2 Food chains 66 End of chapter review 76

Chapter 4 • Variety of living things

-.1 Species 82 End of chapter review 99
-.2 Classification 87 End of stage review 103
- 3 Types of variation 94

Chapter 5 • Properties of matter and materials

5 1 The states of matter 110 5.4 Comparing metals and non-metals 121
5.2 Changing state 113 End of chapter review 125
5.3 Everyday materials and their
properties 118

Chapter 6 • The Earth

6.1 Rocks and soils 128 6.3 Structure of the Earth 140
5.2 Fossils and the fossil record 136 End of chapter review 142

Chapter 7 • Acids and alkalis

1 Acids, alkalis and the pH scale 145 End of chapter review 153
".2 Neutralisation 150 End of stage review 156

hi
 How to use this book
: cook is designed to challeng e you to go beyond th e co ntent you need to learn on your course.
- : e a go at th e questions in dark green, blue and orange to challenge yourself, and read more
169 a : : j t the scientific w o rld in th e discovering sections.
173
Chapter 1 . Topic 1 Learning outcomes •< -----------
The outcom es
To identify the seven
sho w w h a t you
Characteristics of living characteristics of living
things w ill learn
To describe how scientists
things ask and answer questions
To present data using tables,
charts and graphs
184
188
f ----------.----------- ■
Starting point 1
You should know that... You should be able to...
Plants and animals are living things Use tables, bar charts and line graphs This tab le helps
197 Living things need certain things to survive - Use information from different places rem ind you
for example, plants need water
of w h a t you
200 Living things reproduce
know , and the
203 Key terms scientific skills
Working as a scientist
th a t you have.
data: numbers and words
Scientists ask questions and think of ideas. They make You w ill build
that can be organised to
observations and do experim ents to test th eir ideas and
give information. on these as you
answer their questions.
evidence: data or ■<— study th is topic
Before doing experiments, scientists make predictions to
observations we use to
say w h at they think w ill happen. They also explain the ideas
support or oppose an idea.
they used to make th eir predictions.
life process: something
Observations and measurements are called data. Scientists
that all living things do.
use their data to show that their ideas are correct. They use
their data as evidence for their ideas. organism: living thing.
prediction: what you
W rite a list of steps a scientist takes to show that an
think will happen in an
idea is correct.
investigation.

Living things are called organism s. All organisms do certain

things, called life processes, which keep them alive. The
life processes also allow the different types of organism to
continue to exist.
To show th at something is living, w e must collect evidence
to show that it carries out all seven life processes:
• movement (moving part or all of themselves)
1.1 Ibn at Haytham (965-1039)
• reproduction (making new organisms like themselves) lived in what is now Iraq. He was
one o f the first people to use
• sensitivity (detecting changes) experiments to answer questions,
• grow th (getting bigger) like scientists do today.

Characteristics of living things

You should learn the

m eanings o f th e key
scientific term s in bold.
Try the You can find th e ir
questions to m eanings in th e m argin
check your and in th e glossary (near
understanding th e end o f th e book)

V
 1 .5

Delft is a city in the Netherlands.

In the 17th century, Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek owned a fabric
shop there. In order to check the
threads in his fabrics, he made
tiny magnifying glasses, which
were very powerful. Using one
of these, he was the first person
to see organisms that are too
small to observe with our eyes
alone. Today, we know that these 1.23 Some o f Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's original drawings
'microorganisms' are made of only made using his magnifying glasses.
one cell.

a) Why is cartilage tissue important at the ends of

some bones?
b) What is cartilage tissue made of?
c) Explain why a bone is an organ.
d) What organ system do bones belong to?

Muscles contain many muscle cells.

a) Suggest a name for the tissue that these cells
form.
b) Muscles also contain connective tissue, which is
tough and strong. What part of a muscle do you
think contains a lot of this tissue?

Suggest why scientists often think of blood as being a

liquid organ.

Key facts: C heck your sk ills progress:

✓ Cells form tissues, which form organs, I can present findings using words and
which work together in organ systems drawings.
in large organisms.

Cells as the b u ild in g blocks for life 23

Discover m ore abo u t w h e re scientific ideas

have come from and h ow th ey are used
around th e w o rld now

VI
 What part of a flowering plant is used for:
C hallenge
a) reproduction
yo urself
b) nutrition?
w ith these
Wilting is evidence that a plant is lacking something questions
(it does not have enough of something). Which
in dark
substance is a wilted plant lacking?
green,
Many plants begin as seeds. blue and
a) Which life process produces seeds? orange
b) Which life process makes seeds become plants?
c) Which life process releases energy for them to do
this?

For which life process do plants need light?

Give the name of two substances that plants

transport up their stems.
Key term
Plants on a window sill have grown towards the light
outside. conclusion: decision that
a) Apart from growth and movement, what other you reach. In science,
life process is this an example of? you use evidence from
experiments to make
b) Explain why doing this helps the plants to survive. conclusions.

Activity 1.4: Investigating plant stems

Do plants transport water up their stems even if they have no roots?
Plan an experiment to answer the question above. You could use coloured water.
A1 Make a prediction. Try ou t the
A2 Do your experiment and think about what measurements you could make.
science fo r
A3 Use your observations as evidence to answer the question. This is your conclusion.
yo urself w ith
step-by-step
Key facts: Check your skills progress: activities
✓ Plants have organs. I can draw tables.
✓ Roots hold a plant in place and absorb I can make and explain predictions to
water. answer questions, and use observations as
evidence.
✓ Stems transport substances around a
plant.
✓ Leaves make food for a plant.
✓ Flowering plants have flowers, which
contain organs used for reproduction.

12 Living things

Check yo ur m astery o f key

ideas and skills w ith this list

VII
 This section helps you check th a t you
understand th e scientific ideas and can
apply them to n ew situations

-------------------- ^End of chapter review_____________________

Quick questions
1. In your body, a system is:

a different tissues w orking together

b different organs w orking together

c different cells working together

d different organisms w orking together [1]

2. A plant contains different organs, such as:

a root hair b w ater

c palisade d stem [1]

3. The life processes are movement, reproduction, growth, sensitivity, excretion,
nutrition and:

a respiration b photosynthesis

c replication d stem [1]

4. To observe a specimen w ith a microscope, the specimen is put on a:

a swing b stage

c lens d slide [1]

5. The part of a cell that controls it is the:

a nuclear b newton

c nucleus d neutron [1]

6. One function of the skeletal system is protection.

(a) Give the name of an organ protected by the skull. [1]

(b) Give the name of an organ protected by the ribs. [1]

(c) State tw o other functions of the skeletal system. [2]

7. (a) Make a drawing of an animal cell. [1]

(b) Label the nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane. [3]

(c) W hat is the function of the cell membrane? [1]

32 Living things

VIII
 End of stage review
1. (a) (i) The table shows the parts of a cell. The functions are not in the
correct order. Copy the table and put the functions of each part in the
correct order. [1]

Part Function
cell membrane makes new substances
chloroplast controls the cell
cytoplasm makes food
nucleus controls what enters and leaves the cell

(ii) Explain how you know that this is a plant cell, [ 1]

(b) The diagram shows some muscles in the leg.

(i) Give the reason why many muscles are found in

antagonistic pairs. [1] A t th e end
y— # - z x o f th e stage,
(ii) State the letter of the muscle that contracts to
point the toes out straight. [1]
try th e end of
(c) Four different trees are planted in the same area. stage review !
Their heights are measured every year. The graph
This contains
shows this data.
questions on all
The growth of four different
trees over 10 years
th e chapters.

End of stage review 103

IX
 Glossary
Biology cell membrane: outer layer of a cell that
controls what enters and leaves the cell.
acid rain: rain that is much more acidic than
usual. cell wall: strong outer covering found in
some cells (such as plant cells).
adaptation: feature of something that
allows it to do a job (function) or allows it characteristic: feature of an organism.
to survive. chloroplast: green part of a cell that makes
amphibian: vertebrate with moist skin. It food using light.
lays jelly-coated eggs in water. circulatory system: group of organs that
animal kingdom: kingdom that contains get blood around the body.
organisms that are made of more than one climate change: changes to weather patterns.
cell and are able to move their bodies from
place to place. conclusion: decision that you reach. In
science, you use evidence from experiments
antagonistic pair: two muscles that pull a to make conclusions.
bone in opposite directions.
conifer: plant with needle-shaped leaves. It
antiseptic: substance that kills produces cones.
microorganisms but is safe for us to put on
our skins. consumer: animal that eats other living
things.
arachnid: arthropod with eight legs and a
body in two sections. continuous variation: variation that can
have any value within a range.
arthropod: invertebrate with jointed legs
and a body in sections. contract (muscle): when a muscle gets
shorter and fatter it contracts.
bacterium: type of one-celled organism
that is not a plant or animal or fungus. The cytoplasm: watery jelly where the cell
plural is 'bacteria'. makes new substances.
ball and socket joint: joint where a ball­ daily change: change in physical factors
shaped piece of bone fits into a socket during the course of a day.
made by other bones. data: numbers and words that can be
bar chart: chart that shows data using organised to give information.
columns. They are used to compare decay: when materials break into smaller
different sets of things. parts. Microorganisms often cause this.
biofuel: fuel made using plants or algae. decomposer: microorganism that causes
bird: vertebrate with feathers. It lays eggs decay.
with hard shells. deciduous: plant that loses its leaves during
bladder: organ that stores urine. a certain season of the year.
blood: liquid organ that carries substances deforestation: cutting down forests,
around the body. diagnosis: saying what disease someone has.
blood vessels: tube-shaped organs that diaphragm: organ that helps with
carry blood around the body. breathing.
bone: hard organ that supports or protects digestive system: group of organs that
the body, or allows movement. digest food and get it into the blood.
carnivore: animal that eats other animals, discontinuous variation: variation that has
cell: the smallest living part of an organism. a distinct set of options or categories.

Glossary 207

You can look up d efin itio n s fo r key

term s in th e glossary
 Biology
C hapter 1: L iv in g th in gs

i .i : C h a ra c te ris tic s o f liv in g th in g s 3

1.2: P la n t stru c tu re s 10
1.3: S k e le to n , jo in ts a n d m u s c le s 13
1.4: H u m an o rg a n s a n d o rg a n s y s te m s 18
1.5: C e lls as th e b u ild in g b lo c k s for life 22
1.6: C o m p a rin g p la n t an d a n im a l c e lls 24
1.7: S p e c ia lis e d ce lls 28
End o f c h a p te r re v ie w 32

C hapter 2: M ic r o o r g a n is m s and disease

2.1: M ic ro o rg a n ism s 37
2.2: L o u is P a steu r 4i
2.3: In fe ctio u s d is e a s e s 45
2.4: U se fu l m ic ro o r g a n is m s 49
End o f c h a p te r re v ie w 52

C h a p te r 3 : H a b ita ts and the e n v ir o n m e n t

3.1: A d a p ta tio n s o f o rg a n is m s 56

3.2: Food c h a in s 66
3.3: H u m an im p a c t o n th e e n v iro n m e n t 69
End o f c h a p te r re v ie w 76

C hapter 4: V ariety o f liv in g th ings

4 .1: S p e c ie s 82
4.2: C la ssific a tio n 87
4.3: T yp es o f v a ria tio n 94
End o f c h a p te r re v ie w 99
End o f s ta g e re v ie w 103

1
 What’s it all about?
A ‘rover’ took this photo o f Mars as part o f
its w ork to study rocks. Scientists are using
evidence from the rocks to w ork out if there
w ere ever livin g things on Mars. In this
chapter, you w ill learn h ow to use evidence
to sh ow that som ething is alive. You w ill also
look at h ow livin g things are m ade o f tiny
units, called cells.

You w ill learn about:

• How living things carry out certain processes so
th a t th ey can survive
• The structure and fu n ction o f cells
• How cells w o rk to g e th e r in tissues and in organs
You w ill build yo ur skills in:
• O bserving, m easuring and describing living things
• Recording and presenting m easurem ents in tables,
charts and graphs
• Using evidence to support scientific ideas
• Com bining evidence from d iffe re n t sources

Living things
 Chapter 1 . Topic 1 Learning outcomes
• To identify the seven
Characteristics of living characteristics of living
things
• To describe how scientists
things ask and answer questions
• To present data using tables,
charts and graphs

r ---------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Plants and anim als are living things Use tables, bar charts and line graphs
Living thing s need certain things to survive - Use inform ation from d ifferen t places
fo r exam ple, plants need w a te r
Living things reproduce _______________y

Key terms
Working as a scientist
data: numbers and words
Scientists ask questions and think of ideas. They make
that can be organised to
observations and do experiments to test their ideas and
give information.
answer their questions.
evidence: data or
Before doing experiments, scientists make predictions to
observations we use to
say what they think will happen. They also explain the ideas
support or oppose an idea.
they used to make their predictions.
life process: something
Observations and measurements are called data. Scientists
that all living things do.
use their data to show that their ideas are correct. They use
their data as evidence for their ideas. organism: living thing.
prediction: what you
Write a list of steps a scientist takes to show that an
think will happen in an
idea is correct.
investigation.

Organisms

Living things are called organisms. All organisms do certain

things, called life processes, which keep them alive. The
life processes also allow the different types of organism to
continue to exist.
To show that something is living, we must collect evidence
to show that it carries out all seven life processes:
• movement (moving part or all of themselves)
1.1 Ibn aI Haytham (965-1039)
• reproduction (making new organisms like themselves) lived in what is now Iraq. He was
one o f the first people to use
• sensitivity (detecting changes) experiments to answer questions,
• growth (getting bigger) like scientists do today.

Characteristics of living things 3

 • respiration (providing energy)
• excretion (getting rid of wastes)
• nutrition (getting food).
To remember the life processes, make up a sentence using
the first letter of each one. Or create a word or phrase using
those letters. An example is: MRS GREN.

How many life processes are there?

Which life processes can you see in figure 1.2?

Explain your choices.

Movement
1.2 Barbary macaques live in North
All organisms can move. Plants only move parts of Africa.
themselves. Animals often move their whole bodies from
place to place to find food and shelter, and to escape
danger.

Why is movement essential for Barbary macaques?

Reproduction

Organisms reproduce to make new organisms like

themselves. The new organisms are their offspring.
Scientists often count the numbers of organisms and their
offspring in an area, especially for rare organisms. They
show their data in tables and bar charts. Key terms

Area in Kazakhstan Number of saiga bar chart: a chart

antelope in 2015 that shows data using
columns. They are used
Ural 51 700 to compare different sets
Ustyurt 1 270 of things.
Betpak-Dala 242 500 offspring: new organism
made when parents
Table 1.1 The numbers o f rare saiga antelope in different parts o f
reproduce.
Kazakhstan in 2015.
reproduce: when
organisms have young (or
offspring).

4 Living things
A bar chart makes the differences between values more
obvious.

Numbers of saiga antelope in Give the bar

different parts of Kazakhstan in 2016 chart a title.
80 000 ->
What you
measure or
o
count goes on 2 60 GOO­
the vertical
'S 50 000-
axis. Bars are drawn:
E
c 40 000- • with a ruler
(D
Choose a o 30000- • from the
scale so that horizontal
the bars fit as | 20000-
axis up to the
much of the z 10000- correct level
graph paper • with equal
as possible. Ural Ustyurt Betpak-Dala widths
Number the
Part of Kazakhstan
scale and
remember that
the intervals What you choose to change Leave gaps between
must be equal. goes on the horizontal axis. the bars to make the
Here we are changing the area chart easier to read.
where we look for saiga.

1.3 Bar chart to show the numbers o f saiga antelope in 2016.

Present the data for saiga for 2015 in a bar chart.

Look at the bar chart in figure 1.3. How many saiga

are there in the Ural region?

a) What has happened to the numbers of saiga in the

Ural region between 2015 and 2016?
b) Which life process has allowed this to happen?

a) Saiga in one area got a disease. In which area did

this happen? State the evidence you have used to
work out your answer.
b) What may happen to the saiga in this area if there
is not enough reproduction?

Sensitivity

Organisms sense things so they can react to changes in their Key term
surroundings. This is known as sensitivity. For example,
many animals find food using their sense of smell and detect sensitivity: how an
danger using their ears. Having good senses allows an organism detects
organism to survive. changes in things inside
and around it.
Humans have many senses, including taste, touch, hearing,
smell, sight and balance.

Characteristics of living things 5

 What parts of our bodies do we use to sense:
a) the flavour of some ice cream
b) someone shouting in the distance
c) the feel of a piece of fabric?

Saiga are food for wolves. Explain how saiga use

senses to survive. 1.4 Venus flytraps have special
leaves that spring shut and trap
insects.
Look at figure 1.4. What does a venus flytrap sense?

Key term
Growth
line graph: graph that
All organisms get bigger as they get older. Bigger organisms shows data points plotted
are stronger and so more likely to survive. on a grid. Line graphs are
often used to show how
Some organisms stop growing but others continue to grow one thing changes with
their whole lives. We show how something changes with time. Time is put on the
time using a line graph. horizontal axis.

© Look at the graph in figure 1.5. How tall was Mark

when he was 12 years old?

O A lion cub is born with a mass of 0.6 kg. After 1

month it is 4.2 kg. After 2 months it is 9.0 kg and
after 3 months it is 14.2 kg.
a) Draw a table to show how the mass of the lion
cub changes.
b) Plot a line graph to show the growth of the lion cub.

6 Living things
© State one difference between growth and reproduction.

© How would you present the following data? Choose

from bar chart or line graph and explain your choices.
a) The masses of different breeds of dog when they
are born.
b) The change in saiga antelope numbers in one
place over many years.
Key terms
Respiration
limewater: clear and
rood contains a store of energy. This energy is released colourless liquid that
->om the food by a chemical process called respiration. All turns milky when carbon
organisms respire to release the energy they need. dioxide is added.

Respiration in animals and plants usually needs oxygen, and respiration: chemical
oroduces waste carbon dioxide gas. You can detect carbon process that happens in
o'oxide using limewater. If carbon dioxide is mixed with all parts of an organism
mewater, the clear and colourless liquid turns milky (or cloudy). to release energy.

1.6 If carbon dioxide is bubbled through limewater, the liquid turns milky.

Respiration is not the same as breathing. When you breathe

you move muscles to make your lungs bigger and smaller.
Respiration is a chemical process that happens in every part
of your body.

Activity 1.1: Investigating excretion of carbon dioxide

Do humans excrete carbon dioxide when they breathe out?
Plan an experiment to answer the question above.
A1 Make a prediction and explain your decision.
A2 Do your experiment and use your observations as evidence to answer the question.

Characteristics of living things 7

 Excretion
Key terms
Organisms make waste substances, which can be poisonous
and damage the organism. So, organisms excrete (get rid of) excrete: getting rid of
their wastes. Many animals excrete wastes in liquid urine. wastes made inside an
organism.
O a) What life process produces carbon dioxide in
humans? urine: liquid containing
many wastes made inside
b) How do we excrete carbon dioxide? animals.

Uses of urine
The excreted substances in urine are surprisingly useful. In the past, French armies
collected urine from their soldiers to make gunpowder. Urine was used in ancient Egypt
to help add colour to fabrics. Today, a team of Korean scientists are trying to use urine to
make fuel cells, which will produce clean and cheap electricity.

Activity 1.2: Investigating living things on Mars

Many scientists have wondered whether there is life on Mars. Some think that Mars is
home to tiny organisms that excrete methane gas. These microorganisms are too small
to see, so the idea is being tested by spacecraft looking at the gases on Mars. There is
methane on Mars and the spacecraft are doing experiments to find out if this is (or was)
gas being produced by living things, or if rocks are releasing it. One of the spacecraft
involved is an Indian spacecraft called Mangalyaan.
A1 State the following:
a) the question that scientists have asked
b) the idea that some scientists have
c) what is being used to collect data.

Nutrition Key terms

Organisms need certain substances to survive. We say that nutrient: a substance

they need nutrition. that an organism needs
Animals and humans get nutrition from their food. Plants to stay healthy and
make their own food (using energy from the Sun) but they also survive.
need small amounts of substances from the soil. Venus flytraps nutrition: getting
live in areas where there are not enough of these nutrients in substances needed for
the soil, and so they get these substances from insects. survival.

8 Living things
' .7 Different organisms get their nutrition in different ways.

o How is the way that cows get their nutrition different

from the way that tigers get theirs?

0 Some driverless cars use petrol as a fuel. They avoid

obstacles and so can carry people safely.
a) In what ways are these cars like organisms?
b) Why are they not living?

Do young plants grow towards light?

Plan an experiment to answer the question above. You could plant some seeds and use
card to allow light to get to the seeds from only one direction.
A1 Make a prediction. Explain your prediction using ideas about life processes.
A2 Do your experiment and use your observations as evidence to answer the question.

Check your skills progress:

✓ All organisms carry out seven life I can draw tables, bar charts and line
processes so that they can survive. graphs, and know when to use them.
✓ The life processes are: movement, I can make and explain predictions
reproduction, sensitivity, growth, to answer questions, and use data
respiration, excretion, nutrition. as evidence.
✓ Scientists collect data to use as
evidence for their ideas and to answer
their questions.

Characteristics of living things

 Chapter 1 . Topic 2 Learning outcomes
• To identify the main organs
Plant structures of a flowering plant
• To describe the functions of
the main plant organs

r ---------------------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Plants are living organism s and so carry out Present data using tables
seven life processes J

Types of plants
Key terms
There are many different types of plants. Some have flowers
to reproduce and make seeds, and these are flowering flower: contains organs
plants. Plants that are not flowering plants use other used in reproduction
ways of reproducing. For example, pine trees use cones to (to make seeds).
produce their seeds. flowering plant: type
of plant that produces
Why is a pine tree not a flowering plant? flowers.

Give the name of a flowering plant.

Uses of plants

Plants are very important in our lives. We use them for foods
and flavourings, and to make fabrics, drinks, perfumes, dyes
and building materials.
Some plant roots are used for food. Cassava roots and
carrots are examples. 1.8 Cassava being harvested in
Vietnam.
Thick tree stems (trunks) are used for building materials and
to make paper. In Pakistan, chir pine trees are planted for
this purpose. Key terms
Some plant leaves are used for dyes. For example, indigo is
a blue substance made using the leaves of indigo plants. It is leaf: plant organ that
traditionally used to dye denim. makes food for a plant.
Some plant flowers are used for perfumes. For example, rose root: plant organ that absorbs
oil is extracted from the petals of rose flowers. water from the ground, and
holds the plant in place.
stem: plant organ that carries
substances around a plant.

1.9 Henna dye is extracted from

the leaves o f henna plants.

10 Living things
 .2

O Draw a table to show ten plants that you use. For

each plant say which part of the plant you use and
what you use it for. Make sure your table has clear
headings, like this:

Part of plant What I use

that I use that part for

N ew uses for plant waste

\o t all the parts of a plant are useful and this
ideates waste. Scientists try to invent ways
c f making useful things from these waste
materials. For example, farmers traditionally
zurn banana plant stems or leave them to
rot, but some people now make fabrics from
them.

1.10 Banana fabrics used for dresses in Sri Lanka.

Plant organs Key terms

- parts of a plant need water and plants wilt (droop) if function: another word
:ney do not have enough. Plants use roots to absorb (take) for 'job'.
. ater from the ground. Roots are an example of an organ - organ: part of an
5 part of an organism with an important job (function). organism that has an
“ ne drawing shows the main organs in flowering plants and important job (function).
..hat they do.
wilt: when a plant
leaf - an organ that uses droops because it does
light to help make food not have enough water.
for the plant

stem - an organ that

carries substances around
the plant, helps to support
the plant and hold its
leaves in place

root - an organ that

absorbs water from the
soil, and holds the plant
in place
1.11 The functions o f the main organs in a flowering plant.

A pine tree is not a flowering plant. Draw a table to

show the main organs in a pine tree and their functions.
--
Plant structures 11
 What part of a flowering plant is used for:
a) reproduction
b) nutrition?

Wilting is evidence that a plant is lacking something

(it does not have enough of something). Which
substance is a wilted plant lacking?

Many plants begin as seeds.

a) Which life process produces seeds?
b) Which life process makes seeds become plants?
c) Which life process releases energy for them to do
this?

For which life process do plants need light?

Give the name of two substances that plants

transport up their stems.
Key term
Plants on a window sill have grown towards the light
outside. conclusion: decision that
a) Apart from growth and movement, what other you reach. In science,
life process is this an example of? you use evidence from
experiments to make
b) Explain why doing this helps the plants to survive. conclusions.

Activity 1.4: Investigating plant stems

Do plants transport water up their stems even if they have no roots?
Plan an experiment to answer the question above. You could use coloured water.
A1 Make a prediction.
A2 Do your experiment and think about what measurements you could make.
A3 Use your observations as evidence to answer the question. This is your conclusion.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Plants have organs. I can draw tables.
✓ Roots hold a plant in place and absorb I can make and explain predictions to
water. answer questions, and use observations as
evidence.
✓ Stems transport substances around a
plant.
✓ Leaves make food for a plant.
✓ Flowering plants have flowers, which
contain organs used for reproduction.

12 Living things
Chapter 1 . Topic 3 Learning outcomes
• To identify some of the
Skeleton, joints and main bones and joints in the
human body
• To describe how the skeleton
muscles is moved using muscles
• To explain why the muscles in
joints are often found in pairs

r Starting point
•'ou should know that... You should be able to...
- ants and anim als are living organism s and so Describe how scientists collect evidence to answ er
:a rry out seven life processes th e ir questions
5 ants and anim als have organs ........... ..... ..... J

_ <e plants, the bodies of animals and humans have

Key terms
nportant parts. Examples include bones and muscles, which
are organs that help us to move.
bone: hard organ that
supports or protects
Which life process do bones and muscles help us
the body, or allows
with?
movement.
joint: place in your
The skeletal system skeleton where bones
meet.
.Ve are each born with 270 bones but adults only have 206
muscle: organ that
□ones! This is because as we grow our bones grow too, and
changes shape. Some
some of them join with others.
muscles move bones.
Which life process causes the number of bones in a organ system: group of
human to decrease? organs working together.
skeletal system: all the
An organ system is a group of organs that work together. bones in your body.
Your bones work together and form your skeletal system or
skeleton. This has three main functions: skeleton: another term
for your skeletal system.
• support - to hold parts of your body in certain positions
• protection - to stop parts of your body being damaged
• movement - to let you move (using joints).

Skeleton, joints and muscles 13

 The drawing below shows some parts of the human skeletal
system and their jobs.

Bones in the skull protect the

brain.
Key terms

The neck contains bones called rib: bone that helps to

vertebrae, which support your protect your heart and
head.
lungs.
Ribs are bones that protect the skull: a collection of
heart and lungs. bones that protect your
brain.
Vertebrae in your back support
your upper body. vertebrae: the bones in
your back. The singular is
The hip joint is formed between
the hip bone and the thigh bone vertebra.

The joints
The thigh bone helps to support between the
you when you stand and walk. bones in most
of the skull are
The knee joint contains three fixed.
bones: the thigh bone, the shin
bone and the knee cap.

shin bone

ankle joint 1.13 There are fixed joints in

the skull.

1.12 The human skeletal system.

a) What are the three main jobs of the skeletal

system?
b) For each job, give the name of a bone that helps
with this job.

Give the names of the bones that form the knee joint.

Joints

Bones meet at places called joints. The joints between many

bones in the skull are fixed and cannot move.

1.14 Doctors use X-rays to study

the bones inside our bodies.

14 Living things
 .3
Other joints allow movement. An example is the hip joint,
-ere, the top of the thigh bone forms a ball that fits into
Key term s
a socket in the hip bone. This type of joint is called a ball
and socket joint. It allows movement in many different ball and socket joint:
Erections. joint where a ball-shaped
piece of bone fits into
A a) Look at fiqure 1.14. What are the bones labelled
a socket made by other
X and Y?
bones.
b) What type of joint is this?
hinge joint: joint where
two bones form a hinge.
'h e elbow is a hinge joint (shown in figure 1.15). Hinge
oints allow movement in two directions.
biceps (muscle)
Your knee allows movement in two directions. What upper
type of joint is it? arm bone

triceps
What type of joint is your shoulder? Give a reason for (muscle)
your answer.
ligament

lower
Muscles and joints arm bones
tendon
Ligaments are cords that hold the bones in a joint in
position. Tendons attach the muscles to the bones.
Muscles move the bones. A muscle pulls on a bone when
it contracts (get shorter and fatter). When a muscle is not
contracted we say it is relaxed.
Muscles only pull and cannot push. So bones are often 1.15 The bones and two o f the
moved by antagonistic pairs of muscles. One muscle in a muscles in the arm.
pair pulls a bone in one direction. The other muscle pulls the
bone in the opposite direction. Key term s

Look at the drawings of bones and muscles in the antagonistic pair: two
arm in figure 1.15. muscles that pull a bone
a) Describe the change in shape when a muscle in opposite directions.
contracts. contract (muscle): when
b) Which muscle contracts to raise the lower arm? a muscle gets shorter and
fatter it contracts.
c) Describe what happens to both muscles when the
arm is lowered. ligament: cord that
attaches bones together.
d) Explain why there is a pair of muscles to move the
lower arm up and down. relax (muscle): when a
muscle stops contracting
it relaxes.
tendon: cord that
attaches muscles to
bones.

Skeleton, joints and muscles 15

 Activity 1.5: Investigating arm muscles
Which arm muscles contract when you pull up or push down on a table edge?
Find a table (or a ledge) that will not move if you push down or pull up on it.
A1 Read the instructions below and make predictions. Then do the activity.
A Turn the palm of your right hand to face upwards.
B Keep your hand flat, and put just your fingers under the edge of the table.
C Use your left hand to grip the front of your right arm, at the top.
D Pull your right-hand fingers upwards, as if lifting the table. Record what you feel.
E Now, grip the back of your right arm, at the top.
F Pull your right-hand fingers upwards again.
G Put your right-hand fingers on top of the table (palm facing up).
H Repeat steps C-F above but this time push your fingers downwards.

1.16

A2 Record your observations.

A3 Were your predictions correct?
A4 Explain your observations using scientific knowledge.

W alking robots
Scientists around the world are building
machines that walk like humans. The
scientists carefully study how the muscles
and bones in human bodies work together.
They work out the forces needed by different
muscles to pull bones in different directions,
and use this information to design ways of
getting the robots to stand up and walk.

1.17 This machine, designed in South Korea, could be used by scientists to explore volcanoes and other places
where it is usually too dangerous for people to go.

16 Living things
 .3
Injuries

njuries may be painful and stop people moving easily.

Common injuries include:
• fractures (broken bones)
• dislocations (when a bone comes out of place in a joint)
• pulled muscles (when a muscle or a tendon has been
stretched too much)
• sprains (when a ligament has been stretched too much).

Use the evidence in the X-ray photo to:

a) identify which part of the skeletal system has been
injured
b) state the kind of injury it is.

Give one similarity and one difference between a

sprain and a pulled muscle.

0 Do you think there are more antagonistic pairs of

muscles in a ball and socket joint or in a hinge joint?
Explain your answer.

0 Sometimes the top of the thigh bone becomes worn

1.18 Injuries to the skeletal
and needs replacing. Explain two properties needed
by a material used for a replacement. system may stop it working
properly.

Activity 1.6: Investigating bones and joints

How do scientists investigate the bones and joints inside a living person?
X-rays are one way of seeing into a human. Find out about another method that doctors
use to investigate bones, muscles and joints. Write one short paragraph to describe:
• what problems the method helps to find
• what happens to the person
• very briefly how the method works.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ The skeletal system protects and I can make and explain predictions to
supports parts of the body, and allows answer questions, and use observations as
the body to move. evidence.
✓ Muscles can only pull (when they
contract), and so a bone in a joint
needs antagonistic muscles to move it.

17
 Chapter 1 . Topic 4 L^arn ~.g outcomes
• To dentify a range of human
Human organs and organs
• To describe the functions of
the main human organs
organ systems • To describe how organs work
together in different organ
systems

r Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
A nim als contain organs, such as bones and Describe h ow scientists collect evidence to answ er
muscles th e ir questions
Organs help organism s carry out th e seven life Present data using tables
processes

Your body contains many muscles and bones but there are
other organs that you only have one or two of. For example,
you have two lungs, one heart and one brain. Figure 1.19 shows
some other main organs in your body, and their functions.

skin - protects you

and helps you blood vessels - tubes that
sense things carry blood

heart - pumps blood

lung - your two through blood vessels
lungs get oxygen
into your blood and
remove carbon
dioxide
diaphragm - muscular
organ that helps you
breathe

liver - makes and

destroys substances stomach - helps you digest
food

small intestine -
digests food kidney - your two kidneys
and absorbs it clean your blood and
into the blood produce urine

bladder - large intestine - removes

stores urine water from undigested
food
1.19 Some important human organs.

State the names of the two organs that allow you to

move.

18 Living things
) Give an example of an organ that people normally
have two of.
Key terms

bladder: organ that

stores urine.
I Which life process do the following organs help with?
blood: liquid organ that
a) lungs b) kidneys
carries substances around
c) small intestine d) skin the body.

Which human organ(s): blood vessels: tube­

shaped organs that carry
a) makes and destroys substances blood around the body.
b) transports blood all around the body? diaphragm: organ that
helps with breathing.
Organ transplants heart: organ that pumps
blood through blood
The earliest organ transplants were 'skin grafts', which vessels.
were carried out 3000 years ago in a region that is now
ndia. In a skin graft, a doctor takes a layer of skin from kidneys: organs that
one part of a person's body and puts it on a damaged area remove wastes from the
of skin on the same person. Doctors around the world do blood to produce urine.
Hundreds of thousands of skin grafts every year, often to large intestine: organ
treat people with burns. that absorbs water from
t is much more difficult to transplant organs between undigested food.
different people. The first successful organ transplant from
liver: organ that makes
one person to another was a kidney transplant operation
and destroys substances.
n the USA in 1954.
Our bodies attack and destroy organs that do not belong lungs: organs that get
to us. Scientists around the world continue to develop oxygen into the blood
ways to stop this happening, and so allow more organ and remove carbon
transplants. Thanks to this research doctors now transplant dioxide.
many different organs, including hearts, lungs, livers and skin: organ that protects
even whole faces. the body and helps it
sense things.
small intestine: organ
that digests food and
absorbs it into the blood.
stomach: organ that
helps to digest food.

1.20 A French woman called Isabelle Dinoire was the first person to
receive a face transplant, in 2005, after an attack by a dog.

Discover when doctors first successfully transplanted

these organs between people: liver, heart, both lungs.
Present your work as a table, showing the organ, the
year of the first successful transplant and the country.

Human organs and organ systems 19

 Which part of your skin is most sensitive?
A1 Predict which part of your skin is most sensitive to touch. Choose from:
• tip of middle finger
• back of middle finger
• back of hand
• palm.
A Bend a piece of wire into a U-shape, with the ends 5 mm apart.
B Work with a partner. One of you shuts your eyes (or puts on a blindfold). The other
person then gently presses the ends of the wire onto the skin in the different
places in the list above. Each time you press the wire, the person with their eyes
shut says whether they feel one point or two points.
C Repeat step B with a 1 mm gap between the ends of the wire.
A2 Record your observations in a table.
A3 Was your prediction correct?
A4 Explain how your results tell you which part of the skin on your hand is most
sensitive. This is your conclusion.

Organs in your body work together in organ systems. You have already met the skeletal
system. Here are some organ systems:
• circulatory system - gets blood to all parts your body
• nervous system - controls your body
• respiratory system - gets oxygen into your blood and removes carbon dioxide
• digestive system - digests your food and absorbs it into v
your blood.
spinal cord brain nerves windpipe 9ullet circulatory system:
group of organs that get
blood around the body.
digestive system: group
of organs that digest food
and get it into the blood.
nervous system: group
of organs that control the
body.
respiratory system:
group of organs that get
oxygen into the blood
and remove carbon
circulatory system nervous system respiratory system digestive system
dioxide. Also called the
breathing system.
1.21 Some human organ systems.

20 Living things
 Draw a table to show five different organ systems in
the body, their functions and the organs that they
contain.

Another human organ system is the excretory system.

a) What is the function of this system?
b) Give the names of two organs in this system.

Check your skills progress:

✓ Main organs in the body include I can make and explain predictions to
the skin, lungs, blood vessels, heart, answer questions, and use observations as
diaphragm, liver, stomach, small evidence.
intestine, large intestine, kidneys,
I can present data as tables.
bladder.
✓ Many organs work together in organ
systems, such as the circulatory system,
the nervous system, the respiratory
(breathing) system and the digestive
system.

Human organs and organ systems 21

 Chapter 1 . Topic 5 Learning outcomes
• To describe how organs are
Cells as the building made up of tissues
• To describe how tissues are
made up of cells
blocks for life • To describe organisms in
terms of cells, tissues, organs
and organ systems

Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
A nim als contain m any d iffe re n t organs, w hich M ake and record observations
w o rk to g e th e r in organ systems ___________j.

Figure 1.22 shows a thigh bone. Not all its parts cartilage tissue (this slippery tissue
look the same. These different areas are its helps bones to slide against each
other at joints)
tissues. All organs are made of different tissues.
spongy bone tissue
Tissues are made of smaller parts called cells. Cells
are the smallest living parts of organisms, and all bone marrow tissue
the cells in a tissue are the same.
In a large organism, such as a plant or an animal: hard outer bone tissue

• a group of cells of the same type forms a tissue

• a group of tissues working together forms an
organ
• a group of organs working together forms an
organ system.
1.22 A human thigh bone.

Key terms
Activity 1.8: Investigating chicken w ings
cell: the smallest living
Can you identify some different tissues and organs in a
part of an organism.
chicken wing?
Have a look at a chicken wing before it is cooked. Try to tissue: group of cells of
find the following parts: the same type.
• two different organs
• tendons
• cartilage (it is a different colour to the rest of the bone).
A1 Write a short report to describe what you have found
and include a drawing. Do not use more than 200
words.

22 Living things
Discovering microorganisms
Delft is a city in the Netherlands.
In the 17th century, Antonie van /
Leeuwenhoek owned a fabric
shop there. In order to check the
threads in his fabrics, he made
tiny magnifying glasses, which
were very powerful. Using one
of these, he was the first person
to see organisms that are too
small to observe with our eyes
alone. Today, we know that these 1.23 Some o f Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's original drawings
'microorganisms' are made of only made using his magnifying glasses.
one cell.

a) Why is cartilage tissue important at the ends of

some bones?
b) What is cartilage tissue made of?
c) Explain why a bone is an organ.
d) What organ system do bones belong to?

Muscles contain many muscle cells.

a) Suggest a name for the tissue that these cells
form.
b) Muscles also contain connective tissue, which is
tough and strong. What part of a muscle do you
think contains a lot of this tissue?

^9 Suggest why scientists often think of blood as being a

liquid organ.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Cells form tissues, which form organs, I can present findings using words and
which work together in organ systems drawings.
in large organisms.

Cells as the building blocks for life 23

 Chapter 1 . Topic 6 Learning outcomes
• To identify the main parts of
Comparing plant and cells
• To compare and contrast
animal and plant cells
animal cells • To describe how to use a
microscope correctly

Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
A nim als contain m any d iffe re n t organs Plan to use a m agnifying glass to m agnify things
Organs are m ade of d iffe re n t tissues
A tissue is made of one type of cell ________ J

Key terms
In order to see cells we need to make them appear larger.
We magnify them using microscopes. magnify: to make
something appear bigger.
Using microscopes, we know that cells have three main
parts: microscope: piece of
equipment that magnifies
• nucleus - controls what the cell does very small things.
• cell membrane - controls what enters and leaves the nucleus: control centre
cell of a cell.
• cytoplasm - a watery jelly, where the cell makes new
substances.
cell membrane

Which part of a cell controls the whole cell? cytoplasm

How many times bigger does a cell appear if it is nucleus

magnified 400 times?

Figure 1.24 shows an animal cell. Plant cells usually have a more
boxy shape than animal cells, and contain three other parts:
1.24 An animal cell, magnified
• chloroplasts - make food for the plant
about 500 times. This means that
• cell wall - strong outer covering that helps to support it has been drawn 500 times larger
and protect the cell than real life.

• vacuole - storage space, which also helps the cell to keep

its shape by pushing the cytoplasm against the cell wall.

Draw a table to show the names of six common cell

parts and whether they are usually found in animal
cells, plant cells or both.

Explain why plant cells are often green but animal

cells are not.
1.25/4 plant cell, magnified about
800 times.

24 Living things
 Activity 1.9: Investigating cells 1
Key terms
How can you make a model of a plant or animal cell?
cell membrane: outer
Design a model of a plant or animal cell. You could also try
layer of a cell that
to make your model.
controls what enters and
• Think about what you could use for each part. Maybe leaves the cell.
you could use a plastic bag for a cell membrane and a
stone for a nucleus. cell wall: strong outer
covering found in some
A1 Describe one way in which your model is good at cells (such as plant cells).
helping you to understand cells.
chloroplast: green part
A2 Describe one way in which your model is not so good
of a cell that makes food
at showing what a cell is like.
using light.
cytoplasm: watery jelly
Microscopes where the cell makes new
substances.
Robert Hooke used a microscope to discover cells in 1665.
model: simple way of
He was studying bark from cork oak trees. People grow showing or explaining
these trees in Morocco and other Mediterranean countries a complicated object or
to make corks. When magnified, he saw that the bark was
idea.
made of tiny 'boxes'. They reminded him of the rooms in a
monastery or prison, and so he called them 'cells'. slide: small sheet of glass
on which you place a thin
- gure 1.26 shows a modern microscope. The thing you want specimen.
to magnify is the specimen. You place the specimen on the
stage, usually held in place on a small sheet of glass called a specimen: the thing
slide. Light shines up from a light source or mirror, through you examine using a
toe specimen and into an objective lens. You look through microscope.
another lens - the eyepiece lens. The microscope needs light stage: flat surface on a
to work, and so we call it a light microscope. light microscope where
you put a slide.
a) What is a lens above the stage called?
vacuole: storage space
b) How many of this type of lens are in the
inside some cells (such as
microscope in figure 1.26?
plant cells).
Explain why the stage has a hole in it, just above the
light source.

Inventing the modern microscope

Symbols called hieroglyphs give us evidence that the
Ancient Egyptians used glass lenses to magnify things 7000
. ears ago. A thousand years ago, the Arabic scientist Ibn
al-Haytham (see Topic 1.1) wrote a series of important
books about lenses and his ideas about how they worked.
n the 1590s, two Dutch spectacle makers (Zacharias and 1.26 The parts o f a light
Hans Jansen) worked out that you could get a greater microscope.
magnification by using two lenses together in a tube. They
had invented the modern microscope.

Comparing plant and animal cells 25

 Using a microscope Key term s
The steps below describe how to use a light microscope. eyepiece lens: the lens
A Turn the objective lenses to put the smallest one of a light microscope that
over the hole in the stage. This lens gives the lowest you look through.
magnification. focusing wheel: wheel
B Turn the focusing wheel to make the distance between on a microscope that you
the stage and the objective lens as small as possible. turn to make an image
clear.
C Adjust the light source so that light shines through the
hole in the stage. Do not point the mirror at the Sun. magnification: the
This could damage your eyes permanently. amount to which
something is magnified.
D Put the slide into the clips on the stage.
objective lens: the lens
E Look through the eyepiece lens. in a light microscope
F Turn the focusing wheel until the image is in focus that is closest to the
(clear and sharp). specimen. Most light
microscopes have several
G Move a larger objective lens over the specimen. Very objective lenses, with
slowly turn the focusing wheel until the image is in different magnifications.
focus. If you turn the focusing wheel too much you
could break the slide and damage the objective lens.

What do cells look like under a microscope?

Figures 1.27 and 1.28 show cells viewed under a
microscope.
A1 Make drawings of one cell from each image.
A2 Label your drawings to show the parts.
A3 Explain whether each cell in your drawings shows an
animal or a plant cell. This is your conclusion.
A4 You may get a chance to look at slides. For each slide,
find out where the cells are from and predict what
they will look like. Use the microscope to make a
labelled drawing of each type of cell that you see.
State if your predictions were correct.

26 Living things
 .6

1.27 Cells seen under a microscope. The cells have been stained 1.28 More cells seen under a
.with a purple dye to make different parts show up better. microscope.

You need to find out if a specimen of tissue is from a

plant or an animal.
a) What piece of equipment will you use?
b) How will you decide where the cells are from?

O Draw a table to show the different parts of a

microscope and what they do.

0 Explain why a specimen needs to be thin.

A heart muscle cell has a long, cylinder shape. It is

o
0.1 mm long and 0.02 mm wide. How long and how
wide would the cell appear if magnified 500 times?

Check your skills progress:

✓ Animal cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm I know when to use a light microscope
and a cell membrane.
I can stay safe when using a light
✓ Plant cells also have a vacuole and a microscope.
cell wall, and often have chloroplasts.
I can use a light microscope without
✓ A light microscope is used to examine damaging it.
slides containing specimens.

Comparing plant and animal cells 27

 Chapter 1 . Topic 7 Learning outcomes
• To identify some specialised
Specialised cells cells
• To explain how some cells
are adapted to certain
functions

r---------------------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
An anim al cell has a cell m em brane, a nucleus Describe how to use a microscope
and cytoplasm
A plant cell has th e same parts as an anim al cell Present data using tables
but also has a cell w all and a vacuole and often
contains chloroplasts ->

Plant cells in root tissues do not contain chloroplasts. That Key terms
is because chloroplasts need light and there is no light
underground. adaptation: feature of
Leaves contain a layer of palisade cells. These cells have something that allows it
many chloroplasts that use light to make food. A cell with to do a job (function) or
a certain feature to do a certain job is 'adapted for its allows it to survive.
function'. The cell has an adaptation. palisade cell: cell
found in plant leaves,
O Explain why cells from an onion do not contain
chloroplasts.
which contains many
chloroplasts.
i
o a) What is the function of palisade cells?
b) What adaptation do palisade cells have for this
root hair cell: plant
cell found in roots that
is adapted for taking in
function? water quickly.
surface area: the area
On the outside of many roots, is a layer of root hair tissue. It
of a surface, measured
is made of root hair cells, which have bits sticking out them
in squared units such as
that look a bit like hairs. A 'root hair' gives a cell a lot of
square centimetres (cm2)
surface area, which helps it absorb water quickly.

large vacuole

cytoplasm
does not
contain
chloroplasts

root hair
1.29 Root hair tissue.

28 Living things
 Identify two ways that a root hair cell is different
from a leaf cell.

Explain how a root hair cell is adapted to its function.

Activity 1.11: Investigating root hair cells

How can you use a sponge to model how a root hair cell works?
You will need a cuboid-shaped sponge, a ruler, a watch or clock with a second hand, a
cup or beaker, and a flat dish or tray of water.
A To work out the area of a rectangle you multiply its width by its length. Your sponge
has six surfaces - each is a rectangle. For each surface, measure its length and its
width in centimetres. Then calculate its surface area in square centimetres (cm2) and
write it down.
B Put a layer of water in your tray or dish and mark the top of the water level.
C Place one side of your sponge in the water and time 5 seconds.
D Pick up the sponge and squeeze all of its water into the cup.
E Mark the water level in the cup.
F Add more water to your tray or dish to the same level it was in step B.
G Repeat steps C-F to compare the volume of water soaked up by each surface of the
sponge.
A1 Show your results in a table.
A2 Which surface soaked up the greatest volume of water in 5 seconds?
A3 Write out the order in which the surfaces soaked up the water. Start with the surface
that soaked up the least.
A4 Write a conclusion for your experiment by completing this sentence:
The greater th e __________ of the surface, th e _______________________ .
A5 Use your conclusion to explain why root hair cells with a large surface area are
helpful for a plant.

Key term

volume: how much

space a substance takes
up. Measured in cm3
or litres. Also called
'capacity'.

Specialised cells 29
 Specialised animal cells

A specialised cell is a cell that is adapted for a certain

function. Palisade cells and root hair cells are specialised
cells.
Animals have specialised cells too. For example, muscle cells
contain special fibres that allow them to contract and relax.
Some other examples are shown in figure 1.30.

Cell: red blood cell

Function: carries oxygen
Adaptation: contains haemoglobin (a substance that
traps oxygen), and its indented shape increases its
surface area, so that it can absorb oxygen quickly

Cell: ciliated epithelial cell

Function: sweeps things
Adaptation: has waving
strands on its surface

nucleus
i
o

»
Key terms

haemoglobin: substance
A white blood cell has a very that traps oxygen.
A nerve cell carries signals from flexible shape allowing it to
one part of the body to another. squeeze into all the different parts specialised cell: cell with
It is very long, to help carry these of the body. It finds and destroys
invading cells inside the body.
adaptations for a certain
signals quickly.
job.
1.30 Some specialised animal cells.

Stem cells
'Stems cells' are cells that are able to develop into
many different types of specialised cells. Scientists are
developing ways of using stem cells to repair damaged
tissues and organs. They hope that people will be
injected with stem cells that then develop into the
specialised cells needed to repair damage. For example,
some people cannot move parts of their bodies because
they have damaged nerves in their nervous systems. 1.31 Many scientists in South Korea
Scientists hope that, if they can inject stem cells into are working on stem cell treatments.
the damaged parts, the stem cells will develop into new
nerve cells to repair the problem.

30 Living things
 a) What is meant by the term'specialised cell'?
b) Give the name of one specialised cell found in
animals.
c) Give the name of one specialised cell found in
plants.

Look at figure 1.30 showing some specialised animal

cells. Rewrite the labels for the nerve cell and the
white blood cell to match the labels of the other two
cells (clearly showing the cell's name, its function and
its adaptation).

Why is a 'root hair' not really like a hair?

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Specialised cells have adaptations so I can calculate the area of a rectangle.
that they can do certain jobs.
I can use evidence to make conclusions
✓ Specialised plant cells include palisade from results.
cells and root hair cells.
I can present information as a table.
✓ Specialised animal cells include nerve
cells, blood cells and muscle cells.

Specialised cells 31
 End of chapter review

Quick questions
1. In your body, a system is:
a different tissues working together
b different organs working together
c different cells working together
d different organisms working together [1]
2. A plant contains different organs, such as:
a root hair b water
c palisade d stem [1]
3. The life processes are movement, reproduction, growth, sensitivity, excretion,
nutrition and:
a respiration b photosynthesis

c replication d stem [ 1]

4. To observe a specimen with a microscope, the specimen is put on a:

a swing b stage

c lens d slide [ 1]

5. The part of a cell that controls it is the:

a nuclear b newton
c nucleus d neutron [1]

6. One function of the skeletal system is protection.

(a) Give the name of an organ protected by the skull. [ 1]

(b) Give the name of an organ protected by the ribs. [ 1]

(c) State two other functions of the skeletal system. [ 2]

7. (a) Make a drawing of an animal cell. [ 1]

(b) Label the nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane. [3]

(c) What is the function of the cell membrane? [ 1]

32 Living things
8. Copy and complete this table to show if these parts of cells are found in animal cells,
plant cells or both. Complete your table with ticks (/ ). One row has been done
for you.

cell part animal cell plant cell

cell membrane / /
cell wall
chloroplast
cytoplasm
large vacuole
nucleus [5]

9. Give the name of one organ in each of these organ systems

(a) digestive system
(b) respiratory system
(c) circulatory system. [3]

Connect your understanding

10. The diagram shows some muscles and bones around the knee in a human leg.
muscle X

1.32 The muscles and bones around the knee joint.

(a) Give the name of the part that connects a muscle to a bone. [1]
(b) Give the name of the part that connects bones together. [1]
(c) Which muscle has to contract so that the lower leg moves in the direction
shown by the arrow? [1]
(d) What happens to the other muscle during this movement? [1]
(e) What are pairs of muscles like this called? [1]
(f) Explain why bones must be moved by two muscles, rather than just one. [1]
____________________________________________________________________)

End of chapter review 33

 (g) Which life process do muscles help with? [1]
(h) Give the name of the organ system formed by all the bones in thebody. [1]
(i) W h a t ty p e o f jo in t is t h e k n e e jo in t ? [1]
11. The respiratory system gets oxygen into the blood.
(a) For which life process is oxygen needed? [1]
(b) Which cells carry oxygen around the body in the blood? [1]
(c) Explain one way in which these cells are adapted for their function. [2]
(d) What piece of equipment would you use to look at these cellsin detail? [1]
12. (a) S ta te t h e fu n c t io n o f le a v e s in a p la n t. [1]
(b) There are many palisade cells in a leaf. Give the name of the tissue that they
form. [1]
(c) E x p la in h o w p a lis a d e ce lls a re a d a p te d fo r t h e ir fu n c t io n . [2]

(d) At what times during a day do these cells perform this function?
Give a reason for your answer. [2]
(e) Which life process do leaves help with? [1]
13. The drawing shows a type of specialised cell called a nerve cell.

1.33 A nerve cell.

(a) Is this a plant or an animal cell? Explain how you know. [2]
(b) Explain how this cell is adapted to its function. [2]
(c) Which life process does the cell use to get a supply of energy? [1]

34 Living things
14. The number of chloroplasts in some different
plant cells was counted. The results are shown
on the bar chart.
The number of chloroplasts in
some different plant cells

<v
-Q
E
3

A B C
Type of cell

1.34 Barchart.

(a) How many chloroplasts were in the type A cell? [1]

(b) Which cell probably comes from a root? Explain your reasoning. [ 2]

(c) Type A and B cells are found in leaves. Suggest a name for cell type B. [ 1]

15. (a) When using a microscope, the specimen is very thin. Explain why. [ 1]

(b) A specimen is usually put on a small piece of glass. What is this called? [1 ]
(c) Which part of the microscope do you turn to make a clear and
sharp image? [1 ]

(d) Explain one safety rule that you need to use when working with a
microscope. [ 2]

Challenge questions
16. Yeasts are tiny organisms made of only one cell. In an experiment, yeast cells were
grown in tubes containing sugar dissolved in water. They made a gas. This was
bubbled through limewater, which slowly became milky.
(a) What was the gas? Give a reason for your answer. [2]
(b) What process produces this gas? [1]
17. The drawing shows a specialised cell from a plant. Suggest the function
of this cell. Explain your reasoning. [2]

1.35 A specialised plant cell.

End of chapter review 35

 What’s it all about?
Yoghurt w as invented about 7000 years ago in
the area w here Iran, Iraq and Syria are today.
It w as originally used as a w ay of m aking
m ilk last longer, w ithout spoiling (‘going b ad ’).
The photo show s yoghurt m agnified roughly
12000 tim es using a very powerful m icroscope
called an electron m icroscope. The im age
show s som e of the billions of tiny organism s
(microorganisms) that m ake it.

You w ill learn about:

• H ow some m icroorganism s are useful and some
are harm ful
• How m icroorganism s are used to m ake foods
• H ow m icroorganism s cause decay
• The w o rk of a French scientist called Louis Pasteur
You w ill build your skills in:
• Using info rm atio n from d iffe re n t sources
• Choosing apparatus (equipm ent) to use and using
it correctly
• M aking careful observations and m easurem ents
• Carrying out an investigation
• Asking scientific questions
• Using and exp lain in g evidence

36 Microorganisms and disease

 Chapter 2 . Topic 1 Learning outcomes
• To describe what
Microorganisms microorganisms are like
• To describe different types of
microorganism

r
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
An organism can carry out seven life processes, Explain how scientists th in k up ideas, m ake
and w h a t these life processes are predictions, and collect evidence to test th e ir ideas
We use a m icroscope to vie w very small things,
such as cells j

Some living things are so small that we need a microscope

Key term
to see them. Most of them are made of only one cell. These
are microorganisms (or microbes). They are 'organisms' microbe: another word
because they are living things, and carry out the seven life for 'microorganism'.
processes. They are 'micro' because they are very small.

Activity 2.1: Investigating microorganisms

What types of microorganisms are there?
A1 There are different types of microorganisms. Use
different books and the internet to find:
a) the names of the different types of microorganisms
b) an example of each type
c) an example of how microorganisms are useful
d) an example of how microorganisms cause problems.
A2 Present your research as a table. Include in your table
the place where you found each piece of information.
You must include more than one place.

List seven processes that all microorganisms do.

What piece of apparatus (equipment) do you need to

study microorganisms?

Give another word for 'microorganism'.

Microorganisms 37
 Fungi
Figure 2.1 shows a common type of fungi. These organisms
may look like plants but they are not plants because they do
not make their own food.
The type of fungi in figure 2.1 are large and contain many
cells. Some fungi are much smaller, such as those found on
mouldy bread. The mould is a fungus.

2.1 Fungi, found in South Africa.

People cook with some fungi but
others are poisonous!

Key terms

fungus: type of
organism that is not a
plant or an animal. The
plural is 'fungi'.
2.2 When a mould starts to grow, you cannot see it. As it grows, the
mould: fungus that
number o f cells it contains increases, which means you can see it.
decays things.
Mould fungi reproduce using spores. These are single cells
made by the fungus. Spores are very light and so travel
easily in the air. When they land on a source of food, they
grow into new moulds. Fungi grow best in damp and warm
places. Key terms
Some fungi are even smaller than moulds and have only one
spore: single cell released
cell. These fungi are called yeasts.
into the air by a fungus
and which is able to
a) W h a t ty p e o f o rg a n is m is a m o u ld ? grow into a new fungus.
b) What is the mould in figure 2.2 feeding on? yeast: type of fungus
c) What is the name of the life process that involves with only one cell.
feeding?
d) Describe how this mould started to grow on this
food.
e) State the conditions in which the mould will grow
fastest.

Give one difference between fungi and plants.

a) Give one similarity between yeasts and moulds.

2.3 Yeast cells, magnified roughly
b) Give one difference between yeasts and moulds. 3000 times. We often write '3000
times' as x 3000.

38 Microorganisms and disease

 2.
Activity 2.2: Investigating mould

What does mould look like?

A1 Write a plan for how to study mould cells. Include:
a) a list of the apparatus (equipment) you need
b) instructions on how to use the apparatus.
A2 If you study mould, make a drawing of its cells. A fungus cell contains cytoplasm, a
nucleus and a cell membrane. It also has a cell wall. But unlike plant cells it never has
a large vacuole or chloroplasts. You may not be able to see the nuclei.

Bacteria
Key term
~he large image shown at the start of Chapter 2 shows
some bacteria. A different type of bacterium is shown in bacterium: type of
•igure 2.4. Bacteria have just one cell, although when they one-celled organism that
^produce the new cells may stick to each other for a while. is not a plant or animal
Bacteria are another different type of organism (they are or fungus. The plural is
not animals, plants or fungi). 'bacteria'.

a) Reproduction is a life process. What happens in

reproduction?
b) How do you know that the bacteria in figure 2.4
have reproduced?

The cells in figure 2.4 are magnified x 4000. What

does this mean?

Which do you think are smaller, bacteria or yeasts? 2.4 Bacteria cells, magnified x 4000.
Give your reasoning.

Viruses

/iruses are tiny particles that get into the living cells of
other organisms. A virus particle causes a cell to make
copies of the virus. On their own, viruses are not alive and
cannot reproduce.
2.5 Virus particles, magnified x 37 000.
© Which do you think are smaller, bacteria or viruses?
Give your reasoning. Key term

0 Why are viruses not like all other organisms? virus: particle that is
only alive when inside
a living cell and cannot
reproduce.

Microorganisms 39
 a) Use a ruler to measure the widest point across
one of the yeast cells in figure 2.3. Use the
magnification to work out the cell's size in real life.
b) Work out the size of a bacterium in figure 2.4.
c) Work out the size of a virus in figure 2.5.

a) The images on these pages are not taken with

a light microscope. Find out what kind of
microscope has been used.
b) Why has this microscope been used and not a light
microscope?

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Microorganisms are living things that I can find and use information from
you need a microscope to see. different sources.
✓ Most microorganisms have only one I can choose equipment to use and use it
cell. correctly.
✓ The three main types of microorganism I can make careful observations and
are viruses, bacteria and some fungi measurements.
(called yeasts).

40 Microorganisms and disease

 Chapter 2 . Topic 2 Learning outcomes
• To describe how
Louis Pasteur microorganisms spoil food,
including the work of Louis
Pasteur
• To describe stages of a
scientific investigation,
including:
o asking scientific questions
o making and explaining
predictions
o using evidence to make
conclusions

r
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
M icroorganism s carry out all seven life Explain how scientists th in k up ideas, m ake
orocesses predictions, and collect evidence to test th e ir ideas
M icroorganism s include bacteria, w hich have
only one cell j

Microorganisms were first seen by the Dutch scientist Antonie

. an Leeuwenhoek in 1674 (see Chapter 1, Topic 5). For a Key term
ong time, many scientists thought that microorganisms
.vere created by the substances they were found in. For Louis Pasteur: French
example, they thought that bread created mould. This idea scientist who discovered
.vas called 'spontaneous generation'. that microorganisms spoil
food.
_ouis Pasteur was a French scientist who lived in the
nineteenth century. He wondered why fresh, clear soup
always went cloudy and started to smell bad. He used a
microscope to look at soups. He found that cloudy, bad
soup contained many microorganisms, which were not in
*resh soup. He had an idea that microorganisms from the air
anded in the soup. As they reproduced, they made the soup
go bad'.

Use the evidence in figure 2.6 to say which of the

soups has'gone bad'. -

Describe two nineteenth century ideas to explain why

soup goes bad.

Scientific method 2.6 Soup that has 'gone bad' and

fresh soup.
"he scientific method is the series of stages that scientists
jse in their investigations. They ask questions and think of

Louis Pasteur 41
 ideas to answer them. Then they plan experiments and make Key terms
predictions about what will happen. They use the results
from their experiments as evidence to make conclusions. conclusion: a decision
A scientific question is answered using an experiment. that you reach. In science,
Pasteur asked: Do microorganisms from the air cause clear you use evidence from
soup to go bad? experiments to make
conclusions.
He planned an experiment using clear soup in glass containers.
Some containers were open at the top. The tops of the other evidence: data or
containers had an S-shaped tube. He boiled the soups in the observations we use to
containers and then left them. support or oppose an
idea.
A prediction says what you think will happen. Pasteur
predicted that only the soup in the open-topped containers prediction: what you
would go cloudy. think will happen in an
investigation.
Scientists explain their predictions. Pasteur thought that
microorganisms would fall into the containers with open tops scientific method:
and make the soup go bad. But the S-shaped tubes would trap stages that scientists use
microorganisms. This would stop the microorganisms reaching to test out their ideas.
the soup in those containers, and so the soup would not go bad. scientific question:
After a few weeks, only the soup in the open-topped question that scientists
containers was cloudy. Figure 2.8 shows one of Pasteur's can answer using an
S-shaped containers. Its soup is still clear! experiment.

1. Scientists ask a scientific question. 2. They plan an experim ent. 3. They m ake a prediction.

4. They explain the prediction. 5. They collect results and consider them . 6. Finally, scientists use the evidence to
m ake a conclusion.

2.7 Pasteur's experiment shows the stages o f a scientific investigation.

42 Microorganisms and disease

Evidence is information that helps you decide if an idea
is correct. Pasteur made the conclusion that his evidence
showed he was correct - microorganisms from the air cause
foods to spoil ('go bad').

Explain why 'Shall we paint the classroom blue?' is

not a scientific question.

Describe Pasteur's evidence.

For each sentence, say whether it is a scientific

question, a prediction, evidence or a conclusion.
a) If I add more fertiliser to plants, then they will
grow taller.
b) The plants given the fertiliser were taller than the
others.
c) Do plants grow taller with fertiliser?
d) Fertiliser makes plants grow taller.

Activity 2.3: Investigating Joseph Lister

How did Joseph Lister use Pasteur's ideas to develop
modern surgery?
Joseph Lister was a Scottish surgeon who found a way of
stopping infections after operations.
A1 Use books and the internet to:
a) suggest the scientific question that Lister asked
b) discover how he tested his idea
c) suggest what prediction he made
d) discover the evidence he used to make a conclusion.
A2 Present your research as a short report. Do not
use more than 200 words. Record your sources of
information.
2.8 One o f Pasteur's original
containers.

Preserving foods

'icroorganisms need water to survive. For thousands of

.ears people have dried food to stop it spoiling. Pasteur
: scovered why this worked.
Other traditional ways of preserving food include adding
ots of salt or sugar, and soaking foods in vinegar. All these
-ethods kill the microorganisms.
*oday, we use fridges and freezers to keep food cold. The
cold stops microorganisms growing quickly.

Louis Pasteur 43
 To preserve some things, such as milk and other drinks,
people heat them to a high temperature for a short time
and then cool them quickly. The high temperature kills most
of the microorganisms. Louis Pasteur invented this process,
which we call pasteurisation.

Ghee
Ghee is a traditional ingredient in Arabic and
South Asian cooking. It is made by boiling butter
and collecting the clear liquid. This process kills
microorganisms and removes the substances that
they feed on. So, ghee lasts a very long time.

2.9 Ghee.
DO

Explain why jam does not 'go bad' very quickly.

In some African countries, such as Nigeria, cassava is

made into a mash and dried to form 'garri'. Explain
why 'garri' keeps for a long time.

Explain why milk in a fridge lasts for a long time but

still 'goes bad' eventually.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Louis Pasteur did experiments to gather I can identify scientific questions and
evidence to support his idea that predictions.
microorganisms spoil food.
I can identify the evidence used to make
conclusions.
I can recall the different stages of a
scientific investigation.

44 Microorganisms and disease

 Chapter 2 . Topic 3 Learning outcomes
• To describe what an
Infectious diseases infectious disease is
• To explain the causes of
some infectious diseases
• To explain how we prevent
some infectious diseases

r
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
r oods spoil because o f th e activities of Recall th e d iffe re n t stages o f a scientific
- croorganism s investigation
Iden tify scientific questions, predictions,
evidence and conclusions

r the nineteenth century, many scientists thought that Key terms

z'eathing in 'bad air' caused diseases. Louis Pasteur showed
-at microorganisms cause many diseases. diagnosis: saying what
disease someone has.
S/mptoms are the effects of a disease on your body.
- doctor uses symptoms as evidence, to make a conclusion fever: high body
■oout what disease someone has. This conclusion is a temperature.
: agnosis. Table 2.1 shows the symptoms of some diseases symptom: effect of a
5~d the microorganisms that cause them. disease on the body.

| Disease Caused by... Symptoms

athlete's fo o t fungus red and itchy skin b etw een the toes

thicken pox virus fever, raised red spots w ith ye llo w tops
cnolera bacterium vo m iting, very bad d iarrh o ea, muscle cram ps

colds and in flu en za (flu ) virus fever, sore th ro at, aches

*'ood poisoning bacterium vo m iting, stom ach pain, diarrho ea

m petigo bacterium blisters on the skin th a t leave a ye llo w crust

measles virus fever, fla t red spots

tuberculosis (TB) bacterium fever, coughing up blood

able 2.1 Some common diseases, their causes and symptoms.

Using symptoms to diagnose disease

"hree thousand years ago, Esagil-kin-apli wrote one
of the first books explaining how to use symptoms to
diagnose diseases. Esagil-kin-apli was the chief scholar to
the King of Babylon, in modern-day Iraq.

Infectious diseases 45
 a) Name a disease caused by a virus.
b) Name a disease caused by a bacterium.

Which disease has a symptom of coughing up blood?

A person with one of the diseases in Table 2.1 has red

spots. What other information would a doctor need,
2.10 The symptoms o f many diseases
to diagnose the disease?
include blisters, spots or a rash.

Look at figure 2.10 and give a diagnosis.

Key terms
Spreading diseases
infected: when a disease-
Infectious diseases are diseases that spread from person causing microorganism
to person. Microorganisms move from person to person in is in someone, they are
many ways. When the microorganisms start to grow and infected.
reproduce in a person, that person is infected.
infectious disease:
Why are diseases caused by microorganisms 'infectious'? disease that spreads from
one organism to another.
The air can carry microorganisms from person to person. When
people cough or sneeze, they spray tiny droplets of liquid into
the air. These droplets contain microorganisms. If someone
breathes in the droplets, they could become infected. Colds,
measles, chicken pox and tuberculosis spread in this way.
Touching spots or blisters on the skin can spread
microorganisms, such as those that cause impetigo and
chicken pox. Athlete's foot spreads when people touch 2.11 Special photography shows
things that have been in contact with an infected foot (such the droplets o f liquid in a sneeze.
as a wet floor near a swimming pool). In some sneezes, the droplets
Some microorganisms spread in foods and drinks. For travel at 100 km/h!
example, cholera bacteria spread in water.
Animals spread some diseases. A bite from a dog with
rabies transfers the rabies virus. Mosquitoes spread the
microorganism that causes malaria.

a) State the name of an infectious disease.

b) Why is this disease'infectious'?

State an example of a disease spread by animals.

2.12 This dish contains nutrient
Copy the diseases from Table 2.1. Write down how
agar, which bacteria feed on.
each disease spreads.
As they grow and reproduce,
the bacteria form clumps (called
colonies). This dish contains bacteria
from a small drop o f sea water.

46 Microorganisms and disease

 Stopping diseases from spreading

~o stop people from getting infectious diseases we prevent

me spread of microorganisms. Using a tissue when sneezing
5id covering your mouth when coughing are simple ways to
;:op microorganisms from spreading through the air.
.e stop food and drink from causing diseases in many ways.
Reserving food by adding a lot of salt, sugar or vinegar kills
zacteria and fungi. Cooking foods properly destroys the
microorganisms in them. Pasteurisation kills bacteria and
-jngi in drinks, such as milk.
’.'any of the products we put on our skins contain Key terms
antiseptics to kill microorganisms.
Disinfectants kill microorganisms on surfaces that we touch. antiseptic: substance
.Ve also move sewage away from people, and treat it to kill that kills microorganisms
microorganisms. Cholera often spreads when sewage gets but is safe for us to put
nto drinking water. on our skins.

njecting people with a vaccine prevents some diseases. disinfectant: substance

that kills microorganisms
on surfaces that we
) Why does cooking stop people from getting food
poisoning?
touch.
vaccine: substance
D Explain why you should use a tissue to sneeze into if
you have a cold.
injected into people to
stop them getting an
infectious disease.
D List some ways that have stopped microorganisms
from infecting you today.

Preventing cholera
John Snow was an English doctor. In 1854 he
wanted to know why people in London were
dying of cholera. He recorded where people
with cholera lived and noticed that many of
them had homes near a certain water pump
(where they collected drinking water). This gave
him an idea. He thought that if people stopped
using this pump, then the number of people
with cholera would decrease. The pump handle
was removed, so people had to get water from
other pumps. After this, the number of people
with cholera decreased rapidly.

2.13 John Snow recorded his observations on a map.

Each spot shows a death from cholera.

Infectious diseases 47
 How did Robert Koch use Pasteur's ideas to find out more about infectious diseases?
Robert Koch was a German scientist, who read Louis Pasteur's work and then started to
investigate microorganisms.
A1 Use books and the internet to:
a) discover one method that Koch invented to study bacteria
b) find the names of three bacterial diseases that Koch investigated.
A2 Record your sources of information.

O Read the passage about John Snow on page 47.

a) Suggest a scientific question he might have asked.
b) What was his prediction?
c) Suggest the conclusion that John Snow made.
d) What evidence did he use to make his conclusion?

O a) Describe how cholera is spread from one person

to another.
b) Suggest two ways in which we stop this disease
spreading.

Check your skills progress:

✓ Some microorganisms cause infectious I can ask scientific questions.

diseases. I can make predictions.
✓ Microorganisms spread through the , can use evidence to make conclusions.
air, by touch, in food, in water, and by
animals.
✓ We kill and control microorganisms
to stop them from spreading (e.g. by
using disinfectants and covering our
mouths when coughing).

48 Microorganisms and disease

Chapter 2 . Topic 4 Learning outcomes
• To describe some uses of
Useful microorganisms microorganisms

Starting point
*ou should know that... You should be able to...
croorganism s carry out all seven life processes, Describe how scientists plan investigations to
deluding respiration answ er th e ir questions
zoods spoil because o f th e activities of
-'cro o rg an ism s ______ ____

. e use bacteria and fungi to make many foods. Figure 2.14

;~ows some examples.

O List the foods you often eat that are made using
microorganisms.

© Give the name of a microorganism that is not used to

make food.
2.14 Cheese and bread are two
o f the many foods made using
microorganisms.
Making bread

, e use yeast to make some types of bread. Yeast cells feed

:n sugar in bread dough. As they respire, the yeast make Key term
: _ bbles of carbon dioxide gas. This gas causes the dough to
• se up and increase in height. Then we bake the dough to variable: something that
-ake bread. may change.

Activity 2.5: Investigating yeast

n what conditions do yeast grow best?
A bread dough contains 100 g of flour, 10 g of sugar, 120 cm3 of water and 7 g of yeast.
Some people add more sugar and some add less. Not everyone leaves the dough at the
same temperature or for the same time.
A1 A variable is something that may change. List the variables for bread making.
A2 Write a scientific question using one variable. Start it as 'What happens if we
change...?'
A3 In an experiment, you change only one variable. You keep the other variables the
same. Which variables would you keep the same?
A4 Which variable would you measure?
A5 Predict what will happen, and explain your prediction.
A6 How would you use evidence from this experiment to make a conclusion?

_________________________________________ J
Useful microorganisms 49
 What type of microorganism is yeast?

A student made six batches of bread dough, and added

different amounts of sugar to each. The student left
each dough to rise for 20 minutes and then measured
the increase in volume. The table shows the results.
Mass of sugar Increase in volume
added (g) after 20 minutes (cm3)
0 11
2 21
4 25
6 29
8 35
10 37

a) Which variable did the student change?

b) State two variables that should be kept the same.
c) Which variable did the student measure?
d) Use the evidence in the table to make a conclusion.

Decay

During decay, materials break into smaller parts. Decomposers

are microorganisms that cause decay. Bacteria and fungi are
decomposers. Decay is not useful for food but is important for
removing dead organisms and animal wastes. Decay releases
useful substances from dead organisms and wastes, for other
organisms to use.

a) What is a decomposer?
2.15 Decom posers on animal
b) Explain why decomposers are important. droppings.

A scientist took four containers, each containing 100 g

of dead plants. The scientist added decomposers Key terms
to each container and put them at different
temperatures for 30 days. The table shows the results. decay: when materials
break into smaller parts.
Temperature Mass of plant material after
Microorganisms often
(°C) 30 days(g)
cause this.
5 97
decomposer:
15 94
microorganism that
20 82 causes decay.
30 70

50 Microorganisms and disease

 a) Which variable did the scientist change?
b) State two variables that should be kept the same.
c) Which variable did the scientist measure?
d) Use the evidence in the table to make a conclusion.

Unleavened bread, such as Al Jabab bread eaten in

the United Arab Emirates, is made without yeast.
Suggest a difference between this bread and the
bread in figure 2.14. Explain your reasoning.

Check your skills progress:

✓ Bacteria and fungi are useful for I can plan experiments.

making food (e.g. yeast is used to I can identify variables, including those
make some types of bread). that you change, those that you keep the
✓ Bacteria and fungi are decomposers. same and those that you measure in an
They decay and remove dead experiment.
organisms and animal wastes. This
releases useful substances, which
other organisms are then able to use.

Useful microorganisms 51
 End of chapter review

Quick questions
1. Milk can be pasteurised by heating it to 70 °C for 15 seconds. This is to:
a make milk tastebetter b turn the milk into cream
c kill microorganisms d turn the milk sour [1]

2. The microorganisms used to make bread rise are:

a yeasts b bacteria
c viruses d eggs [ 1]

3. An infectious disease is one that:

a spreads through food b spreads from person to person

c cannot be treated d causes a rash [ 1]

4. Colds and influenza (flu) are caused by

a fungi b yeasts

c bacteria d viruses [ 1]

5. Which of these is a discovery made by Louis Pasteur?

a Foods make microorganisms.
b Microorganisms from the air cause foods to go bad.
c Microorganisms only reproduce when inside other living cells,
d Microorganisms are not living things.
6. Explain why we wash our hands with soap after using the toilet.
7. Louis Pasteur asked: 'Do microorganisms from the air cause clear soup to
go bad?' Why is this a scientific question?
8. (a) Describe one use of bacteria.
(b) Describe one way in which bacteria are not useful.
9. (a) Explain why dried foods last a very long time.
(b) Explain why jam lasts a very long time.

52 Microorganisms and disease

 (a) Do yeast cells reproduce faster when given more sugar? [1]
(b) If I add more sugar to the water, then the yeast will reproduce faster. [1]
(c) There were more yeast cells found in the water with more sugar. [1]
(d) Increasing the amount of sugar makes yeast cells reproduce faster. [1]

11. (a) What is a decomposer? [1]

(b) Name two types of decomposers. [2]
(c) As decomposers feed on wastes, they respire. What gas do they make? [1]
(d) Describe one way in which decomposers are useful. [1]
(e) Describe one way in which decomposers are not useful. [1]

Connect your understanding

12. Manure is rotting animal waste mixed with parts of dead plants. Explain why
manure helps crops to grow. [2]
13. (a) Figure 2.16 shows a yeast cell. What are parts X, Y and Z? [3]
(b) Give one way the yeast cell is similar to a plant cell but not to ananimal cell. [1]
(c) What green structures are in some plant cells but not in yeastcells? [1]
(d) What group of organisms do yeast belong to? [1]
(e) The image is magnified x 400. What does this mean? [1]

2.16 Yeast cells (magnified x 400).

End of chapter review 53

 14. If floods hit an area, sewage can get into the water supply.
(a) Why will boiling water before drinking it prevent diseases? [1]
(b) Give the name of one disease that is spread by dirty water. [1]
15. A carton of milk is on top of a fridge. Another carton of milk is inside the
fridge.
(a) Predict which milk will spoil first. [1]
(b) Explain your prediction. [1]
16. Mumps is a disease caused by a virus. It causes parts of your mouth to swell
up and it is painful to swallow. Some people receive an injection to stop them
getting this disease. What does the injection contain? [1]
17. A student made six batches of bread dough, and left each at a different
temperature for 30 minutes. The student then measured the increase in height
of each dough. The table shows the results.

Temperature (°C) Increase in height after 30 minutes (mm)

5 0
10 2
15 9
20 19
25 28
30 35
(a) Explain why the height of the dough increased. [1]
(b) Which variable did the student change? [1]
(c) State two variables that should be kept the same. [2]
(d) Which variable did the student measure? [1]
(e) Use the evidence in the table to make a conclusion. [2]

Challenge questions
18. A baker added some yeast cells to water containing sugar. The number of
yeast cells increased for 10 hours, and then stopped increasing.
(a) Which life process caused an increase in the number of cells? [1]
(b) Suggest why the number of cells stopped increasing. [1]
19. Some scientists do not think that viruses are organisms. Explain why not. [2]
20. Measure the labelled yeast cell in figure 2.16 and calculate its size in real life. [2]

54 Microorganisms and disease

 Vs
V ,U !

C h a p te r 3
H ab itats a n d th e e n v iro n m e n t

What's it a ll a b o u t ?

Jerboas are sm all anim als that live in deserts,

in A frica and Asia. Th eir fur is the colour o f
sand. This m eans that they blend w ith their
surroundings and so predators are less likely
to see them . Jerboas are active at night and so
have large eyes to see w e ll in m oonlight. Their
large, hairy feet stop them sinking into the
sand. They can also survive w ith ou t drinking
w ater (they get their w ater from their food).
T h ese ‘ adaptations’ allow jerboas to survive in
deserts.
■■■■■
You w ill learn about:
• H ow organism s survive in th e places w h ere they
live
• How organism s depend on each other
• How hum ans a ffect th e en viro n m en t
You w ill build yo ur skills in:
• Using inform atio n to m ake conclusions
• Recording observations accurately in d iffe re n t ways
■ v. - ;v • Using evidence to support ideas

Habitats and the environment 55

 Chapter 3 . Topic 1 Learning outcomes
• To describe the places w r
Adaptations of organisms live
• To use sampling to resear
the types of organisms in
organisms area
• To describe how organism:
are adapted to where the*
live

Habitats
Key terms
The place where an organism lives is its habitat. Some
habitats are large, such as a desert. Some habitats are small, ecosystem: all the
such as a pond. organisms and the
physical factors in a
The things that organisms need are resources. Habitats habitat.
provide organisms with resources, such as:
environment: the other
• water organisms and physical
• shelter and protection factors around an
organism.
• food.
habitat: the place where
There are many types of organisms in a habitat. A habitat an organism lives.
also contains non-living parts, such as temperature, light,
wind, water and rocks. These are physical factors. physical factor:
non-living part of an
All the organisms and all the physical factors in a habitat environment (e.g. wind).
form an ecosystem.
resource: anything that
The surroundings of an organism are its environment. An is needed or used by an
environment contains: organism.
• other organisms
• a range of physical factors.

a) What is a habitat?
- ''
• it h
^>
b) Name two habitats. •A ■
c) Name one habitat in which fish live. . vA- r

a) Name the habitat in figure 3.1. 3.1 This savanna habitat is in

Kenya. A savanna is an area o f
b) List the different organisms living there.
open grassland with some trees.

56 Habitats and the environment

 3
c) Look at the giraffes in figure 3.1. Describe their
environment.
Key terms
Describe your environment now.
pitfall trap: jar buried
Describe two physical factors in a rainforest habitat. in the ground to collect
small animals that walk
Fungi live on dead organisms and waste. Most fungi on the ground.
live in dark, warm and wet conditions. Suggest a
habitat in which fungi live. quadrat: square frame
used to take samples in a
habitat.
Sampling organisms in a habitat sample: small portion
of something, used to
To discover what lives in a habitat, scientists examine small discover what the whole
parts of it. These small parts are samples. The photos show of the thing is like.
some ways of collecting samples.

3.2 A pitfall trap is a container

zuried in the ground, with a 3.3 A quadrat is a square 3.4 Scientists collect samples from water
cover to stop rain getting in. It frame. Scientists place it in an using jars or nets. Scientists also sweep
caps animals that fall into it. area and look for the different some nets through tall grasses to collect
- tfall traps have different sizes. organisms inside it. small animals living there.

~o examine small animals, scientists need to handle them

carefully and look at them closely. The photos below show
some ways to do this.

3.6 To examine and count

3 5 If you carefully suck 3.7 We magnify small animals and parts o f plants
small, crawling animals
: - one tube o f a pooter, with a magnifying glass (or hand lens).
without harming them, we
- all animals are sucked use soft brushes to move them.
-co the collecting jar.

Adaptations of organisms
 Why do scientists use soft brushes to handle small Key terms
organisms?
hand lens: another term
What type of organism does a pitfall trap collect? ~ormagnifying glass.
magnifying glass: used
Why do we use a magnifying glass to examine small to make things appear
animals? b gger (magnify them).
pooter: device to suck
Describe a type of animal that you could find out
small animals into a
about using a quadrat.
collecting jar without
harming them.
Presenting results

Scientists took samples of a savanna in East Africa to

discover which grasses lived there. In the results table below,
the ticks show the grasses found in each sample.
Type of grass Sample number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
elep h an t grass / / / / / /
pan dropseed
red dropseed
m
/
■ ■
/
■
/
. I
red grass m HI ■ ✓ Hi / / /
I

A bar chart makes it easier to compare the different grasses.

Number of samples different types of
grass were found in

elephant pan red red

grass dropseed dropseed grass
Types of grass
3.8 Bar chart showing the number o f samples that different grasses
were found in.

Look at the table and the bar chart.

a) Which was the most common grass in this area?
b) Which grass was not found in this area?

58 Habitats and the environment

 3
c) Suggest which method was used to collect these samples.
d) Why is it better to show the results in a bar chart rather than in a table?
e) A line graph is not a good choice to show these results. Why is this? (Hint: Look
back at Topic 1.1.)

In part of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil, some students left pitfall traps for one
night. The table shows the number of beetles in each trap the next morning. Present
these results using a bar chart.
Type of beetle Pitfall trap number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c / /

,w **-
Coprophanaeus

Dichotomius

Eurysternus

•>*
Onthophagus

Look at figure 3.1 on page 56.

a) Draw a table to show the number of each different animal in the photo. Only
include those animals that you can clearly see.
b) Present your results as a bar chart.
c) A scientist says that the giraffe is the most common animal in this habitat. Does the
evidence in your table and bar chart support this conclusion?

Adaptations of organisms 59
 Activity 3.1: Investigating habitats
What types of organisms live in a habitat near you?
A1 Choose a habitat near you and describe it. You could include a drawing.
A2 Make a prediction about what organisms live there.
A3 Decide how you will take samples from your habitat.
A4 Carry out your investigation. You may need to use books (field guides) to help you
identify some of the organisms that you find.
A5 Present your results as a table (and as a bar chart, if you can).
A6 Make a conclusion about which organisms are the most and least common.

Adaptations

Organisms have features that allow them to survive in their

habitats. We call these features adaptations and say that
organisms are adapted to where they live.
Fish are adapted to water by having fins to swim. They also
have gills, which they use to take oxygen from the water.
Fish cannot breathe out of the water. They are not adapted
to living on land.

3.9 This Mandarin duck is from 3.10 Small plants in rainforests are
China. Its beak is an adaptation adapted to dark, shady areas,
that allows it to catch insects.

o a) How are ducks adapted to swimming on water?

b) Suggest how ducks are adapted to surviving
attacks by other water animals, such as crocodiles.

Suggest how a lion is adapted to eating meat.

O Look at figure 3.10. Explain how small plants are

adapted to this habitat.

O a) Give the name of one animal in your country,

b) Explain one of its adaptations.

A
60 Habitats and the environment
Some organisms have adaptations that let them live in
habitats where the physical factors make it difficult to live.
These habitats include deserts (where there is little water)
and the Arctic (where it is very cold).
Thick fur helps stop heat
escaping (to help keep the
bear warm)

Small ears help stop

heat escaping

►
Rough soles on its
feet grip the ice

White fur helps stop the Large feet help stop the bear
bear being seen by the sinking into the snow and
animals that it hunts are good for swimming
3.11 Polar bears are adapted to living in the Arctic.

Spines

No leaves and so it
loses very little
water in the hot
sunshine (plants
lose water through
their leaves)

Water stored in the

stem

Roots cover a large area

to absorb water very
quickly when it rains

3.12 Cacti are adapted to living in deserts.

o Explain how polar bears survive the cold of the Arctic.

© Suggest why the spines on a cactus plant help it to survive.

© Oryx are antelopes that only sweat when the

temperature goes above 46 °C. Explain how this
adaptation allows oryx to survive in a hot, dry desert.

Design an animal that is adapted to living in a very

cold, dry sandy desert.

Adaptations of organisms 61
 Activity 3.2: Investigating adaptations
Are leaves in shady places larger than leaves in sunny places?
A student thinks that leaves that are always in the shade on a plant be bigger than
those that are usually in the sunshine. Plants need light to make food in their leaves, and
bigger leaves trap more light. The student makes this prediction:
If the amount o f light is less, then the leaves will be bigger.
You are going to choose a tree or plant in your local area and test this prediction.
A1 Plan a way to look at the leaves in the different places.
A2 How will you stay safe when you look at the leaves? For example, it may be
dangerous to climb trees.
A3 How will you compare the sizes of the leaves?
A4 A variable is something that may change. In an experiment, you change only one
variable. You measure another variable. You keep all the other variables the same.
a) Which variable are you changing?
b) Which variable are you measuring?
c) Suggest one variable that you are keeping the same.
A5 Carry out your investigation.
A6 Present your results as a table.
A7 Make a conclusion, saying whether the prediction is right or wrong.

Adaptations for daily changes

Physical factors in a habitat change during a day. These are Key terms
daily changes. Organisms have adaptations to survive daily
changes. daily change: change
in physical factors during
Some flowers close at night to keep their pollen safe. They
open again during the day, when the insects that collect the course of a day.
their pollen are active. nocturnal: active at
Nocturnal animals are active at night. They often have night.
very good eyesight, to see things in moonlight. They may predator: animal that
also have excellent hearing. Some nocturnal animals are hunts and eats other
predators and use their hearing to hunt their prey (animals animals (called prey).
that they eat). The prey animals use their hearing to avoid
prey: animal that is
their predators.
hunted and eaten by
Animals living on the seashore are adapted to the tides. other animals (called
Sea anemones use soft, fine tentacles to feed under water. predators).
When the tide is out, they pull in their tentacles so that they
do not dry out.

62 Habitats and the environment

5.13 Sea anem ones are adapted to the tides.

o Most owls are nocturnal.

a) What does this mean?
b) Explain why owls have very large eyes.

Look at the table in question 11 on page 59. Suggest

which animal is not nocturnal. Explain your reasoning.

O Explain why nocturnal mice have excellent hearing.

© Porcupines are nocturnal animals that have a

covering of spines. Suggest why they have spines.

© How does a sea anemone protect itself when the tide

goes out?

Physical factors in a habitat change during a year. These are KeY t^rnis
seasonal changes. Organisms have adaptations to survive
the different seasons. deciduous: plant that
loses its leaves during
When growing conditions are good, many plants make a certain season of the
seeds. The plants then die when conditions become harsh year.
(for example, when it is very dry or cold). Their seeds
survive in the ground ready to grow into new plants when season: time during the
conditions improve again. year with a certain set of
physical factors.
Deciduous plants lose their leaves during certain seasons.
Without leaves they do not need much water. It is difficult seasonal change:
for plants to get water during dry seasons and cold seasons. change in physical factors
In dry seasons there is not much rain and in cold seasons the during the course of a
water may be frozen in the ground. year.

Adaptations of organisms 63
 Many animals move when the seasons change. This is
Key term
migration. Many butterflies fly to new areas just before the
rainy season. They return when the rains have gone. migration: when
Many birds migrate to warmer areas when cold seasons animals move from one
arrive. This helps them to survive because the warmer areas area to another as the
contain more food (e.g. seeds, insects). If animals cannot seasons change.
find food they may starve and die.
Tracking bird migration
Amur falcons leave Mongolia and China when it starts
to get cold in August and September. Large flocks of the
birds migrate to India and then across the Arabian Sea
to Southern Africa. In May, they make the 11 000 km
journey back again.
Scientists working for organisations in Hungary, India
and Abu Dhabi work together to track the birds. They
catch some of the birds and attach small tracking devices.

© a) How far do Amur falcons fly each year?

b) Explain why the falcons leave China in August.
c) What word describes this type of journey?

© Suggest why butterflies leave an area before heavy

rains arrive.

© Flesh-footed shearwater birds leave Australia in May.

Many fly to Oman. Suggest a change in a physical
factor that causes them to leave Australia.

Other animals have adaptations that allow them to stay in

their habitats.
Stoats are small animals that hunt mice. They live in many
northern parts of the world. They have brown fur, to blend
in with the soil and plants. They have white fur in winter, to
blend in with the snow. This means that mice are less likely
to see them.
In the Himalayas, Asian black bears eat a lot before the
cold, winter season. They store fat in their bodies, to use Key term
for respiration. Then they find a safe place to hibernate
until warmer temperatures return. During hibernation, hibernation: when
an animal does not move much, and its body temperature, animals go into a type
breathing rate and heart rate all decrease. Hibernating of sleep during cold
animals do not eat during cold months when there is seasons.
little food.

64 Habitats and the environment

© African bullfrogs live in savanna habitats. In the hot,
dry season they bury themselves, and wait until the
rain comes again. What might happen to African
bullfrogs if they did not bury themselves?

© Explain why Asian black bears eat a lot before the

cold season.

© a) Dormice hibernate. Describe what the dormice do.

b) How does this help them to survive?

© a) In countries that have cold winters, the water in

the ground freezes. Suggest why many trees in
these countries are deciduous.

b) Teak trees grow in India, Myanmar and Thailand,

in places where it does not get cold. Explain why
teak trees are deciduous.
c) Teak trees have flowers from June until August.
Suggest why they flower at this time of year.

Check your skills progress:

✓ Organisms live in many different I can choose the correct equipment to take
habitats. samples from a habitat.
✓ An organism's environment is the I can present information using tables and
physical factors and other organisms bar charts.
around it. I can use evidence to support my
✓ An ecosystem is all the organisms and conclusions.
physical factors in a habitat.
✓ Adaptations help organisms survive in
their environments and habitats.
✓ Adaptations help organisms survive
changes in their habitats (such as daily
and seasonal changes).

Adaptations of organisms 65
 Chapter 3 . Topic 2 Learning outcomes
• To recaii the words we use to
Food chains descroe how organisms feed
• To explain how organisms
depend on one another for
food
• To draw food chains

Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
A d ap tatio n s help organism s survive in th e ir Show a sequence using a flo w chart
habitats, including avoiding being eaten or
helping to catch prey
>
Organisms need food for energy. They release the energy
using respiration. .^.e?..t?rrris
Plants produce their own food. They are producers. carnivore: animal that
Animals need to consume (eat) other organisms. They are eats other animals.
consumers.
consumer: animal that
Animals that only eat plants are herbivores. Those that only eats other living things.
eat other animals are carnivores. Those that eat plants and
animals are omnivores. food chain: list with
arrows that shows what
eats what in a habitat.
Which life process do organisms use to release
herbivore: animal that
energy?
eats plants.
Is a tree a producer or a consumer? Give a reason for omnivore: animal that
your choice. eats both plants and
animals.
a) Name a herbivore in your country.
producer: organism that
b) Name a carnivore in your country. makes its own food, such
as a plant.
c) Use two of the bold words above to describe
yourself.

A food chain shows what eats what in a habitat. A food

chain starts with a producer.

Lion
3.14 A fo o d chain from an African savanna.

•1
66 Habitats and the environment
 32
Look at figure 3.14 and identify a:
a) producer
b) consumer
c) carnivore
d) herbivore
e) predator
f) prey.

In a rainforest in Borneo, grey tree rats feed on fig

trees. Borneo pythons eat grey tree rats.
a) Write a food chain for these organisms. (Do not
draw pictures.)
b) Underneath the names of the organisms, write
one or more of these words:
carnivore consumer herbivore
predator prey producer
c) Draw a table to show the information in your
food chain. Give your table column headings:
Organism Type of nutrition Where it gets
(e.g. consumer) its energy from
d) What is a Borneo python's prey?

a) Jerboas in the Gobi Desert eat plant leaves, seeds

and insects. Which of these words best describes a
jerboa?
carnivore herbivore omnivore
b) Why did you choose this word?

The first consumer in a food chain is the primary consumer Key terms
and the second is the secondary consumer. The last
consumer in a food chain is the top predator. primary consumer: the
first consumer in a food
The arrows in a food chain show energy flow. Energy chain, which is always a
from the Sun (trapped by producers) flows to the primary herbivore.
consumer. Energy in the primary consumer flows to the
secondary consumer. secondary consumer:
the second consumer in
Look at this food chain: a food chain, which is
always a carnivore.
sagebrush -> Tolai hare -> steppe eagle
top predator: the last
Identify a: predator in a food chain.
a) producer
b) secondary consumer
c) top predator.
■\
Food chains 67
 a) Where do plants get their energy from?
b) Where does a secondary consumer get its energy
from?

The third consumer in a food chain is the tertiary

consumer. The fourth one is the quaternary consumer.
In a grassland habitat, aphids feed on grass.
Sparrowhawks hunt smaller birds, such as thrushes.
Aphids are prey for spiders. Thrushes are predators of
spiders.
a) Write a food chain for these organisms.
b) Label the organisms in your chain with words to
describe their nutrition.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ A food chain shows what eats what in I can use information to draw food chains.
a habitat.
✓ There are scientific words to describe
the position of each organism in a
food chain and its nutrition (carnivore,
herbivore, omnivore, predator, prey,
producer, primary consumer, secondary
consumer, top predator).

68 Habitats and the environment

Chapter 3 . Topic 3 Learning outcomes
• To describe ways that
Human impact on the humans damage habitats
• To describe ways that
humans help habitats
environment • To identify advantages and
disadvantages of different
energy resources

Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Organism s are affected by changes in the Explain h ow scientists th in k up ideas, m ake
ohysical factors in th e ir habitats predictions, and collect evidence to test th e ir
ideas
We burn a lot o f fossil fu els (such as oil, coal Use tables, bar charts and line graphs
and n atural gas) to p ow er vehicles and produce
electricity ________________________________________________________________ 2

Human population increase

"he number of people living on Earth is the world human Key term
population. The line graph below shows how the world
numan population has changed over 2000 years. population: the number
of one type of organism
World human population growth in a place.
in the last 2000 years

3.15 We use line graphs to show how a variable changes with time. The
variable in this graph is world human population.

— 1
Human impact on the environment 69
 An increasing human population needs:
• more space to live in
• more food
• more water
• more resources from the Earth (such as oil and some
rocks).
People clear natural habitats for buildings and farms. We
also destroy habitats by building dams to form reservoirs,
and by mining rocks used for buildings and roads.
When we destroy habitats, animals and plants may have
nowhere to live, or they may not be able to get food. If we
cut down the trees, many birds will have nowhere to build
their nests. The animals that eat the trees will have no food
and so may die.

Look at the line graph in figure 3.15.

a) About how many people were in the world in
1800?
b) What has happened to the human population
since 1800?
3.16 We destroy habitats when
c) Why does an increase in the number of people towns and cities increase in size,
cause more habitat destruction? and when we dig quarries. This is a
limestone quarry.
a) What is deforestation?
b) Why do people deforest areas?
c) Describe one reason why bird populations
decrease in deforested areas.

Explain why the farmer has cleared the land in

figure 3.17.

3.17 An area o f Amazonian

Damaging food chains rainforest the size o f 2000 soccer
pitches is deforested every day.
Humans also damage food chains. Look at this food chain, People build homes from the
from a forest habitat. wood and use the land for cattle
and crops. The small plants in this
grass —>spotted deer tiger photo are maize.
If humans kill the spotted deer for food, the tigers have less
food. They may die or move to another area. Key term
If humans kill tigers to stop them killing cattle, the deer
deforestation: cutting
population increases. More spotted deer eat more grass, and
down forests.
there is less grass for other animals.

70 Habitats and the environment

Q Look at the food chain with the deer and the tiger.
a) Why will killing the deer reduce the numbers of
tigers?
b) Why will killing tigers increase the deer
population?

Look at this food chain from a lake.

algae —>snail -> lake herring —>trout
Some people fish too many herring. How will this
affect the numbers of snails and trout? Give reasons
for each answer.
a) Snails.
b) Trout.

This food chain includes thrushes, which are

omnivorous birds that eat insects and grains from
wheat plants.
wheat plants -> locust - » thrush —>sparrowhawk Key terms
(leaves)
ozone depletion:
In the 1950s in China, the government told people to reducing the amounts of
kill the thrushes to stop them eating stores of wheat ozone.
grains. Explain why killing the thrushes meant that
the people had even less wheat. pollutant: substance
that causes harm to
organisms.
Pollutants pollution: when
organisms are being
Pollution is when organisms are being harmed by a substance harmed by a substance.
n their habitat. The substance causing the harm is a
oollutant.
-uman activities cause a lot of pollution. Pollutants include
oil from tankers, poisonous substances from factories and
substances we use to make our lives easier.
CFCs are substances we use in spray cans, fridges and air
conditioners. In the 1970s, scientists found that CFCs were
destroying the ozone layer in the atmosphere. This layer
orotects organisms from dangerous rays from the Sun.
These rays may cause skin cancer. Countries around the
,vorld have now agreed to ban CFCs and so stop ozone
depletion.

Would you use a bar chart or a line graph to show 3.18 This satellite image shows the
changes in CFC levels in the atmosphere over the thinnest parts o f the ozone layer
years? Give a reason for your answer. (over Antarctica) in blue and purple.

Human impact on the environment 71

 Use figure 3.18 to suggest why more people get skin
cancer in Australia than in countries in Europe.

The ozone layer was thinnest in 1994. Suggest why it

is now thicker again.

Air pollution

Fuels are substances that release energy. We use them in Key terms
factories, vehicles and power stations to make electricity. Most
fuels formed over millions of years from dead plants and animals. climate change:
These are fossil fuels. Oil, coal and natural gas are fossil fuels. changes to weather
patterns.
To release energy from fossil fuels, we burn them. This also makes
carbon dioxide gas. In the atmosphere, this gas acts a bit like fossil fuel: fuel such
the glass on a greenhouse. It lets energy from the Sun reach as coal, oil and natural
the Earth and warm it up and then stops the energy escaping. gas, made over millions
Carbon dioxide helps to cause the greenhouse effect on Earth. of years from dead
organisms.
Scientists think that increasing amounts of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere make the Earth become warmer. This fuel: substance that
global warming may change the weather around the world releases energy.
(climate change).
global warming:
increasing temperatures
Name three fossil fuels. around the Earth and its
atmosphere.
Name a gas that causes global warming.
greenhouse effect:
when gases in the
© Explain why some scientists think we should stop
atmosphere trap energy
burning fossil fuels.
and cause the Earth to
warm up.
Many fossil fuels (such as diesel) release small smoke
particles when they burn. These help to form smog smog: unpleasant
(a chemical fog), which may damage people's lungs and chemical fog.
make breathing difficult.
Activity 3.3: Investigating pollutant particles
Is there pollution caused by burning fossil fuels in your area?
Hang a white tissue or piece of fabric outside for a week.
Then compare it with one that has been kept inside.
A1 Make a prediction and explain why you think this.
A2 Say whether your results match your prediction.
A3 Use your results as evidence to make a conclusion. 3.19 Smog in Warsaw, Poland.

A4 What piece of equipment could you use to examine

particles more closely?
A5 Present your findings as a short report. Do not use
more than 200 words.

72 Habitats and the environment

Some fossil fuels (such as coal) contain substances that
produce sulfur dioxide gas when burned. This gas dissolves
in clouds to form an acid, which falls as acid rain. This may
kill trees.
Vehicle engines that burn fuels make gases called 'oxides of
nitrogen'. These gases also cause acid rain, and help to cause
smog.

© Draw a table to show some air pollutants and their

problems.

O a) Name the substances made by burning fossil fuels 3.20 Acid rain killed these trees in
that form smog. Germany.
b) Why is smog a problem in cities?

© Explain why using more electric cars may improve our

cities.

Renewable energy resources

Key terms
Fossil fuels will not last forever. We are using them up much
faster than they can form, so they will run out. They are acid rain: rain that is
non-renewable. We need to use renewable energy resources much more acidic than
(ones that will not run out). usual.
Governments around the world have agreed to burn less biofuel: fuel made using
fossil fuel. They are looking at alternative ways of making plants or algae.
electricity and running vehicles.
non-renewable:
We now use some plants and algae to make biofuels for something that will not
vehicles. But this means farmers use land for growing last forever.
biofuel plants instead of growing food for humans.
renewable: something
that will not run out.
a) Why is coal a non-renewable fuel?
b) Why are biofuels renewable?

Vlany power stations use fossil fuels. Renewable ways of

oroducing electricity are becoming more common. These
do not release gases into the air and so cause less pollution.
~hey include power from:
• wind
• waves
• tides
• the Sun (solar power)
3.21 Some aeroplanes now burn
• water flowing out of dams (hydroelectric power). biofuels.

"i

Human impact on the environment 73

 © Is wave power renewable or non-renewable? Give a
reason for your answer.

© a) Give one advantage of solar power compared to

burning fossil fuels.
b) Suggest one disadvantage of solar power.
3.22 Wind turbines provide
© a) Describe one way in which wind power is a
renewable electricity but they only
benefit for the environment. produce electricity if there is wind.
b) Describe one way in which wind power may harm They may also be dangerous for
the environment. migrating birds, they may damage
habitats and some people think
Explain how using satellite tags to track migrating they are ugly.
birds is useful for deciding where to build wind
turbines.

Activity 3.4: Investigating hydroelectric power

A country is deciding whether to build a hydroelectric power station. It involves building a
dam across a river to create a reservoir.
The government wants you to 'evaluate' this idea. In an evaluation, you state at least one
good point about an idea and at least one bad point. Then you decide if, overall, the idea
is good or bad.
A1 Write a report about this idea. Set out your report like this:
• a title
• a sentence to explain what your report is about
• a new paragraph to explain one or more reasons against the dam
• a new paragraph to explain one or more reasons in favour of the dam
• a final paragraph to explain what you think and why.
A2 The government has asked you to make a presentation about your ideas. Your
presentation should last no longer than 2 minutes. Your teacher may ask you to make
a presentation to your class.

Helping the environment

Humans damage habitats but we help them too.

Scientists are developing ways of causing less pollution and
removing pollutants from the environment. This helps more
organisms to survive.
To protect some habitats, we stop people cutting down
trees and hunting animals. The organisms in those habitats
will continue to survive.

74 Habitats and the environment

We also create new habitats and repair damaged habitats.
One way of doing this is by planting trees in deforested
areas.
However, it is up to us all as individuals to care for the
habitats around us.

O Think of some ways that you could help the

environment and explain how these ways will help.

Check your skills progress:

✓ Increasing numbers of humans need I can use evidence to make conclusions.

more resources.
I can decide when to use a bar chart and
✓ Humans damage habitats by removing when to use a line graph.
plants, hunting animals and causing
pollution.
✓ Air pollutants from burning fossil
fuels cause smog, acid rain and global
warming.
✓ Many renewable energy resources
cause less pollution than non­
renewable resources.
✓ Renewable energy resources will
not run out, unlike non-renewable
resources.
✓ Humans help the environment by
protecting and creating habitats, and
reducing pollution.

Human impact on the environment 75

76 Habitats and the environment
8. Some plants and animals have spines. How do spines help them survive? [1]
9. Scientists take samples from a habitat to find out what is living there. What
method of sampling is best for these organisms?
(a) Small plants. HI
(b) Animals that run along the ground. [1]
(c) Small animals that live in tall grasses. [1]
10. Bioethanol is a type of biofuel.
(a) What is a biofuel? Ml
(b) Give one advantage of burning biofuels incars rather than diesel. [1]
(c) Give one disadvantage of biofuels. [1]
11. People often deforest jungles.
(a) State what this means. [1]
(b) Give one reason why people do this. [1]
(c) State two resources needed by animals that deforestation removes. [1]
(d) Describe one way in which people can help adeforested area. [1]
12. Burning fuels to produce electricity makes carbon dioxide.
(a) Name the problem caused by too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. [1]
(b) Describe a way of producing electricity that does not release this gas. [1]
(c) Describe a disadvantage of this way of producing electricity. [1]
13. In winter, some bats migrate and other types of bat hibernate.
(a) How does hibernation help the bats to survive? [1]
(b) Describe two things that happens to a bat's body when it hibernates. [2]
(c) How do bats prepare for hibernation? [1]
(d) How does migration help bats to survive? [2]
(e) What change in a physical factor causes bats to migrate or hibernate? [1]

End of chapter review 77

 —
r

Connect your understanding

14. Look at this food chain,
grass -> rabbit -» fox
(a) producer [1]
In the
(b) food chain, identify a:
consumer [1]
(c) top predator [1]
(d) herbivore [1]
(e) secondaryconsumer. [1]
15. Owls hunt rats. Maize plants are food for rats.
(a) Show these organisms in a food chain. [2]
(b) Where does the maize plant gets its energy from? [1]
16. Scientists took samples in woodland in Turkmenistan. They wanted to find out
about the small plants living among the trees. In the results table, the ticks show
the plants found in each sample.

Sample number
Type of plant
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A - nettle tree / / / / / /
(Celtis)
B - cherry / / / /
(Cerasus)
C - ephedra / / / /
(Ephedra)
(a) Draw a bar chart to show the number of samples each plant was found in. [4]
(b) Which was the most common plant? [1]
(c) Why is this information not shown on a line graph? [1]

k.

78 Habitats and the environment

17. The line graph shows changes in the thickness of the ozone layer above
Antarctica.

Changes in the thickness of the ozone

layer above Antarctica

Time (years)
3.23 Line graph to show changes in the thickness o f the ozone layer.

(a) Where is the ozone layer? [1]

(b) W h y is t h e o z o n e la y e r im p o r ta n t fo r o rg a n is m s ? [1]
(c) Describe the overall change in the thickness of the ozone layer from 1980
until the 1990s. [1]
(d) E x p la in th is c h a n g e . H]
(e) Describe how the thickness of the ozone layer haschanged since the 1990s. [1]

(f) E x p la in th is c h a n g e . ^

(g) O n e v a r ia b le on t h e g ra p h is t im e . W h a t is th e o th e r v a r ia b le ? [1]

End of chapter review

 Challenge questions
18. A lion is a top predator but it provides food for other organ sms. How does this
happen? [2]
19. Bladderwrack is a seaweed. Seaweeds make their own food but are not plants.
Bladderwrack gets its name from the 'bladders' or pockets of air all over it. Explain
why it has this adaptation. [3]

3.24 Bladderwrack.

20. The information below is about organisms in the Southern Ocean. Use the
information to draw a food chain.
• Weddell seals are predators of crabeater seals.
• Krill are tiny shrimp-like herbivores.
• Leopard seals are prey of killer whales.
• Diatoms are the producers in this food chain.
• Crabeater seals are the secondary consumers. [3]

80 Habitats and the environment

What’s it all about?
A species is a type o f organism . A ll the
individuals in a species have very sim ilar
characteristics (features). There is a lot o f
variation in a characteristic betw een differen t
species. This is h ow w e tell w h at species
an organism belongs to. There is also som e
variation in a characteristic betw een m em bers
o f the sam e species. A ll hum ans belon g to the
sam e species but w e have variations in height
and skin colour.

You w ill learn about:

• D ifferences b etw een organism s (variatio n )
• How w e sort anim als and plants into d iffe re n t
groups (classification)
• W h a t a species is
You w ill build your skills in:
• M aking careful observations
• Identifying th e range o f a set o f data
• Putting data into groups
• Presenting conclusions and d raw in g d iffe re n t
types o f bar charts

Variety of living things 81

 Chapter 4 . Topic 1 Learning outcomes
• To recall what a species is
Species • To identify variation in the
characteristics of different
species
• To recall reasons why a
species may become extinct

Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
W e put organism s into d ifferen t groups by Explain how scientists th in k up ideas, make
looking at th eir featu res (e.g. plants and anim als) predictions, and collect evidence to test their ideas
D iffe ren t types of organism are called species Use tables, bar charts and line graphs
Living thing s reproduce

Variation

Every organism has features or characteristics.

Characteristics of humans include having two legs, hair
on our heads and hands that grip things.
One characteristic often looks different in different
organisms. This is variation. For example, tigers and lions
both have fur. They share that characteristic but the colour
of the fur varies between lions and tigers.
We use the variation of characteristics to recognise different
organisms.

Describe three characteristics of tigers.

Key term
Describe the variations in two characteristics that
tigers and humans share. hybrid: offspring
produced by
reproduction between
Species two different species.

Organisms of the same type reproduce with one another

to have offspring. The offspring grow and then they
reproduce. A species is a group of organisms that can
reproduce with one another and have offspring that can
also produce offspring.
There is a lot of variation between the characteristics
of different species.
Sometimes individuals from two different species reproduce. 4.1 Characteristics o f tigers include
Their offspring are hybrids. The hybrids cannot produce having legs and furry skin with
offspring, which shows that the parents were two different stripes.
species.

82 Variety of living things

 a) State the names of the species in figures 4.1 and 4.2.
b) Describe the variations in two characteristics of
these species.

Horses and donkeys can reproduce. Their offspring

are mules.

lei
a) Why is a mule a hybrid?
4.2 Lions have offspring, which
b) What is a mule not able to do that its parents are then also have offspring.
able to do?
Key term
Suggest a characteristic of the liger in figure 4.3 that
comes from its: extinct (life forms):
does not exist any more.
a) father
b) mother.

Suggest why we only find ligers in zoos (and not in

the wild).

Extinction
4.3 A liger is a hybrid. Its parents
Many of the characteristics of a species are adaptations that were a male lion and a female
help it survive. There is variation between different species tiger. Ligers cannot have offspring.
because they are adapted to different habitats.
Sometimes the environment of a habitat changes, and the
characteristics of a species no longer help it survive. This can
cause a species to become extinct.
An example is the woolly mammoth. About 10 000 years
ago, there were many woolly mammoths in the Arctic. Then
the temperature started to rise. Their hairy coats made
the mammoths too hot and the plants that they ate could
not survive in the higher temperatures. Woolly mammoths
become extinct about 4000 years ago.

huge tusks to
dig for food in small ears,
the snow to stop it
losing heat

thick,
oily
hair to
stop it
losing
heat

4.4 Asian elephants have 4.6 African savanna elephants live

4.5 Woolly mammoths had
adaptations to survive in hot, in hot habitats where there is not
adaptations to survive extreme
humid rainforests. much shade.
cold. This species is now extinct.

Species 83
oo
Dodo birds are extinct. What does this mean?

a) Figures 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 show different species.

What does this mean?
b) Describe the variation of the ears in the three
species.
c) Explain how the variation in this characteristic
helps survival.
d) Describe the variation in two more characteristics
of these species.
e) Explain two reasons why woolly mammoths
became extinct.

Scientists go on expeditions to look for species that may be

extinct. If they do not find the organisms, this is evidence to
support the idea that the species is extinct.
There are many reasons why a species may become extinct.
These include:
• changes in physical factors
• habitat destruction
• pollution
• killing by people and animals
• other organisms using the resources.

a) Why were silversword plants in danger of

becoming extinct in Hawaii?
b) Suggest what people did to stop the plants
becoming extinct.

In 2006, scientists went to look for Yangtze river

dolphins in the Yangtze River in China. They did not
find any.
a) What scientific question were the scientists trying
to answer?
b) What was their evidence? 4.7 P e o p le b ro u g h t sh e e p to
H aw aii, a n d th ese sh e ep sta rte d
c) What idea does this evidence support? to e a t silv e rsw o rd p la n ts. These
p la n ts w e re th e n in d a n g e r o f
Q How can deforestation cause an animal to become b e co m in g e xtin ct.
extinct?

84 Variety of living things

Why are species becoming extinct?
A1 Scientists think that each of the following species may be extinct. The evidence to
support these ideas is in brackets. Discover the reasons why each organism may be
extinct. Use different books and the internet for your research.
• Christmas Island shrew (last seen in 1985)
• De Winton's golden mole (last seen in 1937)
• Dinagat Island cloud rat (last seen in 2012)
• Kouprey (last seen in 1988)
• Malabar civet (last seen in 1987)
• Telefomin cuscus (last seen in 1997)
• Yangtze river dolphin (last seen in 2002)
A2 Present your information as a table.

'Biodiversity hotspots' are areas where many different

species live. Scientists all over the world are counting the
numbers of different species in different habitats to find
biodiversity hotspots. They then protect these areas. For
example, hunting may be banned. Protecting biodiversity
hotspots should reduce the number of extinctions.

4.8 This map shows biodiversity hotspots on different continents.

o a) What is a biodiversity hotspot?

b) Explain why scientists want to protect biodiversity
hotspots more than other areas.

Identify one continent that does not have a

biodiversity hotspot.
b) Suggest a reason why it does not have a
biodiversity hotspot.

Species 85
 ■
Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ A species is a group of organisms of I can find and use information from

the same type that reproduce with one different sources.
another, and their offspring also have I can identify scientific questions.
offspring.
I can identify the evidence used to make
✓ There is a lot of variation in
conclusions.
characteristics between different
species. I can present information using tables.
✓ Different species are often adapted
to different habitats and so show
variation.
✓ A species becomes extinct if its
adaptations do not allow it to survive
when an environment changes.

86 Variety of living things

 Chapter 4 . Topic 2 Learning outcomes
• To classify organisms as
Classification plants and animals
• To classify plants and animals
into smaller groups

r----------------------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
A species is a type of organism , and how w e Find inform atio n using d iffe re n t sources
d efin e a species
D iffe ren t species have d iffe re n t ad ap tatio ns to
survive in th e ir habitats ___y

Scientists put organisms into groups. This is classification.

Key terms
To classify organisms, scientists look at the variation of
characteristics. animal kingdom:
Kingdoms are the biggest groups of organisms. Examples kingdom that contains
include the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom. The organisms that are made
table shows the characteristics used to classify plants and of more than one cell
animals. and are able to move
their bodies from place to
Kingdoms place.
Plants... Animals... kingdom: the biggest of
m ake th e ir ow n food eat other organism s the groups that scientists
contain m any cells contain m any cells use to classify organisms.
have cells w ith a cell w all have cells w ith o u t cell w alls plant kingdom:
m ade o f a substance called are able to move th e ir bodies kingdom that contains
cellulose. from place to place. organisms that are made
of more than one cell
and make their own
Which kingdom do these organisms belong to? food.
a) cat
b) pine tree
c) lion
d) grass
e) elephant

State one characteristic that is the same in plants and

animals.

There are other kingdoms too. The fungus kingdom

contains mushrooms and yeasts. Another kingdom (called
the 'prokaryote kingdom') contains bacteria. All bacteria are
single cells, which do not have nuclei. The cells of organisms
in all other kingdoms have nuclei.

Classification 87
 Fungi, such as mushrooms, feed on dead materials.
Their cell walls contain a substance called chitin.
Explain why fungi are in their own kingdom.

a) Yeasts are fungi with only one cell. How can you
tell if a cell is a yeast or a bacterium?
b) What piece of equipment do you need to examine
these cells?

Vertebrates and invertebrates

Key terms
Scientists think that there are over 7 million different animal
invertebrate: animal
species. We can split the animal kingdom into smaller groups.
without a skeleton
Classification is easier if groups have clear differences that inside it and without a
are easy to see. For example, animals are vertebrates or 'backbone'.
invertebrates. A vertebrate has a hard skeleton inside it,
vertebrate: animal
including a 'backbone' made of bones called vertebrae.
with a skeleton inside it,
Invertebrates do not have skeletons but many of them have
including a 'backbone'.
hard outer coverings.

4.9 Some animals.

a) Look at figure 4.9. Are the animals vertebrates or

invertebrates?
b) State the difference between vertebrates and
invertebrates.

88 Variety of living things

 Vertebrates

Scientists divide vertebrates into five groups. Figure 4.10 shows these groups.

4.10 There are five groups o f vertebrates.

Describe one characteristic of birds and reptiles that is: Key terms

a) similar amphibian: vertebrate

b) different. with moist skin. It lays
jelly-coated eggs in water.
a) What are animals with skeletons inside them bird: vertebrate with
called? feathers. It lays eggs with
b) List the groups into which scientists classify these hard shells.
animals. fish: vertebrate with
c) Name two animals from your area that belong to slimy scales. It lays jelly-
each group. coated eggs in water.
mammal: vertebrate
Which group of animals: with hair. It gives birth to
a) has a backbone and feathers live offspring.

b) produces milk? reptile: vertebrate with

dry scales. It lays eggs
Which groups of animals: with a leathery coat.

a) lay eggs
b) have scales on their skin?

Classification 89
 ?> Sharks and dolphins look similar.
a) Describe two ways in which sharks and dolphins
look similar.
b) What would you look for to make sure you classify
sharks and dolphins in the correct vertebrate groups?
c) What groups do sharks and dolphins belong to?

Suggest the best characteristic to classify vertebrates

in their groups.

© Parrots and bats both fly. Give two reasons why bats
are not birds.

© A platypus is a hairy organism with a backbone that

swims in rivers in Australia and lays eggs with a
leathery shell. It feeds its offspring on milk. How would
you classify the platypus? Explain your reasoning.

Invertebrates v
Scientists also divide invertebrates into groups. These groups
contain even smaller groups. Figure 4.11 shows some of these.

Key terms

arachnid: arthropod
with eight legs and a
body in two sections.
arthropod: invertebrate
with jointed legs and a
body in sections.
echinoderm:
invertebrate with a hard,
spiny outer covering.
insect: arthropod with
six legs and a body in
three sections.
mollusc: invertebrate
with a large muscle that
it uses to move or feed.

4.11 There are many groups o f invertebrates.

90 Variety of living things

o a) Describe the characteristics of all the organisms in
the arthropod group.
b) Name the groups that arthropods are divided into.

C Describe one characteristic of arachnids and insects

that is:
a) similar
b) different.

Look at figure 4.9 on page 88. List all the groups that
these organisms belong to:
a) sea urchin
b) scorpion
Key terms
c) fly.
conifer: plant with
A tick is a small blood-sucking invertebrate with eight needle-shaped leaves.
legs. It produces cones.
a) Explain which group contains other animals with fern: plant that does not
the most similar characteristics. produce flowers or cones
but has roots.
b) Give one other characteristic you would expect a
tick to have. flowering plant: type
of plant that produces
flowers.
Plant groups moss: plant with small,
thin leaves. It does not
Scientists also divide the plant kingdom into groups. Figure have roots.
4.12 shows some of these.

4.12 There are four main groups o f plants.

Classification 91
 0 Describe one characteristic of mosses and flowering
plants that is:
a) similar
b) different.
©0
Which group of plants produces cones?

What variation is there in the leaves of conifers and

flowering plants?

© Name two flowering plants that live in your area.

Development of classification systems

People have classified organisms for thousands of years.
3500-year-old wall paintings provide evidence that the
Ancient Egyptians classified plants. About 2300 years
ago, Aristotle (an Ancient Greek thinker) wrote about
plant classification. Indian writings from 1500 years ago
also contain a classification system for plants.
A Swedish scientist, Carl Linnaeus, developed our
modern classification system in the eighteenth century.
He classified thousands of organisms into the groups
that we use today. He also gave each species a two-word
Latin name. Scientists all around the world still use this
naming system, and agree on a single two-word scientific
name for each species.
Biodiversity hotspots contain many undiscovered
species. When scientists find a new organism, they use
classification to work out what sort of organism it is.

4.13 This animal was discovered recently in Vietnam. Its scientific

name is Cnemaspis psychedelica.

92 Variety of living things

 A

What rare organisms live in your country?

A1 Use different books and the internet to find the
names of ten rare organisms in your country. Include
at least one plant and at least one animal.
A2 Present your information as a table, showing the
name of each organism and how it is classified.
(You could try to use the scientific names for the
organisms!)

Look at figure 4.13. Which group of vertebrates does

this species belong to? Give a reason for your choice.

People give common names to the species living

around them (such as 'blackbird', and 'green lizard').
Suggest why scientists use scientific names.

Check your skills progress:

✓ Scientists classify organisms in groups I can use characteristics to put items into
by looking at their characteristics. groups.
✓ The largest classification groups are I can find and use information from
kingdoms. different sources.
✓ The animal kingdom contains five
groups of vertebrates - mammals,
reptiles, fish, amphibians and birds.
✓ The animal kingdom contains many
groups of invertebrates, such as
arachnids and insects.
✓ The plant kingdom contains groups
such as flowering plants and conifers

Classification 93
 Chapter 4 . Topic 3 Learning outcomes
• To identify discontinuous
Types of variation and continuous variation
• To choose charts and graphs
to display different sorts of
information

r----------------------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Scientists classify organism s by putting them into Use tables, bar charts and line graphs
groups, based on th e ir characteristics
Characteristics vary b etw een one organism and
ano th er ___________ y

Proboscis monkeys and orangutans live on the island of

Borneo. They share many characteristics, such as having a
nose and ears. However, there are big variations in those
characteristics because they are different species.
There is much less variation in a characteristic between
members of the same species. For example, all humans have
the same type of skin but it varies in colour.
4.14 A proboscis monkey.
Look at figures 4.14 and 4.15.
a) Both proboscis monkeys and orangutans have
noses. Describe the variation in this characteristic
between the two species.
b) Choose one other characteristic of the animals.
Describe how it varies.

Look at someone nearby. Describe the variation in 4.15 An orangutan.

two characteristics that you and that person both
have.

Discontinuous variation

Variation with a distinct set of options is discontinuous

variation. For example, some people are able to roll their
tongues and others are not. There are only two possible 4.16 There is variation in the
options in the characteristic of tongue rolling - 'able to roll' colour o f human skin.
and 'not able to roll'.
Key term

discontinuous
variation: variation
that has a distinct set of
options or categories.

94 Variety of living things

 .3
Another example is the number of peas in a pea pod, which
is a whole number. Some peas are smaller than others, but
fractions of peas do not grow.
We show discontinuous variation on a bar chart, with gaps
between the bars.
The number of pods containing
different numbers of peas

4.17 Can you roll your tongue?

Key term
Peas in one pod
whole number: number
4.17 Scientists counted the number o f peas in 50 different pea pods.
without fractions or a
decimal point.
Look at the bar chart.
a) How many pods contained six peas?
b) What was the least common number of peas
in one pod?

The table shows the number of nails on the front feet

of elephant species.

Elephant species Number of nails on

front feet
A frican fo re st elep h an t 5

A frican savanna elep h an t 4

Asian elep h an t 5

a) Explain why this data shows discontinuous

variation.
b) Present the data using a suitable chart or graph.

Activity 4.3: Investigating discontinuous variation

Find out if your friends or family are able to roll their tongues.
A1 Draw a table to show the number of people who are able to roll their tongues and
the number who are not able.
A2 Present your data using a suitable chart or graph.
A3 Make a conclusion.

Types of variation 95
 Continuous variation

A set of data has a range. To describe a range we find the

highest and lowest values. In the tables below, the top value
is 104 mm and the bottom value is 80 mm. We say that the Key terms
range is 'from 80 to 104 mm'.
Variation that may have any value in a range is continuous continuous variation:
variation. For example, very few people in your class have variation that can have
exactly the same height. Someone's height may have any any value within a range.
value within a range. data: numbers and
To show continuous variation on a bar chart, we put the words that can be
data into groups of smaller ranges. These ranges must not organised to give
overlap and must all be the same size. Here is an example information.
using pea pod length. range: the highest and
• Group your data: Look at the data showing pea pod lowest values in a set of
lengths. Groups could be: 80-84 mm, 85-89 mm, 90-95 data.
mm and so on. We do not include groups outside the
range of the data.
Lengths of some pea pods (mm)
80 99 104 84 96 94 97 98 89 90 88 91 93 96 87 88 90
• Draw a tally chart: We write the groups into a table
called a tally chart.

Complete the tally: One by one, we cross out each value

and put a mark in the 'tally column' to show its group.
Lengths of some pea pods (mm)
80 04 104 84-03 92 04 04 89 90 88 91 98 96 87 88 96 86 90 99

When you have four tally marks and

add a fifth, you draw it through the
other four. So //// means '5'.

96 Variety of living things

 Complete the totals: We add up each tally and write in the totals.
Grouped lengths Tally Total
of pea pods (mm)
80-84 // 2
85-89 m 5
90-94 mm 8
95-99 llll 4
100-104 / 1

• Draw a bar chart without gaps: We show the grouped data

on a bar chart. The data is continuous so we do not have gaps
between the bars.
Number of pea pods with
different lengths

Length of pea pod (mm)

Do not forget to write
names for the axes
on your bar chart and
include the units of
measurement.

4.18 Bar charts with gro u p ed continuous data do n o t have gaps betw een the bars.

Activity 4.4: Investigating continuous variation

Take off your shoes and stand against a wall or a board.
Ask someone to put a pencil on top of your head and make a mark.
Use a tape measure to measure the height of the mark. This is your height.
A1 Collect height measurements from others in your class.
A2 State the range of the measurements.
A3 Design groups for the measurements.
A4 Draw a tally chart for your data.
A5 Present your data using a bar chart.
A6 Make a conclusion about which heights are most common.
4.19

Types of variation
 State whether each of the following describes
continuous or discontinuous variation:
a) heights of trees
b) lengths of leaves
c) having an earring
d) number of times your heart beats in 10 seconds
e) the sizes of cakes.

Look at the data in the table below, which shows

some human heights.
1.76 m 1.70 m 1.56 m 1.87 m 1.60 m 1.67 m 1.75 m
1.83 m 1.61 m 1.84 m 1.82 m 1.77 m 1.72 m 1.57 m
a) Is this continuous or discontinuous variation?
b) What is the range of the data?
c) Draw a tally chart from the data. Use these
groups:
1.50-1.59 m, 1.60-1.69 m, 1.70-1.79 m, 1.80-1.89 m
d) Present this data using a suitable chart or graph.

Some ID cards contain information about variation.

When a person uses the card, a computer checks the
variations in the real person with the information
stored in the card.
Is it better to use continuous or discontinuous
variation about humans for ID cards?
Explain your reasoning.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Data that shows continuous variation I can identify the range of a set of data.
may have any value (within a range). I can divide data into smaller groups of
✓ Data that shows discontinuous equal size.
variation has a limited number of I can select and draw the correct type
options. of bar chart to show my continuous and
✓ On bar charts showing continuous discontinuous data.
variation, we show grouped sets of I can use evidence to make conclusions.
data without gaps between the bars.

98 Variety of living things

 End of chapter review

Quick questions
1. A characteristic that all mammals have is:
a hair b laying eggs
c wings d scales [1]
2. Grouping organisms with similar characteristics is:
a classification b organising
c boxing d dividing [1]
3. An animal is placed in the vertebrate group if it has:
a scales b blood
c a backbone d hair [1]
4. Plants that have needle-shaped leaves are in the group of:
a fungi b conifers
c flowering plants d ferns [1]
5. Variation that has a limited range of options is:
a characteristic b continuous
c discounted d discontinuous [1]
6. Read these word meanings. State the words that match each meaning.
(a) A group of organisms that can reproduce with one another and have
offspring that can also produce offspring. [1]
(b) The offspring produced when two different species reproduce. [1]
(c) When a type of organism stops existing. [1]
(d) Data used to show that an idea is correct or incorrect. [1]
7. State whether each of the following describes continuous or discontinuous
variation in humans:
(a) length of hair HI
(b) wearing glasses [1]
(c) having a scar [1]

End of chapter review 99

 (d) weight HI
(e) height Ml
(f) arm length. Ml
8. Name one kingdom that contains organisms that:
(a) have cell walls made of cellulose [1]
(b) move their bodies from place to place [1]
(c) make their own food. [1]
9. What characteristic of flowering plants does no other plant group have? [1]

Connect your understanding

10. Look at figures 4.20 and 4.21, which both show vertebrates.

4.20 Brahman cattle are common around 4.21 Yaks live m ainly in the Himalayas,
the world.

(a) Which kingdom do vertebrates belong to? [1]

(b) What group of vertebrates do both these organisms belong to? [1]
(c) Describe three characteristics that all members of this group of vertebrates
have, but that other groups of vertebrates do not have. [3]
(d) Choose two characteristics that vary between the two organisms and describe
the variation. [2]
11. The IN pika is an animal that looks a bit like a small rabbit. It is a herbivore and
lives high in the Tianshan mountains in China. The numbers of the animal are
decreasing. Scientists think that it might become extinct.
(a) Describe one adaptation you think the animal has. Explain your reasoning. [2]
(b) Suggest one reason why the Ili pike might become extinct. [1]
12. Scientists classify human blood into four different 'blood groups'. These are: A, B,
AB and O. Scientists in Saudi Arabia looked at the blood groups of 100 people.
The table shows their results.

100 Variety of living things

 Blood group Number of people
A 26
B 18
AB 4
0 52
(a) Is variation in blood group continuous or discontinuous? Explain your choice. [2]
(b) Present the data using a suitable chart or graph. [2]
13. The bar chart in figure 4.22 shows the results of Men's discus competition
the men's discus competition at the Rio Olympics results
in Brazil. The competition involves throwing a disc
as far as possible.
(a) Is variation in the bar chart continuous or
discontinuous? Explainyour choice. [2]
(b) How many men threw a distance between
55 and 59 m? [1]
(c) What was the most common range of 4.22
distances thrown? [13
14. Look at figure 4.23.
(a) Classify organisms W, X, Y and Z. Explain
how you make your choices. [8]
(b) The characteristics that you have used to
make your choices vary. Is this variation
continuous or discontinuous? Explain your v l/
answer. [2] JCH&
Y Z
15. The tally chart shows some lengths of beans. 4.23
Some parts of it are missing.

Grouped lengths of Tally Total

beans (mm)
70-74 //
75-79
80-84 m i
lin
l
5

90-94
Copy and complete the chart. [6]

End of chapter review 101

 16. List two groups of vertebrates that:

(a) lay jelly-coated eggs in water [2]

(b) have scales. [2]

Challenge question
17. A student measured the widths of some leaves from a large garden plant.
Their results are shown below.
6.8 7.0 5.5 5.6 7.7
6.7 7.2 5.9 5.5 5.8
6.2 5.9 6.1 6.2 7.6
6.0 6.7 6.9 5.8 7.1
5.7 6.8 6.4 6.3 7.0
(a) The student forgot to write down the units for measuring the leaves.
Suggest what the units are. HI
(b) What is the range of the data? [1]
(c) Draw a tally chart to display this data. [2]
(d) Use the data from your tally chart to draw a bar chart. [2]

102 Variety of living things

 End of stage review
1. (a) (i) The table shows the parts of a cell. The functions are not in the
correct order. Copy the table and put the functions of each part in the
correct order. [1]

Part Function
cell membrane makes new substances
chloroplast controls the cell
cytoplasm makes food
nucleus controls what enters and leaves the cell

(ii) Explain how you know that this is a plant cell. [1]
w
(b) The diagram shows some muscles in the leg.
(i) Give the reason why many muscles are found in
antagonistic pairs. [1]
(ii) State the letter of the muscle that contracts to
point the toes out straight. [1]
(c) Four different trees are planted in the same area.
Their heights are measured every year. The graph
shows this data.

The growth of four different

trees over 10 years

End of stage review 103

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(i) Which life process is shown in the graph? [1]
(ii) How tall was tree A after four years? [1]
(d) Copy and complete this table to show the functions of some different organ
systems and two organs found in each. [1]

Organ system Function Two organs

heart, blood vessels
to digest food and
absorb it into the blood » t.

(e) Red blood cells have an indented shape. Explain how this is an adaptation
for their function. [1]
2. (a) In the seventeenth century, many people
thought that meat made maggots.
Francesco Redi did not believe this. He did
an experiment to get evidence to support
his idea that maggots in meat came from
flies. The drawing shows part of the
experiment.
(i) Make a prediction about what will happen
in jars A and B. Explain your predictions.
In the nineteenth century, a scientist showed that something from the
air made soup spoil. The drawing shows part of one of his experiments.

Flask C

(ii) What was the name of this scientist? [1]

(iii) Make a prediction about what will happen in flasks C and D.
Explain your predictions. [1]

104 End of stage review

r (b) Each year scientists make a new vaccine for flu (influenza).
(i) What is a vaccine? [1]
(ii) Explain why the scientists making the vaccine wear face masks. [1]
(c) A student made batches of bread dough, with different amounts of
sugar in each batch. The student put each dough in a measuring cylinder
and left them all for 40 minutes. The table shows the results.

Batch Mass of sugar added (g) Increase in the height of the

dough after 40 minutes (cm)
1 0 3
2 2 4
3 4 10
4 6 15
5 8 19

(i) Explain why the dough rises. [1]

(ii) State two variables that should be kept the same. [1]
(iii) Use the evidence in the table to make a conclusion. [1]
3. (a) The drawings show an Arctic fox, a desert fox and a red fox.

thick white fur medium thickness red fur thin brown fur

(i) Which is the Arctic fox? [1]

(ii) Explain two ways in which the desert fox is adapted to its habitat. [1]
(b) Arctic hares feed on saxifrage plants. Ermine are prey of snowy owls.
Ermine are predators of Arctic hares.

End of stage review 105

 (i) Show these organisms in a food chain. [1]
(ii) In the food chain, give one organism that is a top predator, and one
that is a primary consumer. [ 1]

(c) The bar chart shows the number of bird deaths caused by wind turbines
in the USA.

M onth

(i) Wind turbines are a renewable source of energy. What does renewable
mean? [1]
(ii) Apart from being renewable and killing birds, give one advantage and
one disadvantage of wind turbines compared with burning fossil fuels. [1]
(iii) Suggest an explanation for why there are more deaths of birds in some
months compared to others. [1]
4. (a) A group of organisms that can reproduce with one another and have
offspring that can also produce offspring is: [1]
a a hybrid b a kingdom c an echinoderm d a species
(b) A small creature with thick white fur lives only in the high areas of Mount
Lewis in Australia. Its name is the white lemuroid ringtail possum.
Some scientists think that global warming will make it extinct.
(i) This animal is a vertebrate. What type of vertebrate is it? Explain your
reasoning. [1]
(ii) Suggest an explanation for why this animal may become extinct. [1]

106 End of stage review

(C) A student measured the lengths of some leaves on one type of plant. The
student measured the leaves in centimetres with a ruler.

10.8 11.0 10.5 12.6 11.7

12.7 10.2 12.9 12.5 12.0

12.2 11.9 10.1 11.2 12.6

11.0 11.7 11.9 12.8 12.1

11.7 10.8 11.4 11.3 12.0

(i) What type of variation does this data show? [ 1]

(ii) Copy and complete this tally chart for this data. [ 1]

Grouped lengths of Tally Total

leaves (cm)
10.1-10.5
10.6-11.0
11.1-11.5
11.6-12.0
12.1-12.5
12.6-13.0
(iii) What type of graph or chart would you use to plot the data from your
tally chart? [1]

(d) Copy and complete these sentences.

Mushrooms and yeasts belong to th e --------------------------kingdom.

Bacteria belong to the 'prokaryote kingdom'. Unlike organisms

in all other kingdoms, the cells of prokaryotes do not contain

[1]
[total 30 marks]

End of stage review 107

 Chemistry
C hapter 5: Properties o f m a tte r and m a te r ia ls

5.1: T h e s ta te s o f m a tte r no
5.2: C h a n g in g sta te 113
5.3: E v ery d a y m a te ria ls a n d th e ir p ro p e rtie s 118
5.4: C o m p a rin g m e ta ls an d n o n -m e ta ls 121
End o f c h a p te r re v ie w I2 5

C h a p te r 6: T h e E a rth

6.1: R ocks an d so ils I2 8

6.2: F o ssils an d th e fo s s il reco rd 136
6.3: S tru c tu re o f th e E arth *4 °
End o f c h a p te r re v ie w :42

C hapter 7: A c id s and a lk a lis

7 .1: A c id s, a lk a lis an d th e pH s c a le 145

7.2: N e u tra lisa tio n I 5°
End o f c h a p te r re v ie w 1 53

End o f s ta g e re v ie w I S6

108
 Chapter 5
P ro p ertie s o f m a tte r an d m a te ria ls

W hat s it all a b o u t ?

Engineers can build very tall towers, like the

Burj Khalifa tow er in Dubai, because they
choose m aterials, like steel and concrete,
w hich are strong. Steel is strong because the
tiny particles in a m etal are held together
strongly. These forces betw een particles also
m ake steel hard to m elt. To change steel into a
liquid the tem perature m ust be over 1000 °C.

You w ill learn about:

• How the arrangem ent and m ovement of tiny particles
give solids, liquids and gases different properties
• W h at happens to these particles during changes of
state, including m elting and boiling
• The d iffe re n t physical properties o f m aterials, and
w h y m aterials are chosen fo r d iffe re n t uses
• The d ifferences betw een m etals and non-m etals,
and h ow to test th e ir properties
You w ill build yo ur skills in:
• Choosing th e right equipm ent to investigate a
3^ 5 K ^ -> ? 5 5 question
• D raw ing line graphs and recognising results th a t fit
a pattern
• W ritin g predictions, and using results from an
investigation to decide if your prediction is correct

Properties of matter and materials 109

 Chapter 5 . Topic 1 Learning outcomes
• To use particle theory to
The states of matter explain the properties of
solids, liquids and gases
• To make careful observations

r Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Substances can be solids, liquids or gases Sort (group) m aterials using th e ir properties
M ake a prediction and say if evidence supports a
V_____________________________________________________________ prediction

Solids, liquids and gases

Substances exist as solids, liquids and gases. These are the

three states of matter.
What solids, liquids and gases are in this photograph?

Activity 5.1: The properties of states of matter

Water can exist in all three states.
You have three balloons containing water in each state. 5.1 The mountain, lake and the
air in this picture are made o f
different substances.

Air and
* , water
fh
Ice vapour
(gases)
(solid) Liquid Key terms
water
physical properties: the
5.2 Your breath contains water vapour because the inside o f your properties of an object
lungs is wet. So, when you blow into a balloon, the balloon contains that can be observed and
air and water vapour. measured.
Observe each balloon. state of matter: the
three forms that a
Use these tests to compare the physical properties of
substance can exist in:
solids, liquids and gases.
solid, liquid and gas.
For each balloon:
vapour: liquid that has
• can you compress (squash) it? evaporated to form a gas.
• can the contents flow (move from place to place)?
Your teacher will burst the balloons. Make a
prediction: will the substance inside stay the same
shape or change?

110 Properties of matter and materials

 Properties of solids, liquids and gases

Solids have a fixed shape and volume. They cannot flow or

Key term
be compressed.
Liquids have a fixed volume but not a fixed shape. They can volume: how much
flow but cannot be compressed. space a substance takes
up. Measured in cm3
Gases do not have a fixed shape or volume. They can flow
or litres. Also called
and be compressed.
'capacity'.
For each statement, identify the state of matter.
a) The state of matter that can flow but cannot be
compressed.
b) Wood and ice are always in this state.
c) The state of matter that cannot flow.
d) The only state of matter that can be compressed.

Tariq reads in a book that water is a liquid. Explain

why this is not always true.

Sarah and Zoha are talking about the states of matter.

Sarah says that sand is a solid.
Zoha says that sand must be a liquid because it can
flow through your hands.
Who is correct? Give a reason for your answer.

Particle theory

All solids, liquids and gases are made of tiny particles such as
atoms or molecules. You cannot see these particles because 5.3 You can pour a liquid from one
they are much too small. container into another because
The properties of solids, liquids and gases are different liquids can flow. The volume will
because their particles are arranged differently. This be the same in each container but
the liquid's shape will change.
model is called particle theory. In science, models help us
understand something we cannot actually see. When we use
a model, we must remember it is just a way to think about Key terms
something. There will be some differences to the real thing.
model: simple way of
solid
5.4 In a solid the particles are all touching. showing or explaining a
This explains why you cannot compress a solid. complicated object or idea.
The particles are held together by strong forces.
particle theory: model that
This explains why the shape o f a solid does not change. It is fixed.
describes how particles are
The particles are vibrating (shaking from side to side) but
arranged differently in solids,
they cannot move around.
liquids and gases.
This explains why solids cannot flow.

The states of matter

 liquid
5.5 The particles in a liquid are all touching.
This explains why you cannot compress a liquid.
The particles are moving; they can move past one another.
This explains why liquids can flow and why they take the
shape o f their container.

gas
5.6 The particles in a gas are far apart.

H
This explains why you can compress a gas; you can push 5.7 When a gas is compressed
the particles together. the particles are pushed closer
together.

The particles are moving around very fast in all directions.

This explains why gases can flow and fill their container, i

Build a model of a solid, liquid and a gas. Your model should show the particles, how
they are arranged and how they move.
You have dried peas, modelling clay, and a plastic bottle with a lid to build your model.
Think about:
• What can be used to represent the particles?
• The particles in a solid are held together by strong forces. How can you model this?
• Use the bottle as a container to put your model liquid or model gas into. How can you
model how the particles are arranged and move in a liquid and a gas? Hint: you can
move the bottle.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Substances are made up of tiny particles. I can make careful observations.
✓ The three states of matter are solids, I can group substances as solids, liquids
liquids and gases. and gases.
✓ Solids, liquids and gases have different I can use particle theory to explain the
properties because their particles are properties of solids, liquids and gases.
arranged differently. This model is
called particle theory.

112 Properties of matter and materials

Chapter 5 . Topic 2 Learning outcomes
• To use particle theory to
Changing state explain what happens during
changes in state
• To draw a line graph and
describe the pattern

Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
M elting occurs w h en a solid turns into a liquid M easure tem p eratu re and tim e
and is th e reverse o f freezin g
The boiling point o f w a te r is 100 °C and th e Use results tables and line graphs
m elting point of ice is 0 °C
Evaporation occurs w h en a liquid turns into a
gas
Condensation occurs w h en a gas tu rn s into a
Jiq u id and is th e reverse o f evap oration_______________________________________________________

Changes in state

If you leave ice in a warm place, it changes from a solid into

a liquid (water).
This change in state is called melting.
Changes in state are reversible changes. So, if you put the
water from the melted ice into a freezer, it will freeze and
change back into ice.

melting boiling Key terms

> gas
< -------- < ---------- boiling: the change of state
freezing condensation from liquid to gas.
condensation: the change
of state from gas to liquid.
5.8 Some changes in state.
freezing: the change of
Name the change of state happening in each state from liquid to solid.
example listed below.
melting: the change of
a) A gold ring is heated until it turns into liquid gold. state from solid to liquid.
b) Drops of water form on a bathroom mirror. reversible change: change
c) A chocolate bar is left in a warm kitchen. in a substance that can be
changed back again.
d) A layer of ice forms on top of a lake in winter.
--------------------------------------
Changing state 113
 Three students were asked what would happen to
the mass of an ice cube as it melted.
Who is correct?
Aisha: The mass will go down because liquids have
less mass than solids.
Zain: The mass will stay the same because no particles 5.9 Steam is a gas formed when
in the ice have been lost or gained. water boils. It is invisible. What
Adnan: The mass will go up because the water takes you see above the kettle are tiny
up more space than the ice. droplets o f water formed when
the steam condenses in the air.

Explaining changes in state

When a change in state happens, the energy of the particles

changes.
During melting and boiling, heating increases the energy of
the particles in the material.
During freezing and condensation, the energy of the
particles decreases.
You can use particle theory to explain what happens when a
material changes state.
When a solid melts the particles vibrate faster. Some of the
particles gain enough energy to move away from the others.
Eventually, all the particles are moving faster and slightly
further apart. The material has melted and is now a liquid.
When a liquid freezes the particles move around less. Some
of the particles move even closer together. Eventually
the particles cannot move around, only vibrate in a fixed
position. The material has frozen and is now a solid.
It is important to remember that the size of particles
does not change during a change in state. Only their
arrangement and movement changes.

Describe what happens to the particles when a liquid

is heated to form a gas.
gas

5.10 The red arrows show

Melting and boiling points heating. The particles move more,
weakening the forces between
The temperature at which a material melts is called its them. The blue arrows show
melting point. This is the same as its freezing point. cooling. The particles move less, so
the forces between them increase
The temperature at which a material boils is called its
in strength.
boiling point.
 5.2
This is the method to measure the melting point of a solid
and the boiling point of a liquid. Key term s
A Place the material (a solid or liquid) into a suitable boiling point: the
container. Use a thermometer to measure its temperature a substance
temperature. boils at, and changes
B Heat the material. from a liquid into a gas.

C Use a thermometer to measure the temperature every melting point: the

minute until the temperature stops changing. This is the temperature a substance
melting or boiling point. melts at, and changes
from a solid into a liquid.

The temperature Time Temperature

was taken at the (minutes) of water (°C)
start, before she
started heating 0 21
the water. This is 1 45
0 minutes.
2 67
The variable you 3 84
change is written 4 93
in the first column.
5 98
6 100
7 100
8 100

Table 5.1 Results table for measuring the boiling point o f water.

Activity 5.3 Measuring the boiling point of water

Aisha measured the boiling point of water.
She used a results table to show her results (table 5.1).
A1 Plot the results in the table as a line graph. Remember:
• The variable that was changed (time) goes on the horizontal axis.
• The variable that was measured (temperature) goes on the vertical axis.
• Label each axis. Use the column headings from the table.
• Plot each point as a cross.
• Join the crosses up.
A2 Describe the pattern in the graph by filling in these sentences:
Between the time o f ________minutes a n d ________ minutes the temperature increased
fro m ______°C t o ______°C.
At the time o f ________minutes the temperature stayed a t ________ °C and did not
increase any more.
A3 What is the boiling point of water? How can you tell from the graph?

Changing state 1
 A scientist wanted to find the melting point of
naphthalene.
They put some solid naphthalene into a test tube and
heated it until it melted. Then they put the test tube
into a beaker of ice to cool the naphthalene.
They measured the temperature of the naphthalene
every minute for 18 minutes.
They drew this graph.

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Time (min)

5.11 A graph to show the temperature o f liquid naphthalene as

it cools.

a) Describe the pattern in the results.

b) Describe what the scientist would have observed
between 4 and 11 minutes.
c) Use the graph to find out the melting point of
naphthalene.

W hat is the difference between boiling and evaporation?

Wet clothes dry because the water in them changes into a

gas (water vapour).
But, the water has not boiled. Boiling only happens if the
water reaches a temperature of 100 °C.
The water has evaporated. Key term
Both boiling and evaporating are changes of state when a
liquid turns into a gas. evaporating: the
change of state from
Boiling only happens at the liquid's boiling point. liquid to gas that
Evaporation can happen at any temperature below the happens below the
boiling point. boiling point.

116 Properties of matter and materials

 5.2

When a liquid evaporates some of the particles at the surface

gain enough energy to move away from the other particles.
The particles spread out. They are now in a gas.
When a liquid boils all the particles in the liquid gain
enough energy to move away from each other, so the liquid
quickly changes into a gas. Bubbles of gas form throughout 5 12 During evaporation some o f
the liquid. They rise to the surface and then leave the liquid. the particles in the liquid leave the
liquid as a gas.

5.13 The bubbles in boiling water contain a gas (steam).

Traditional clay pot coolers keep food cool without

electricity. They work because of evaporation.
There are two pots, separated by a layer of sand. Water is
poured onto the sand.
As the water evaporates from the sand, it transfers energy
away from inner pot, keeping the food cool.

✓ Heating makes particles move more.

✓ If the particles in a solid gain enough energy,
the attractive forces between them cannot
hold them together. The solid melts to
become a liquid.
»/ If the particles in a liquid lose enough energy, Check your skills progress:
the particles move less and the attractive
forces between them can now hold them | can draw a line graph to show
together. The liquid freezes to form a solid. how the temperature of a material
...... , ... . . „ ___. . . ___ changes as it is heated or cooled
✓ Melting happens at the material s melting point. a
I can describe the pattern in a graph.
✓ Boiling happens at its boiling point.

Changing state 117

 Chapter 5 . Topic 3
Learning outcomes
Everyday materials • To describe the physical
properties of materials
and their properties • To make a prediction and
decide if evidence supports it
• To choose suitable apparatus
to collect evidence to test an
idea and use it correctly

r Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
D iffe ren t m aterials have Sort (group) m aterials using
d iffe re n t properties such as th e ir properties
hard, soft, shiny
M aterials are chosen for different M ake a prediction and say if
uses because of their properties evidence supports a prediction
5.14 Diamond drills are used to
Choose w h a t evidence to collect scratch designs into glass. This
to investigate a question works because diamond is harder
V Design a fa ir test than glass.

Physical properties

Materials have different physical properties. These are

things that can be observed and measured. Comparing the
results helps us to choose the best material to use.
Hard materials cannot easily be scratched or dented.
Strong materials need a large force to break them.

Safer building materials

5.15 The rope used to build rope
Earthquakes often happen in Indonesia. The materials
bridges has to be very strong.
used to make bricks need to be strong so buildings do not
collapse. The local people who make bricks are getting
help from organisations who show them how to make
stronger bricks that will help keep their community safe.

Activity 5.4: Comparing hardness

Your teacher will give you some different materials.
A1 In a group, discuss how you could compare the
hardness of the materials.
A2 Use your method to list the materials in order of how
hard they are. 5.16 Strong bricks can help proter.
people during earthquakes.

118 Properties of matter and materials

 Absorbent materials

Some materials are absorbent. This means liquids soak

into them.
Other materials do not absorb liquids.

Activity 5.5: W hich type of paper is the most

absorbent?
You will be given some different types of paper. Your task 5.17 A sponge is absorbent.
is to investigate how absorbent each is.
Think about these questions:
A1 The type of paper is the variable you will change.
What variable will you measure?
A2 What equipment will you need to do this? Key terms
A3 How will you use it to answer the question?
absorbent: soaks up
A4 What variables will you keep the same? These are liquids.
your control variables.
control variables:
A5 Which paper do you think will be the most
absorbent? Why do you think this? This is your variables that you keep
prediction. the same during an
investigation.
A6 When you have collected your results use them to say
which paper was the most absorbent. prediction: what you
think will happen in an
A7 Was your prediction correct?
investigation.

Flexible, brittle and malleable materials Key terms

Flexible materials are easy to bend and will not break when brittle: breaks when
bent. Clothes made of cotton are flexible. bent.
A brittle material will break when it is bent. Ceramic tiles flexible: can be easily
are brittle. bent and will not break.
Malleable materials can be made into a new shape. They malleable: can be
can be squashed, flattened or bent and will stay in their formed into different
new shape. Clay is malleable; it can be used to form many shapes.
different shapes.

5.18 A twig is brittle. 5.19 A rubber ball is flexible. 5.20 Bread dough is malleable.

Everyday materials and their properties 119

 State if each of these materials is flexible, brittle or
malleable:
a) glass jug
b) plastic drinking straw
c) wooden pencil.

^ Name a material that has these physical properties:

a) flexible and absorbent
b) hard and brittle
c) malleable and flexible.

Opaque and transparent materials

Glass is a good choice of material for windows because it

Key terms
allows light to pass through it. It is transparent.
Other materials are not transparent. They are opaque. opaque: light cannot
Opaque materials do not let light pass through them. Wood pass through it.
is an example of an opaque material. transparent: light can
Some materials have different types that have different pass through it.
properties. For example, some types of plastic are
transparent. Others are opaque.

Name an object in a kitchen that is:

a) transparent
b) opaque.

Glass is not always transparent. Explain why this is true. 5.21 The plastic used for the cups
is transparent. The plastic straws
Describe how you could test different plastics to see are opaque.
which is the most transparent.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Materials have physical properties I can choose the correct equipment to
such as absorbent, flexible, brittle, collect evidence to answer a question.
malleable, transparent, opaque.
I can write a prediction using scientific
✓ Materials are chosen for a particular knowledge.
use because of their properties.
I can use evidence collected from an
investigation to say whether a prediction
is correct, or not.

120 Properties of matter and materials

C h a p te r 5 . Topic 4

Comparing metals
and non-metals

r Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Some materials are better Use results to draw
conductors of electricity than others conclusions
Some metals are good conductors
of electricity and most other
^materials are not >

Metals and non-metals

All materials can be grouped as either a metal or a non-

metal, using their physical properties.
Metals have useful physical properties, for example many
are hard and strong. Examples of metals include gold,
copper, iron and steel.
Metals are used to make many different objects.
A material that is not a metal is a non-metal. Examples of 5.22 Steel is hard, strong and
non-metals are plastic, glass, water and air. malleable. It is used to make
Non-metals have different physical properties to metals. bridges.
They are dull, not shiny, and often have low melting and
boiling points.

Metals and non-metals in the Burj Khalifa tower

Most buildings in hot places do not have many
windows. This is because heat, as well as light, passes
through glass. The Burj Khalifa has 24 000 windows
to let the people inside enjoy the views. The glass
used has a very thin layer of metal on it. The metal
lets the light pass through but heat is reflected. This
keeps the building cool inside.

5.23 The Burj Khalifa tower in Dubai is

built from a non-metal called concrete.
Steel rods are put inside the concrete to
add strength.
 Testing the properties of metals and non-metals

Most metals have these physical properties: strong, hard,

high melting and boiling point, shiny and malleable.
But, it is very difficult to decide if a material is a metal based
on just these properties. For example, not all metals are
hard. Lead is very soft and can also easily be bent by hand.
5.24 Copper is malleable so can be
Also, some non-metals have these properties. Diamond bent to form water pipes.
is a non-metal that is very hard. There are some other
properties that can be tested to decide if a material is a
metal or non-metal.

Activity 5.6: Metal or non-metal?

Your teacher will give you some objects. Your task is to
decide if each object is made of a metal or a non-metal
and place them into two groups.
Think about these questions:
5.25 Gallium is an unusual metal. It
• What physical properties can you observe? has a low melting point and melts
• Can you decide if it is a metal or non-metal just by when heated by your hand.
observing the material?

If a material is a good conductor of heat then heat will pass

through it quickly. Bad conductors of heat are called insulators.

Activity 5.7: Testing conduction of heat

Grace and Rio carried out an investigation to find out if metals and non-metals are good
or bad conductors of heat.
This is the method they used:
A Use rods made out of different materials: some metals and some non-metals.
B Stick drawing pins along one rod using a small bit of candle wax.
C Heat one end of the rod. Time how long it takes for each drawing pin to fall off.
Record your results.
D Repeat this with the other rods. Make sure you stick the drawing pins at the same
distances along the rods.

r°d
f— - )
^ — ^ r 1---------
yA yb yc
— boiling water

f
Source of energy
from a burner

5.26 Equipment used to find out how good different materials are at conducting heat.

122 Properties of matter and materials

 Here are their results:

Rod material Time taken for drawing pin to fall off (seconds)
A B C
Plastic 15 600+ 600+
Copper 4 7 9
Wood 32 600+ 600+
Steel 8 13 19

A1 Other than the distance between the pins, name three control variables the
students used.
A2 Why did the drawing pins fall off?
A3 Draw conclusions. For each conclusion you write, describe how the results provide
evidence for this.
a) Which material was the best conductor of heat?
b) Are metals or non-metals the best conductors of heat?
c) Are some metals better conductors of heat than others?

Testing conduction of electricity

To test if a material is a conductor of electricity, you can

place it in an electrical circuit with a battery.
If the material conducts electricity the circuit is completed
and the bulb will light up.

Activity 5.8: Testing conduction of electricity

Grace and Rio then carried out an investigation using the
equipment shown in figure 5.28. 5.27 The circuit contains a gap.
Their results are shown in the table below. The light bulb is off.

Material Type of Was the bulb

material on or off?
Wooden stick Non-metal off
Iron nail Metal on
Plastic straw Non-metal off
Pencil with wires Non-metal on
connected to the grey
graphite inside
Copper strip Metal on
5.28 The light bulb is on. The
Table 5.2 Results from the experiment.
material can conduct electricity.

Comparing metals and non-metals 123

 Use the results table to answer these questions:
A1 Which of these materials conducts electricity?
A2 Rio concluded that some non-metals can conduct
electricity. Describe the evidence from the results
that supports his conclusion.
A3 Grace concluded that all metals conduct electricity.
a) Explain why she cannot be sure from this
evidence.
b) Suggest what Grace could do to be more
confident in this conclusion.

Using evidence to make conclusions

Results from investigations are evidence that all metals are

good conductors of heat and electricity.
Non-metals are usually bad conductors of heat and
electricity. This means heat and electricity do not pass
through them easily. They are insulators.

✓ Materials can be grouped as metals or I can decide if a material is a metal or non­

non-metals. metal based on its physical properties.
✓ Metals are usually hard, strong, I can make conclusions from evidence,
malleable, and good conductors of
heat and electricity.

124 Properties of matter and materials

—

End of chapter review

Quick questions
1. Materials in which state of matter can be compressed? [1]
a only liquids b only gases
c liquids and gases d solids, liquids and gases
2. Describe the difference in movement of particles in solids and liquids. [2]
3. Name two changes in state where the energy of the particles increases. [2]
4. At what temperature will a liquid freeze? [1]
a at 0 °C b at its melting point
c at its boilingpoint d at any temperature below 100 °C
5. Which one of these is not a physical property of materials? [1]
a hardness b colour
c how quickly it reacts with water d how well it conducts electricity

6. A plastic called polythene is used to make shopping bags.

Name two physical properties that make polythene suitable for this use. [2]

7. Some materials can conduct heat. Describe what this means. [1]

8. Magnesium is a metal. Suggest three physical properties of magnesium. [3]

Connect your understanding

9. If you cool a gas enough it will turn into a liquid.
Explain what happens to the particles in the gas during this process. [2]

10. Copper is a malleable metal that is a good conductor of heat.

Explain how these physical properties make it useful as a material to make
cooking pans. [2]
o■
%
11. Two students were discussing what happens to a solid when it melts.
Jack: The solid particles will turn into liquid particles.

Mira: The particles will stay the same.

(a) Which student is correct? [1]

(b) Describe what happens to the particles when a solid melts. [3]
______________________________________ J
End of chapter review 125
 12. Amir heated a solid, X. He measured the temperature every 30 seconds.
His results are shown in the table.

Time (s) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240

Temperature of X (°C) 22 28 45 59 59 59 66 79 84

(a) Estimate the melting point of X. Explain how you used the results to decide
this. [2]

—
(b) Amir concludes that X is probably a non-metal. Suggest why he thinks this,
based on the evidence he has collected. [1]
(c) Describe another experiment he can carry out to collect evidence to support
his conclusion. [4]
13. A cup of water was left in a room overnight.
Predict what would happen to the volume of water in the cup.

Give a scientific explanation for your prediction. [4]

Challenge question
14. The melting point of iron is much higher than the melting point of water.
Suggest why. Use particle theory in your answer. [3]

II

126 Properties of matter and materials

 C h a p te r 6
T h e E arth

What’s it all about?

Our Earth form ed over 4.5 billion years ago.
Most of the Earth is m ade from rock, but it has
a large m etal ball at its centre.
Scientists study rocks to find out w hat the Earth
is m ade from, how it has changed and how life
on Earth has changed. Some rocks contain the
rem ains of plants and anim als from m illions of
years ago. At these cliffs in Canada the w orld’s
oldest known fossil reptile w as found along
w ith fossils of extinct giant trees, ferns and
insects from 300 m illion years ago.

You w ill learn about:

• H ow d iffe re n t types of rocks form
• W h a t fossils are and w h a t th ey tell us abo ut how
long life has existed on Earth
• A sim ple model o f th e structure o f the Earth
• H ow scientists can estim ate th e age of th e Earth
You w ill build your skills in:
• O bserving and classifying m aterials
• Choosing th e right variables to change, control and
m easure in an exp erim en t
• Presenting conclusions from collected data
J • Researching cu rren t scientific th in kin g using
secondary sources

The Earth 127

 Chapter 6 . Topic 1 Learning outcomes
• To observe and classify
Rocks and soils different types of rocks
and soils
• To describe how different
rocks form
• To choose variables to
change, control and measure
in an experiment

r Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Th ere are d iffe re n t types o f rock Present data using tables
Everyday m aterials, including rocks and soil, Plan how to carry out a fa ir test
can be sorted into groups because o f th eir
properties
Scientists com bine evidence from observation Use results to m ake conclusions
^and m easurem ents to suggest n ew ideas - ___________________________________________________________________________________ — >

6.1 Not all rocks look the same.

Key terms
Rocks are very important. We use them all the time, to build
houses, buildings and statues. crystal: solid in which
Rocks are made from different minerals. These minerals particles are arranged in
have different shapes and colours and are made of different a regular pattern.
substances, which is why rocks look so different and have mineral: solid substance
different properties. with a fixed chemical
Some rocks have layers and some have crystals. composition. Most
minerals are crystals.
Make a list of five different ways that rocks can be
used.

128 The Earth

 Activity 6.1: Observation skills: what can you see?
Your teacher may give you some rock samples to look at carefully. Alternatively, look
carefully at the following rock photographs.
A1 Write at least one observation for each rock.
Use the following key terms to help you: large crystals, small crystals, layers, light, dark,
rough, smooth, colours, pattern, fossil.
A2 Use the similarities and differences that you observe to sort the rocks into groups. Be
ready to talk about how you decided to put the rocks into different groups.

6.5 Conglom erate 6.6 Slate 6.7 Basalt

IW
6.8 Lim estone

Properties of rocks
Key term
Rocks also have different properties. For example, the
porosity of the rock, how it reacts with acid or how hard it is. porosity: the amount
of empty space in a
You can use these differences in properties to classify rocks
material.
into groups.

Rocks and soils 129

 Activity 6.2: Testing the properties of rocks
You are going to investigate the properties of some different rocks by testing them. For
example, the scratch test is done to test how hard a rock is.
Your teacher will show you how to carry out the tests before you start.
You must draw a results table to record your results.
Remember: write down the name of the rock and describe what it looks like.
A1 Which rock was the hardest? How did you reach this conclusion?
A2 Which rock was the most porous? How did you reach this conclusion?

Which rock is most likely to contain oil or gas? Why? Key terms

igneous rock: rock

formed when magma
Igneous rocks
cools and solidifies.
Rocks are classified by how they formed. lava: magma at the
Earth's surface.
Igneous rocks are sometimes called volcanic rocks. They
form when molten rock called magma or lava cools and magma: molten rock
solidifies. found below the Earth's
surface.
Igneous rocks can form above or beneath the Earth's
surface. They contain crystals. There are no spaces between scratch test: test to see
the crystals, which means that igneous rocks have a low how hard a rock is, by
porosity. how easy it is to scratch.
The size of the crystals depends on how slowly the magma
cools and solidifies. If the magma cools underground, it
cools and solidifies very slowly. This can take thousands of
years. This means the crystals have time to grow, so they are
large.
Granite is an igneous rock formed in this way.
If the magma is erupted at the surface of the Earth, for
example at a volcano, it is called lava. Lava at the Earth's
surface cools and solidifies quickly. This means the crystals
do not have time to grow and the crystals are small.
Basalt is an igneous rock formed in this way.

6.10/4 volcano e ru p tin g .

130 The Earth

 Look at figure 6.9. Would you expect rocks with small
crystals to form at A, B or C?

Would you expect rocks with large crystals to form at

A, B or C?

Explain why granite has large crystals and basalt has

small crystals.

Activity 6.3: How do igneous rocks form?

You are a particle in an igneous rock.
Describe how your igneous rock formed and include in your description:
• where you formed
• what you formed from - lava or magma
• how big your crystals are
• how long it took to cool down.
Your description could be a story, or a series of pictures with explanations.

Danger! Volcano erupting

Krakatoa erupted in August 1883 and was one of the
most deadly volcanic eruptions of modern history,
killing at least 35 000 people.
There were four major eruptions. The fourth made
the loudest sound ever recorded on the planet. It
was heard from 3000 miles away.
Most of the deaths that occurred when this volcano
erupted were actually due to enormous waves
(tsunamis) which destroyed coastal villages and
6.11 K ra ka to a , a volca n o in In d o n esia th a t
towns.
is still active.

Look at figure 6.12. This is another type of igneous rock

called pumice, which is sometimes made when a volcano
erupts. Pumice floats on water.

O What properties does pumice have, that make it

different from other igneous rocks?

o Why do you think the rock has holes in it?

6.12 Pum ice, a volcanic ig n e o u s

rock.

Rocks and soils 131

 Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are another type of rock. They form in

layers, as you can see in figure 6.13. Sedimentary rocks are
formed when other rocks are broken down into smaller
pieces and are transported by water, wind or ice. When the
pieces of rock stop moving, they are deposited (dropped) as
sediments.
More and more sediments are dropped and layers start to 6.13 Layers in a se d im e n ta ry rock.
form. The weight of the sediments compresses (squashes)
the layers below so any water is squeezed out.
Chemicals form that hold the sediment particles together
and the layers gradually turn into sedimentary rock.
Sandstone is a type of sedimentary rock which is made from
sand grains.
Sedimentary rocks often contain the traces or remains of
dead organisms. These remains are called fossils.
Limestone is a type of sedimentary rock that often contains 6.14 D ea d p la n ts a n d anim als
the shells and skeletons of dead organisms that lived in the tra p p e d in se d im e n ts m ay ch a n g e
sea. in to fossils o v e r m illio n s o f years.

Key terms

fossils: the traces

or remains of dead
organisms that lived
thousands or millions of
years ago.
sedimentary rocks:
rocks formed from layers
of sediment deposited by
6.15 U luru (A yers Rock), a h u g e sa n d sto n e ro ck in th e m id d le o f A u stra lia . water, wind or ice.
sediments: small pieces
The layers of sandstone at Uluru (figure 6.15) contain of rock, such as pebbles,
many fossils of sea animals. How did these fossils get sand and mud.
to the middle of Australia?

Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are made when sedimentary or igneous

rocks are changed over many thousands of years by very high
temperatures or very high pressure (squeezing) or both.
Metamorphic rocks are made of crystals. The rocks are hard
and the crystals have no spaces between them, so they have 6.16 M a rb le, a m e ta m o rp h ic ro ck

a low porosity. w h ich is o fte n p o lish e d a n d u se d

on flo o rs a n d to m ake tiles.

132 The Earth

'h e sedimentary rock, limestone, changes into marble when
it is heated to high temperatures. The limestone does not Key term
melt, it forms solid crystals.
metamorphic rock:
rock formed when
Could marble contain fossils? Why?
sedimentary or igneous
rocks are changed by very
Figure 6.17 shows a sample of slate. This is another example high temperatures and/or
of a metamorphic rock. It is formed when mudstone, a pressure.
sedimentary rock made from clay, is compressed over
thousands of years.

Describe how igneous rocks are changed into

metamorphic rocks.

6.17 Slate, a m e ta m o rp h ic rock.

Soil is one of the Earth's most important resources. It is

needed for growing plants to feed animals and people.
Soil is a mixture of different substances formed in layers. It
is made of small particles of rock, dead animals and plants,
water and air.
The top soil is made mostly from sand and clay particles. Its
rich brown colour comes from decaying twigs and leaves
from plants. This is called humus. 6.18 The layers in soil.

The next layer contains mostly pieces of rock.

Key terms
The three main types of soil are clay, loam and sandy soil.
• Clay soil is made up of very small rock particles which fit humus: the part of soil
together closely, so there are not many spaces. which is made from dead
or rotting plant material.
• Sandy soil has bigger rock particles with bigger spaces
between them. soil: mixture of small
particles of rock, dead
• Loam soil is a mixture of clay and sand. animals and plants, water
and air.

Activity 6.4: Investigating soil content

A scientist wants to find out how much water is in different soils. They weigh soil samples
on a balance and record their masses.
The soil sample is then put into a warm oven for one day.
Water evaporates from the soil when it is in the oven.
The soil is weighed again and the mass recorded.

Rocks and soils 133

 The results of the experiment are shown in the table below.

Soil sample Mass at start (g) Mass after warming (g) Change in mass (g)
A 100 95 5

E 102 92

A1 Complete the table. One row has been done for you.
A2 Draw a bar chart to show your results.
A3 Which soil sample contained the most water?
A4 Why do you think the amount of water was different for different soil samples?
A5 Why is the water content of a sandy soil usually much less than for a clay soil?
A6 How could the scientist make the data from the investigation more reliable?

Activity 6.5: Investigating soil draining Key terms

How quickly does water pass through soil? dependent variable:

Plan an investigation to find out how quickly water will variable you decide
pass though different types of soil. to measure in an
experiment.
In your investigation, you will change one variable,
measure another variable and control all other variables. independent variable:
variable you decide to
When producing your plan you should include the
change in an experiment.
following:
• a list of the apparatus you will use reliable: measurements
are reliable when
• a list of the things you will do - your method repeated measurements
• what you will change (the independent variable) and give results that are very
what you will measure (the dependent variable) similar.
• a list of the things you will keep the same (the control variable: something that
variables) may change.
• a table to record your results.
A1 Carry out your investigation and record your results.
A2 Draw a bar chart to show your results.
A3 Which type of soil drained fastest?
A4 Why do you think it drained fastest?

134 The Earth

Growing rice
The world's three biggest food crops are rice, wheat
and maize.
Rice is a main food for over half the world's
population. Rice plants need lots of water to grow
well. Clay soils are best to grow rice in because these
soils stay wet for longer. The water does not drain
away.

6.19 Rice g ro w in g in a fie ld w ith ve ry w e t

soil.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Rocks are put into three groups - I can use observations to put rocks into
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. different groups.
✓ Igneous rocks are formed when magma I can plan investigations and think about
(molten rock) cools and solidifies. which variables to change, observe and
control.
✓ Sedimentary rocks are formed from
layers of sediment. I can present results in tables and bar charts.
✓ Metamorphic rocks are formed when I can use evidence to support my
existing rocks are changed by very conclusions.
high temperatures and/or pressure.
✓ Soil is a mixture of particles of rock,
dead animals and plants, water and air.
✓ There are different types of soil which
hold different amounts of water.

I
Rocks and soils 135
 Chapter 6 . Topic 2 Learning outcomes
• To describe how fossils form
Fossils and the fossil • To research what the fossil
record is and what it can tell us
• To explain how the fossil
record record can tell us about the
age of the Earth
• To learn about the most
recent estimates of the age
of the Earth

r---------------------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Scientists use th e ir observations to suggest new Use d iffe re n t sources to research inform atio n
ideas
^Scientists collect evidence to test these ideas J

W hat do fossils tell us?

Palaeontologists are scientists who study fossils so they can

learn about plants and animals that lived at different times.
They also study how plants and animals have changed over
long periods of time.

Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Why are

they not found in igneous rocks? 6.20 A rock containing trilobite
fossils - these are found on every
Different layers of sedimentary rock have different continent on Earth. Trilobites
fossils. In which layer would you expect to find the became extinct 250 million years
oldest fossils? ago.

Most fossils are the preserved remains of dead organisms, but Key term
sometimes the tracks made by an animal can be preserved.
The dinosaur footprints in figure 6.21 were made in soft, wet palaeontologist:
sediment. As the sediment dried the tracks hardened. The scientist who studies
tracks were then buried by more sediment, which eventually fossils.
hardened into rock. As the rock has been worn away over
millions of years, the footprints have become visible.
Tooth marks and burrows can be preserved in the same way.
These fossils give information about how the animal lived
and behaved.

6.21 Fossilised dinosaur tracks in

Kalasin, Thailand.

136 The Earth

 T h e fo s s il record

The collection of fossils from different times and places

in the Earth's past is called the fossil record. These fossils
provide evidence of how different groups of animals and
plants have changed over millions of years. Most fossils are
the remains of organisms which are now extinct.

Millions of years before present

First forms of First mammals First humans

life - bacteria

First plants on
land

Formation of First amphibians First reptiles First flowering Dinosaur

the Earth plants extinction

6.22 A timeline showing when different kinds o f organisms first appeared on Earth.

There are sometimes gaps in the fossil record where Key terms
scientists do not know what the animal or plant was like
at that time, because there are no fossils. These gaps can evidence: data or
happen if the remains of the organism are not preserved or observations we use to
if the rocks containing fossils are deeply buried or have been support or oppose an idea.
worn away. If an animal has a soft body (no skeleton), its
remains are unlikely to be preserved as a fossil. extinct (life forms):
does not exist any more.
Squid are soft-bodied sea creatures. Why would squid fossil record: collection
fossils be difficult to find? of fossils identified from
different times in the
Name some modern sea animals that could form Earth's past that shows
fossils. how different groups of
animals and plants have
Explain how a fossil forms. Use these words - buried, changed over millions of
pressure, sea, sedimentary rock. years.

Why are there gaps in the fossil record?

Fossils and the fossil record 137

 W h o w as Lucy?
Fossils are found in all parts of our world, including the
fossil bones of our human ancestors.
Lucy is one of the most famous human-like fossils. She was
found in Ethiopia in 1974 and scientists believe that she is
over 3 million years old.
Until the 1950s, scientists believed the ancestors to modern
humans developed about 60000 years ago. When she was
discovered, Lucy became the oldest possible ancestor for
modern humans.

6.23 Scientists have used

information from the fossils o f
Lucy's bones to reconstruct her
skeleton and skull.

At Whale Valley in Egypt there are 6.24 Whale fossil

hundreds of fossils of some of the at Wadi El Hitan or
earliest types of whales. These whales 'Whale Valley' in
had tiny back legs, which whales now Egypt. The fossils
do not have. This is evidence that here are found in
sandstone, which was
whales have changed over millions
once at the bottom o f
of years, and that the ancestors of
the sea.
whales walked on land.

Activity 6.6: Evidence from the fossil record

Research another example where the fossil record shows changes in a group of animals,
like the whale fossils found in Egypt, or the extinction of a species.
Remember that all scientific books and papers are always checked to make sure that
what has been written is correct. Information on websites is not usually checked like this.
So, be careful about the sources you use.
Think about:
• Are the fossils related to a modern animal?
• What are the oldest fossils like?
• What are the youngest fossils like?
• How does this prove that the species has changed over time?
A1 Make sure you choose your sources carefully - ask your teacher for some websites
or books to get you started if you are stuck.
A2 Present your research as a short report (about 200 words) or digital presentation.
A3 Include suitable images.
A4 Record your sources of information.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
138 The Earth
 6 .2
Age of rocks and age of the Earth

Sedimentary rocks are built up in layers. Usually, the deeper

layers contain older fossils because the deeper layers were
deposited first. This helps to show us how a species changed
over time.
By comparing the fossils found in rocks in different places
scientists can compare the age of the rocks. This is because layers
of rock containing the same fossil species must be the same age.
Scientists can find the actual age of a rock and any fossils
in that rock using chemical tests. This is how we know, for
example, that the oldest plant fossils are older than the oldest
animal fossils. The method gives a small range of estimated
age for a rock, such as 100 million years ± 5 million years.

How can fossils help scientists to find out how old, in 6.25 A plant fossil.
years, a rock is?

Scientists use the results from their own experiments as

evidence when they make conclusions about the age of rocks
and fossils. They also use evidence from secondary sources
like books and scientific papers. These sources include results
from experiments that other scientists have done.
Scientists know that the Earth is approximately 4.5 billion
years old, because many different chemical tests have been
done on different rocks around the world. This evidence has Key term
been checked by many scientists.
secondary sources:
The world's oldest known fossils are the remains of information that has
bacteria that lived about 3.8 billion years ago. Does been produced by
the age of these fossils tell you the age of the Earth? somebody else.

Why can scientists not use the internet alone for

finding out about the age of the Earth?

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Sedimentary rocks sometimes contain I can choose appropriate sources to

fossils - igneous rocks do not. research information.
✓ Fossils are the remains of animals and I can identify evidence in these sources.
plants from millions of years ago.
✓ The fossil record provides evidence of
how living things changed gradually
over time.
✓ The Earth is more than 4 billion years old.
✓ The oldest fossils are almost as old
as the Earth itself, showing that life
started billions of years ago.

Fossils and the fossil record 139

 Chapter 6 . Topic 3 Learning outcomes
• To use models to describe
Structure of the Earth the internal structure of the
Earth

r ---------------------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Scientists use th e ir observations to suggest new Choose app ro p riate sources to research scientific
ideas ideas
^Scientists collect evidence to test these ideas __________ y

Structure of the Earth

Key terms
It is not possible to travel to the centre of the Earth, so it
is difficult to know what is below the Earth's surface. It is crust: the thin outer layer
not possible to drill deeper than 12 km - that is 0.2% of the of the Earth.
Earth's depth. inner core: solid layer of
By studying earthquakes, scientists can make a model the Earth, made of nickel
about what is inside the Earth. The data from earthquakes and iron.
provides evidence that there are different layers. We can use mantle: the layer of the
this data to create a model of how the Earth is structured. Earth beneath the crust.
Models are very useful for scientists, because they help us to It is mostly solid but it can
understand something which we cannot see. flow very slowly.
The Earth is made up of four different layers - the inner outer core: liquid layer
core, outer core, mantle and crust. around the inner core of
The crust and mantle are rock, but the core is metal - it is the Earth, made of nickel
made from nickel and iron. and iron.

Figure 6.26 shows a model of the structure of the Earth. The

crust varies in thickness from around 7 km to 70 km deep
inner core
and the radius of the whole Earth is about 6400 km.
outer core

Activity 6.7: Researching the Earths internal mantle

structure
What are the layers that make up Earth like? crust
Use books and the internet to research what scientists
think the different layers are like. Create a poster to
6.26 Model o f the structure o f the
describe the layers that make up the Earth. Include a
Earth, showing the four layers.
diagram.
Think about:
A1 What is the main type of rock found in the Earth's
crust?
A2 Are the other layers solid or liquid?
A3 How hot is each layer?

140 The Earth

 Evidence from meteorites

Meteorites are fragments from asteroids that fall onto the

Earth's surface from space. The Earth and other planets in the
Solar System formed at the same time as asteroids, from the
same material. So scientists use what meteorites are made
of to model what the interior of the Earth is made of. Some
meteorites are made from rock but some are nearly all iron.
Meteorites that originate from asteroids are all about 4.5
billion years old. 6 .2 7 A close up o f part o f the
60-ton Hoba meteorite from
Namibia. This is the largest piece
Suggest a reason why iron and nickel make up the
o f iron ever found near the Earth's
core of the Earth.
surface.

A jigsaw
The Earth's outer layer is split into about 20 large pieces,
called plates.
The plates are moving very slowly all the time. They
sometimes cause volcanoes and earthquakes when they
push against each other or move over or under each other.
The Himalaya Mountains are getting 1 cm taller every year
because two plates are pushing against each other.
6 .2 8 The tectonic plates.
As the tectonic plates move in different ways, some rocks
at the surface are pushed deep into the crust and then
changed (metamorphosed) into different rocks. Some rocks
are even pushed deeper, into the mantle, and melted.
Scientists say that the rocks that were at the surface are
recycled. This is why most rocks on the Earth's surface are
much younger than the Earth itself.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ There are no rocks at the surface from I can choose sources of information to
deep inside the Earth, so scientists have answer a research question.
to use data from earthquakes to make
a model of its structure.
✓ The Earth has four layers - the inner
core, outer core, mantle and crust.

Structure of the Earth 141

 End of chapter review

Quick questions
1. All rocks can be classified into one of three main groups. State what these are. [3]
2. Each of the three groups of rock is formed in a different way. For rocks A-C,
state the type of rock: [3]
(a) Rock A: formed in the sea and contains fossils
t- tf

(b) Rock B: formed when another type of rock is changed due to very high
temperature and pressure
(c) Rock C: formed when hot magma cools and solidifies
3. Rocks all look different. Put ticks (/ ) in the following table, to show which key
features may be present in each of the different rock types. [3]

Feature Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Crystals
Layers
Fossils
4. State which letter, A-D, in figure 6.29 represents the following:

(a) Lava =
(b) Cooled and solidified rock =
(c) Magma =
(d) Ash =
5. What is the difference between magma
and lava?
6. The list below gives four steps in the formation 629 Dia9ram °^a volcano.
of sedimentary rock.
Put the steps in the correct order. [2]
A The sediments are covered by more sediment.
B The layers of sediments become stuck together and harder.
C The upper layers press on the lower layers.
D Small pieces of sediment produced from larger pieces of rock are deposited.

142 The Earth

( ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ^
7. What is a fossil? [1]
8. Name the four layers of the Earth. [4]
9. Complete the table below to show which layer of the Earth is being described.
The first one has been done for you. [3]

Letter Description Layer

A Made from semi-molten rock Mantle
B Made from solid rock
C Made from solid iron and nickel
D Made from molten iron and nickel

Connect your understanding

10. Explain why igneous rocks that form deep underground have different sized
crystals from igneous rocks that form at the surface. [3]
11. Where are the oldest layers of rock usually found in a cliff made from
sedimentary rocks? Why is this the case? [2]
12. There are different types of soil which contain different amounts of clay or sand.
(a) Compare how well clay soil and sandy soil hold water (stay wet). [1]

(b) Explain your answer. [3]

13. Different types of rock form in different ways.
(a) State how igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are formed. [3]
(b) State which type never contains fossils and explain why. [2]

14. Explain why there are gaps in the fossil record. [3]

V_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ J

End of chapter review 143

 Chapter 7
Acids and alkalis

What’s it all about?

Acids and alkalis are used in our lives
every day - you m ight not even realise
w h en you are using them . They are found
in food such as oranges and lem ons,
cleaning products and m edicines.
Acids and alkalis are also very im portant
in your body. Som e cells in the body
produce acids and alkalis to help the
body function. The body also excretes
substances w hich are too acidic or
alkaline to keep the balance in the body
. right.
hot? i .ihwuH : inmi t u n n i m : wmii i»»<
You w ill learn about:
• H ow to tell if a solution is an acid or an alkali
• W hy acids and alkalis are useful
You w ill build your skills in:
• Suggesting ideas th a t may be tested
• Planning investigations and considering w h a t
variables to change or keep th e same
• Choosing th e right equ ipm ent to investigate
a question
• M aking conclusions from your results

144 Acids and alkalis

 Chapter 7 . Topic 1
Learning outcomes
Acids, alkalis • To use an indicator to find
out whether something is an
acid or an alkali
and the pH scale • To use the pH scale

r
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Some m aterials can dissolve in w a te r Talk abo ut risks and h ow to avoid danger

V D raw tables to show your results

Acids and alkalis

Acids and alkalis can be found in many everyday substances.

Acids and alkalis can be useful, for example in cleaning
products. But they can also be harmful. Key terms
Acids and alkalis found in fruits, milk and toothpaste
are weak and are harmless. However, some acids and acid: substance which
alkalis are strong acids or strong alkalis. This means that has a pH of less than 7
they can cause harm and you must be very careful when on the pH scale.
handling them. A common acid used in laboratories is alkali: base that dissolves
hydrochloric acid and this acid is much stronger than any in water to make a
acid you would find in food. A common alkali used in solution with a pH of
laboratories is sodium hydroxide and this alkali is stronger more than 7. See page
than any alkali you would find in soap. 150 for definition of
If a substance causes harm, hazard symbols are used to warn base.
people so they can take precautions such as wearing eye corrosive: substance that
protection and handling the substance safely. causes burns to skin and
Strong acids or alkalis are corrosive - they burn the skin. eyes and damages other
Acids or alkalis that are not corrosive can still be harmful if materials.
they irritate the skin (make it red) or the eyes. hazard symbol: symbol
which warns you about
the dangers of an object,
substance or radiation.

7.1 Moderate hazard symbol 7.2 Corrosive hazard symbol,

(for example, causes skin or eye
irritation, or harmful if swallowed
or inhaled).

Acids, alkalis and the pH scale 145

 Find labels on some chemicals that you or your family
use at home. These could be cleaning products, soaps or
shampoo, food or fizzy drinks, DIY products or any others
you can think of. You should present your findings in a
table.
A1 What hazard symbols, if any, does the label have?
What does it mean if there is no hazard symbol?
j A2 Does it have any acids or alkalis in it? (Clue - most 7.3 Hazard warning on a bottle
acids have the word 'acid' in their name. A lot of o f bleach.
alkalis have 'soda' or 'hydroxide' in their name.
Ammonia solution is also an alkaline solution.)
A3 What harmful effects, if any, do the substances you have chosen have?

Key terms
How do you know whether a substance is an acid or an
alkali? acidic: having the
properties of an acid.
Scientists use chemicals called indicators to tell whether
something is an acid or an alkali. Indicators change colour alkaline: if a base is
and this shows you whether a substance is acidic or alkaline. dissolved in water then
the solution is alkaline.
Litmus is an indicator solution which is red in an acid and
blue in an alkali. Litmus paper is paper soaked in litmus and indicator: chemical that
then dried. You dip the paper into a sample of the solution changes colour in an acid
and it changes colour, telling you whether the solution is or alkali.
acidic or alkaline. Blue litmus paper turns red in an acid but litmus: type of indicator
stays blue in an alkali. Red litmus paper turns blue in an which turns red in an
alkali but stays red in an acid. acid and blue in an alkali.

146 Acids and alkalis

 Copy and complete the following table on litmus
indicator colours in acids and alkalis.

7.4 Blue and red litmus paper in

acidic solution (left). Blue and red
What colour would blue litmus paper turn in litmus paper in alkaline solution
hydrochloric acid? (right).

What colour would red litmus paper turn in sodium

hydroxide?

7.6 Using universal indicator to

measure the pH o f a solution.

Key terms

neutral: neither acid

addle miennttml alkaline nor alkali. If soluble, it
produces a solution of
7.5 A colour chart for universal indicator using the pH scale.
pH 7.
Universal indicator is an indicator that can change into many pH scale: scale from 0 to
different colours, from red through yellow and green to purple. 14 which measures how
The colour change of universal indicator is used to measure strong or weak an acid or
how strong or weak the acid or alkali is on the pH scale. alkali is.
Different substances have different pH values depending on how universal indicator:
strong or weak an acid or alkali they are or if they are neutral. type of indicator which
can change into a range
Scientists look at the colour change of the universal
of colours depending
indicator and match it to the pH scale. If the colour is green
on whether the solution
then the pH is 7, which means the solution is neutral. The
is acidic or alkaline and
closer to a pH of 0 a solution is, the more acidic it is. The
how strong it is.
closer to a pH of 14 a solution is, the more alkaline it is.

Acids, alkalis and the pH scale 147

 Acids and alkalis can have a range of pH values
depending on whether they are strong or weak.
a) What range of pH does a strong acid have?
b) What range of pH does a weak alkali have?

State whether the following are acids, alkalis or

neutral substances. If they are an acid or an alkali,
you should also say whether they are strong or weak.
a) A substance with a pH of 3.
b) A liquid with a pH of 8.
c) A substance which turns universal indicator yellow.
d) A chemical with a pH of 7.
e) A substance with a pH of 14.
f) A liquid which turns universal indicator blue.

For the following statements, say whether they

are true or false. If they are false, write the correct
answer.
a) A strong acid has a pH range of 4-6.
b) A weak alkali has a pH range of 8-10.
c) A neutral substance turns universal indicator green.

Using figure 7.5, give an example of a strong acid,

weak acid, strong alkali and a weak alkali.

® Draw and colour in your own pH scale and label each

pH value with an example. If you can find some other
examples which are not given on figure 7.5, add these.

® Using books or the internet, find the names of at

least two other indicators that scientists use.

© Why is universal indicator more useful than other

indicators?

® What is a disadvantage of using litmus indicator?

Activity 7.2: Planning an investigation - is it an acid or an alkali?

You are going to produce a plan to find out whether some household substances are
acids, alkalis or neutral and what their pH is. You might think you know what the pHs of
some of the substances are already. Your plan should show how you will find out the pH
values and prove whether your predictions are correct.

148 Acids and alkalis

The substances you must test are:
• shampoo
• vinegar
• orange juice
• toothpaste
• tap water
• indigestion tables (dissolved in water).
A1 Make a prediction for each of the substances - is it an acid, alkali or neutral? What
pH do you think it will have?
A2 Write a list of equipment you will need to use for this experiment. Include any safety
precautions.
A3 Write a method you would use - think carefully about which indicator you would use
and explain why you have chosen this indicator.
A4 Draw a results table you would use for this investigation.

Acid rain damage

When the ancient stone temples were built in

Cambodia, acid rain was not a problem. The temples
are now becoming damaged due to acid rain.
Rain can become acidic when the gases released
when fossil fuels are burned dissolve in water
vapour in the atmosphere. Burning more coal in
power stations has made the problem of acid rain
much worse in the last 40 years.
Acid rain occurs everywhere, not just in Cambodia.
Buildings across the world have been damaged by 7.7 Ancient stone temples in Cambodia.
acid rain. Acid rain also damages statues, damages
forests and can kill animals and fish.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Acids and alkalis can be found in many I can plan investigations and choose
everyday substances. appropriate equipment.
✓ The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 and I can draw results tables for an
shows how acidic or alkaline a solution is. investigation.
✓ The closer to 0 the pH is, the more I can use evidence to support my
acidic that solution is. conclusions.
✓ The closer to 14 the pH is, the more
alkaline the solution is.
✓ Neutral solutions have a pH of 7.
✓ An indicator changes colour in a
substance if it is acidic, alkaline or neutral.

Acids, alkalis and the pH scale 149

 Chapter 7 . Topic 2 Learning outcomes
• To use indicators and the pH
Neutralisation scale to find out if a solution
is acidic, alkaline or neutral
• To understand what
neutralisation means
• To give examples of when
neutralisation is useful

Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Some materials can dissolve in water Measure the volume of a liquid
When a solid dissolves in water a solution is formed Use results tables
V______________________________________________________ Design a fair test __y

W hat is neutralisation?

If you add an acid to an alkali a chemical reaction happens. Key terms

Water is formed, as well as another substance which may
dissolve in the water. base: substance that
If you mix exactly the right amount of acid and alkali a neutral neutralises an acid. It has
solution is formed. This type of reaction is called neutralisation. a pH of more than 7 on
the pH scale.
A base is any substance that neutralises an acid. If a base
dissolves in water, then it is called an alkali. neutralisation: chemical
reaction between an
The pH changes during a neutralisation reaction. An acidic acid and a base which
solution becomes less acidic when you add a base or alkali produces a neutral
by a small amount at a time. The pH increases towards 7. solution.
When the pH reaches 7 you have a neutral solution. If you
add more base or alkali to the acid, the solution becomes
more alkaline and the pH increases beyond 7.

7.8 A simple neutralisation experiment.

150 Acids and alkalis

 .2

What pH does a neutral substance have?

Sometimes, acidic or alkaline solutions need to

be neutralised. Describe how you could neutralise
an acidic solution and how you would know that
neutralisation had happened.

What colour would universal indicator change to if

added to a neutral solution?

The simple experiment shown in figure 7.8 could be

changed by using a measuring cylinder to add the
alkali, and using the colour change of the indicator to
estimate pH. How could you show the way that the
pH changes as you neutralise the acid with an alkali?

Uses of neutralisation

Neutralisation can be a very useful chemical reaction in

everyday life. One example is to treat indigestion.
Antacid tablet Stomach

7.9 An antacid tablet contains a base, which will neutralise the extra acid
in the stomach.

Your stomach produces a strong acid to help digest the food

that you eat and to protect against infection. Sometimes
there can be too much of this stomach acid or it can move
up from your stomach into your throat. When this happens
it can be very painful. People may take a substance called an
antacid or indigestion tablet to stop the pain.
Antacids or indigestion tablets contain a base to neutralise
the stomach acid. Neutralising the acid gets rid of the pain.
Another example of neutralisation is when farmers add
lime to acidic soil. This makes the soil less acidic so that their 7.10 A farmer spreading lime on a
crops can grow better. field to make the soil less acidic.
 Activity 7.3: Neutralisation
A1 Use different books and the internet to research other examples of neutralisation
being useful in everyday life. You should show your findings using a short
presentation (5 minutes maximum). Make sure that you record all sources of
information that you use.

Activity 7.4: Investigating neutralisation

Plan an investigation to find out which of three acids is the strongest. You will use a
solution of an indigestion tablet dissolved in water to neutralise the acids.
In your investigation, you will change some variables, stop others from changing and
measure others.
A1 When producing your plan you should include the following:
A A list of the apparatus you will use.
B A list of the things you will do - your method. Include any safety precautions.
C What you will change (the independent variable) and what you will measure
(the dependent variable).
D A list of the things you will keep the same (the control variables).
E A table to record your results.
A2 How would you know when neutralisation has happened?
A3 How would you know which acid is the strongest?

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Neutralisation is a chemical reaction which I can identify important variables
happens when an acid and an alkali react for an investigation.
together to make a neutral solution.
I can choose which variables to
✓ Neutralisation is a very useful chemical change, control and measure.
reaction. For example, it is used to treat
I can choose the correct equipment
indigestion and neutralise acidic soil.
to collect evidence and answer a
scientific question.

152 Acids and alkalis

r
End of chapter review

Quick questions
1. State the meaning of the following hazard symbols.

[1] [1]
(c) Give the name of a substance which changes colour to show whether a
substance is an acid, alkali or neutral. [1]
2. What range of numbers is shown on the pH scale? [1]
3. Copy and complete the following sentences about indicators and pH. [2]
Litmus is an example of an indicator. It turns different colours in acids and alkalis.
Litmus turns___________ if it is in an acid and it turns________________ if it is in an alkali.

4. Copy and complete the following sentences about reacting acids and alkalis
together. [3]
When an acid and an alkali react together they produce a ______________ solution.
This has a pH o f _____________. This type of reaction is called_______________ .

5. Universal indicator turns a range of colours in acids and alkalis.

The table shows the pH range for the different colours of universal indicator.
Colour of indicator Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Purple
pH 0-3 4-5 6 7 8-10 11-14
A student tested five substances with universal indicator solution.

Copy the table and put one tick (/ ) in each row to state whether the results
show the substance is acidic, alkaline or neutral. [5]

Substance Colour of indicator Acid? Alkali? Neutral?

Toothpaste Blue
Vinegar Red
Milk Yellow
Water Green
Oven cleaner Purple

L___________ ____ _________________________________________ — ------------------------------------------------- 4

End of chapter review 153

 6. Bees and wasps are insects which use a sting to defend
themselves.
A wasp sting has a pH of 10 and a bee sting has a pH
of 2.

(a) Copy and complete the following table about

wasp and bee stings. [4]

Acid or What colour would

alkaline? you see with 7.11 A wasp.
universal indicator?
Wasp sting

pH 10
Bee sting

pH 2
(b) What would you add to a bee sting to neutralise it and stop it from hurting?
Tip: Can you think of any specific examples which would be safe? [2]
(c) What would you add to a wasp sting to neutralise it and stop it from hurting?
Tip: Can you think of any specific examples which would be safe? [2]

Connect your understanding

7. Explain why scientists might find universal indicator more useful than litmus. [2]
8. The table below shows the pH of four different soil samples which are
labelled A-D.

soil sample pH of soil

A 5.0
B 7.4
C 7.0
D 4.7
Use letters from the table to answer the following questions:

(a) Which soil sample is neutral? [1]

(b) Cabbage grows better in an alkaline soil. Which soil sample would be the
best to grow cabbage in? [1]
(c) Potatoes grow better in slightly acidic soil. Which soil sample would be the
best to grow potatoes in? [ 1]

154 Acids and alkalis

9. Some students did an experiment to
measure the change in pH when an alkali
was added to an acid. They added an
alkali to an acid a little at a time using a
a lk ali
measuring cylinder. They measured the pH
every time they added the alkali.
The students used a pH meter. This is a
sensor which measures pH accurately
without having to look at the colour change
7.12 A pH meter.
of an indicator.

Volume of alkali added (cm3) pH of reaction mixture

0 5.0
2 5.0
4 5.0
6 6.0
8 7.1
10 8.0
12 8.5
14 9.0
16 9.0
18 9.0
20 9.0
(a) Plot a line graph of the results on graph paper. Make sure that you plot the
pH on the vertical (y) axis and volume of alkali added on the horizontal
(x) axis. [2]
(b) Describe what you can see happening from the results on the graph. [3]

End of chapter review 155

 End of stage review
1. The Earth has four layers.
(a) Name the layers A-D in this diagram of the Earth.

(b) What two metals are found at the centre of the Earth? [ 2]

(c) Which two sentences show the correct facts about the age of the Earth? [ 1]

(i) The Earth is more than 4000 million years old

(ii) The fossil record gives a time when scientists think the Earth formed
(iii) The age of Earth rocks can be measured using chemical tests
(iv) Rocks on the surface of the Earth are all the same age
(d) There are four layers of sedimentary rock in a cliff (right).
How can you tell that D is the oldest layer? [1]

2. (a) A bottle in a laboratory has this symbol on the label.

Why should you wear eye protection when using this
substance? [ 1]

156 End of stage review

 (b) Scientists use indicators to decide whether a substance is an acid or an alkali.
A student used the following colour chart to test different liquids.

Indicator pH 1 pH 4 pH 7 pH 10 pH 13
Methyl orange Red Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Colourless Pink Pink

Copy and complete the table, to show the missing indicator colours. [4]

Colour in indicator
Substance Methyl orange Phenolphthalein
Lemon juice Yellow Colourless
Vinegar Red
Bleach Pink
Soap solution Pink
(c) Which substance in the table is the strongest acid? [1]
(d) What further test would you need to do to identify which substance is the
strongest alkali? [1]
3. Methane can exist in all three states of matter.
Draw a diagram to show the arrangement of particles in methane when it
is a gas. [2]
4. Usman buys a new saucepan.
It is made of aluminium with a plastic handle.

(a) Suggest and explain two reasons why aluminium was chosen for the pan. [4]
(b) Suggest one reason why plastic was Aluminium Plastic
chosen for the handle. Explain the
reason.

[total 23 marks]

End of stage review 157

 Physics
C hapter 8: Energy

8. i : U sin g e n e rg y I ^°
8.2: E n ergy c o n s e rv a tio n *65
8.3: D e sc rib in g e n e rg y tra n s fe rs 167
8.4: F in d in g e n o u g h e n e rg y I ^9

End of chapter review *73

C hapter 9: Beyond the E a rth

9 .1: D ay an d n ig h t x7 6
9.2: P la n e ts an d th e S o la r S y s te m 180
9.3: C h a n g in g id e a s a b o u t th e S o la r S y s te m 184
End of chapter review x88

C hapter 10: F orces and th e ir effects

1 o. 1: F orces c h a n g e m o tio n *9 °
10.2: G ravity x94
10.3: B a la n c e d an d u n b a la n c e d fo rc e s 197
End of chapter review 200
End of stage review 203

158
 C h a p te r 8
E n ergy

What’s it all about?

H ow do you m ake things happen every day?
W h at do you do w h en you w ake up? H ow do
you travel to school? H ow is your food cooked?
H ow do you light your room s to see and read?
You can do som e things using your ow n
energy. U nderstanding the physics o f energy
*
enables you to m ake use o f m any energy
sources.

You w ill learn about:

• D iffe ren t energy types
• Energy tran sfers
• Energy being tran sferred betw een d iffe re n t types
but never lost
• How to m ake th e best use o f energy resources
You w ill build yo ur skills in:
• M aking careful observations and presenting results
• Finding inform atio n
• A pplying science to daily life
• M aking predictions and evaluations

h-

159
 Chapter 8 . Topic 1 Learning outcomes
• To identify the different
Using energy types of energy
• To describe energy transfers
• To recognise the sources of
energy involved in different
activities, including food and
fuels

r-------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Energy can m ake thing s happen M ake careful observations
W hen m aterials get warm er, the particles Present results in th e form of a tab le
(atoms and molecules) in them move around more .......... J

Activity 8.1: W hat do you know about energy*

Work in groups to find out how much you already know about energy.
• What is energy?
• What does energy do?
• Where does energy come from?
• How many types of energy can you name?
Write your answers on a board or a large sheet of paper so that everyone can see them.

Activity 8.2: Things that use energy

Try out several devices that make something happen. For
example, devices that make a noise, produce light, or move.
How is energy involved in each? Record your observations
in a table like this:

Device What it How it gets Your

does energy observations
and
comments 8.1 This clo c k w o rk to y m oves
w h e n th e e n e rg y s to re d in its
Printer Prints From electricity It also makes
sp rin g is tra n sfe rre d to its w h eels.
docum ents a noise and
vibrates

Hole Punches holes From push from It m akes a noise

punch in paper hand as it punches the
holes

160
When you walk, you use energy to make you move. You got
that energy from eating food. Motor vehicles move by using
energy from the fuel that is burned in the engine. That energy is
transferred into the energy of movement, called kinetic energy.
The amount of kinetic energy an object has depends on its speed

Key terms

kinetic energy: energy

stored by an object
because it is moving.
work: transfer of energy
that causes an object to
8 .2Skilful snooker players know how much energy needs to be
move.
transferred to knock a ball into a nearby pocket.

These transfers of energy to make things move are called

work. The engine of a bus does work, making the vehicle
move. Your legs do work when you walk. A snooker ball
does work when it strikes another ball and makes it move

Lifting or stretching

You use energy when you lift a heavy bag up onto a table.
This transfer of energy from you to the bag is work. When
8.3 You can use the potential
you place your bag on the table top, it is not moving. Where energy in a stretched elastic band
has the kinetic energy of the moving bag gone? in a catapult. The potential energy
The bag stores the energy because of its new position. We call can be transferred to the kinetic
this type of energy potential energy. If the bag is lifted higher, it energy o f a small moving object.
stores more potential energy. You can use this stored potential
energy to move something. For example, a cyclist at the top of
a hill has stored potential energy. This is transferred into kinetic
energy of the moving bicycle and rider as they go down the hill.
Key term
You can also store potential energy by stretching or
squashing a springy material. For example, a stretched potential energy: the
elastic band has potential energy. amount of stored energy
Activity 8.3: Investigating energy transfers something has because
of its position.
Plan an experiment to investigate the motion of a
wheeled trolley (or a model car) when you release it
from different positions on a sloping runway.
A1 What can you observe?
A2 What can you measure?
A3 Design a table to record your results.

161
 Hydroelectricity
On a large river, a dam can be built to hold back a large
lake of water. This lake stores potential energy. The
water can be used to turn an electrical generator. The
potential energy of the water is transferred to kinetic
energy. This kinetic energy is transferred to electrical
energy. China uses dams like this to produce about 17%
of the electrical energy it needs for homes and industry.
8 .4The Three Gorges Dam goes
across the Yangtze River in China.

State the type of energy a moving hammer has.

Wind turbines generate electricity from the energy of

wind. State the type of energy wind has.

State the type of energy the water, held back behind

a dam, has.

Look at figure 8.5. Copy and complete the sentences.

Choose the best words from the list.

speed length height diameter

8.5

To work out kinetic energy, we need to measure the

object's____________.
To work out potential energy, we need to measure
the object's__________ above the ground.

Mia holds a ball at head height. She then drops the

ball and it falls to the ground.
a) Name the type of energy stored before the ball is
dropped.
b) Name the type of energy stored at the instant
before the moving ball hits the ground.
c) Describe the energy transfer that takes place.

162
 w

8.1
Explain the energy transfers that happen in a
hydroelectric power station. What type of energy
does the water start with? To what type of energy is
it transferred?

Energy sources

Your body's energy comes from digesting the food you

eat. Vehicle engines get their energy by burning fuel.
Digestion and burning are both chemical processes. Energy
is transferred during those chemical reactions. We call it
chemical energy.
A battery also stores chemical energy. If we connect the
battery to a lamp (bulb) using wires, the chemical energy of 8 .6An electric car having its
the battery is transferred to electrical energy. In the lamp, batteries charged.
the electrical energy is transferred to light energy.
Key terms
Describe the energy transfers involved in an electric
car. What type of energy is stored by the battery? chemical energy:
What type of energy is used to get the car moving? energy that can be
What type of energy does the car have when it is transferred in a chemical
moving? reaction, e.g. burning
fuel.
Solar panels use light energy from the Sun to produce
electrical energy:
electrical energy.
energy that can be
Sound also carries energy. A microphone transfers sound transferred from a battery
energy to electrical energy so that we can send voice or power supply.
messages by telephone or radio.
heat: thermal energy
All substances are made of tiny particles (atoms or that is transferred from
molecules). These particles move around or vibrate. We can a hot object to a colder
measure the temperature of a substance. This tells us how object.
much the particles in the substance are moving around or
light energy: energy
vibrating. The energy they store is called thermal energy.
that is transferred by a
If we put a hot substance near to a cold substance, energy light source.
is transferred from the hot substance to the cold substance.
sound energy: energy
The thermal energy that is transferred is called heat.
that is transferred by a
vibrating object making
Copy and complete these sentences. Use words from
a noise, e.g. a musical
the box to fill the gaps.
instrument.
work, heat, chemical, light, sound, thermal thermal energy: energy
a) The heat from a flame comes from burning gas, stored in an object due to
which transfers______________ energy. its temperature.

b) In an electric kettle, electrical energy is transferred

to ______________ energy to raise the water
temperature.

Using energy 163

 —

0 energy that travels through the

air to our ears enables us to hear one another's
voices.
d) Digesting food provides the energy
to enable us to do like lifting or
running; and it also provides energy
to keep our bodies warm.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ A moving object has kinetic energy. I can use a table to record my observations.
✓ Energy transferred to make an object
move is called work.
✓ When work is done to change the
position or shape of an object, potential
energy is stored.
✓ Thermal energy transferred from a hot
object to a colder object is called heat.

164 Energy
Chapter 8 . Topic 2 Learning outcomes
• To understand that energy is
Energy conservation always conserved: it cannot
be created or destroyed
• To solve problems using the
principle of conservation of
energy
• To make careful observations

r ---------------------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Th ere are d iffe re n t types of energy Use a ta b le to record observations
Energy can be tran sferred from one type to
ano th er

Activity 8.4: Observing the motion of a pendulum

Observe a pendulum.
A1 When is it highest and when is it lowest?
A2 When does it move fastest? Does it stop
moving? If so, where?
A3 What kinds of energy does it have at each
point in its motion?
Design a table to present your observations.

8.7 A pendulum demonstrates the principle

o f energy conservation.

A pendulum will swing backwards and forwards for a long

time. Its motion demonstrates an important principle.
Energy is not destroyed or lost. This is the principle of
Key term
conservation of energy.
The pendulum's total energy stays the same all through the conservation of
swing. energy: energy cannot
be created or destroyed.
At point A, the mass is at its highest point. The mass has
The total amount of
potential energy. At that instant, it has stopped moving
energy is constant.
upwards and is about to start moving downwards.

Energy conservation 165

 The mass swings back down and its speed increases.
At point B, the mass is at its lowest point. Its speed is at its
largest value.
Potential energy has been transferred into kinetic energy.
Next, the mass begins to go higher again, but on the other
side of the swing. Kinetic energy is being used to lift the mass.
So, the kinetic energy transfers back into potential energy.
No energy is lost. The height at the end of each swing
should be the same.

Look at the diagram shown in figure 8.7.

a) At a point somewhere between point A and point
B, state the two types of energy that the mass has.
b) Describe what the principle of conservation of
energy tells you about the total energy.

If a pendulum swings in a vacuum it might swing

for ever. In air, the swings become gradually shorter.
Suggest where some of the energy may have gone.
Remember, the conservation principle means that it
cannot have been lost altogether.

Wasted and useful energy

Although energy is never lost, it can be wasted. For

example, when we use a lamp, electrical energy is
transferred to light energy. You may have noticed that
a lamp also gets warm when it is on. So, some electrical
energy is being transferred to thermal energy.
The light energy is useful energy (it is what we use the
lamp for).
The thermal energy is wasted energy.

In the example of the lamp, what does the

conservation of energy tell us about the total of
useful energy and wasted energy?

Key fact: Check your skills progress:

✓ Energy is conserved: it is never created or I can make careful observations.

destroyed but just transferred from one
energy type to another.

166
Chapter 8 . Topic 3 Learning outcomes
• To use Sankey diagrams to explain
Describing energy the different energy transfers that
take place
• To apply scientific knowledge and
transfers recognise how this affects our
daily life

r-------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Energy is alw ays conserved M ake careful observations
Recognise energy tran sfers
V______________________________________ >

Activity 8.5: Energy usage: past, present and Key term

future
joule: the scientific
Working in groups, discuss what energy is used for in the unit for energy. Its
modern world. For example, lighting, carrying goods... abbreviation is J.
A1 What alternatives for each use (if any) were available 1000 J = 1 kilojoule (kJ).
100 years ago?
A2 What other energy alternatives might become
available in 100 years' time?
A3 Create a poster display that shows the changes over
time in equipment and energy sources used.

Energy measurement
8.8 To keep warm in cold weather,
Energy transfers are measured in joules (J). A joule is quite a you need food as your source o f
small unit, so we often use kilojoules (kJ). 1 kJ = 1000 J. You energy and thick clothing that
will often see those units used on food packaging. Food is reduces the amount o f thermal
the energy source for our bodies. energy transferred from you to the
cold surrounding air.

Energy transfer (Sankey) diagrams

Remember that energy is always conserved. The total energy

that is transferred in must equal the total energy transferred
out. Another way of saying this is:
total energy input = total energy output
We can show this in a diagram called a Sankey diagram
(figure 8.9).

Describing energy transfers 167

 8.9 Energy transferred by a fluorescent lamp.
In Sankey diagrams the width of the arrows shows the quantity of energy transferred. The
energy input is shown on the left. Useful energy transfers are shown by horizontal arrows.
Arrows pointing downwards represent wasted energy.

A1 Working in a small group choose four different devices that use energy. For example,
you could choose a kettle, a clockwork toy, a television and a freezer.
A2 For each device, draw a Sankey diagram to show what type of energy goes in and
what types of useful and wasted energy come out.

Key facts: Check your skills

progress:
✓ The units of energy are joules and kilojoules.
I can communicate my
✓ A Sankey energy transfer diagram can describe energy ideas and support them
transfers. with evidence.
✓ The amount of energy that has been wasted can be
calculated from the difference between the total
energy input and the useful outputs of energy.

168 Energy
Chapter 8 . Topic 4 Learning outcomes
• To compare different energy
Finding enough resources
• To describe the differences
between renewable and non­
energy renewable resources
• To understand the importance
of questions, evidence and
explanations

r---------------------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
The units of energy are joules and kilojoules Com m unicate ideas supported by evidence

A Sankey energy tra n sfe r diagram can explain

energy transfers

The am ount o f energy th a t has been w asted

can be calculated from th e d ifferen ce betw een
th e to tal energy input and th e useful outputs
o f energy

Plants require light and w a te r fo r life and

grow th J

Energy resources

As time goes by, the number of people living on Earth

increases. As we invent new devices, we also need more
energy to power them. This means that we need more and
more energy from the natural resources around us.
Today the large majority of our energy comes from coal,
oil and natural gas. These are called fossil fuels because 8.10 Fossilised tree fern leaf in
they come from the fossilised remains of organisms. These a piece o f coal: age about 300
are a chemical store of energy that originally came from million years.
the sunlight which made the plants grow. Because it takes
hundreds of millions of years for coal, oil and gas to be
produced, they are non-renewable energy resources. If we Key terms
keep burning them the supplies will run out.
Another non-renewable resource is nuclear fuel. You will fossil fuels: fuel, such as
learn more about nuclear energy in Stage 9. coal, oil and natural gas,
made in the ground over
millions of years from
dead organisms.
non-renewable energy
resources: resources
that cannot be replaced
quickly.

Finding enough energy 169

 Renewable energy sources Key term

Energy resources that can be replaced quickly are called renewable energy
renewable energy resources. Sunlight provides the thermal resources: resources that
energy that causes all our weather. Sunlight also provides the can be replaced quickly in
light energy that plants use to grow. Many of the renewable natural processes.
resources we use are renewed by energy from the Sun.
But some renewable energy resources gain energy from
other processes. The pull of the Moon's gravity creates tidal
flows in the sea. Liquid rock in the Earth's mantle is kept hot
mostly by the decay of the radioactive elements it contains.
Renewable energy Energy source: Renewed by:
H ydroelectricity Stored p otential energy o f w a te r in R ain fall over the year (Sun's
rivers and lakes energy)

W ind turb ines M ovem ent of air - kinetic energy W indy w e a th e r (Sun's energy)

W ave pow er Up and dow n m ovem ent o f w a te r - W in dy w e a th e r (Sun's energy)

kinetic energy
Solar panels Sunlight - light energy Sunny w e a th e r

Biom ass and biofuels W ood and oth er p lant m aterials - Plant grow th (Sun's energy)
chem ical energy
Tidal p ow er H orizontal m ovem ent of sea Tides due to the Moon's gravity
w a te r - kinetic energy
G eotherm al energy Hot rocks underground - therm al Radioactive decay in
energy underground rock

Table 8.1 Examples o f renewable energy

Some of these renewable energy sources depend on the

weather. The amount of energy they produce changes over
time. So, we either use the energy they produce at the time
they produce it, or we store the energy using large batteries

Sunlight makes plants grow, so wood from trees can be

a renewable fuel. The trees that are cut down must be
replaced with new trees.
Plants other than trees can also be grown and then
burned.

8.11 Sugar cane is grown together

with other fast-growing plants and
used for fuel in India.

170
 ^ I a
The power of the sea
Island nations like the Philippines sometimes suffer from violent weather or from
tidal waves. But we can also use the energy from the movement of the sea to produce
electricity.

Energy for electricity generation

Electricity is a very useful form of energy. However, some

methods of making it can cause a lot of pollution. For
example, fossil fuels need to be collected from under the
ground. Burning fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide and
other waste gases.
Most large power stations use a source of thermal energy to
boil water and produce steam. The heat can be transferred 8.12 China aims to reduce coal­
from the chemical energy of a fossil fuel or biomass. Heat burning to improve the air quality
can also be transferred from the nuclear energy of a nuclear in its cities.
fuel or from geothermal energy.

8.13 The components o f a pow er station: A - boiler, B - turbine,

C - generator, D - cooling tower, E - wires to transfer electricity.

o Name four sources of chemical energy that can be used in power stations.

o Copy and complete each of the following sentences with the correct words for energy
type or energy transfer:
_ ... .. ^
electrical energy heat kinetic energy potential energy

a) In the boiler,________ is transferred to boil water and make fast-moving steam.

b) In the turbine, the steam transfers energy to turn the blades. The turning blades
h ave_________________ .

Finding enough energy 171

 c) In the generator, th e _________________ from the turbine is transferred to

d) In the cooling tower, the steam is cooled to form water that can be re-used.
Thermal energy from the steam is transferred a s ________ into the surroundings.

Electricity
(35 %)

8.14 A Sankey energy transfer diagram for a typical

coal-fired pow er station.

Activity 8.7: Fuels for power stations

Working in groups:
A1 Choose one fossil fuel.
A2 Research on the internet the environmental impact of any mining or drilling
operations to get the fuel, or of any waste produced.
Share your results with the rest of the class, and together build up a table to compare
these power station fuels. Discuss their advantages and disadvantages.

Which methods of generating electricity are renewable? List them, and explain why.

What problems are caused by burning large quantities of fossil fuels?

Hydroelectricity is clean to produce and relatively cheap. Suggest why it is not the
main method of producing electrical energy in most countries.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Fossil fuels took hundreds of millions of I can ask appropriate questions when
years to form underground, so are non­ choosing energy resources for generating
renewable. electricity.
✓ Burning fossil fuels produces waste gases
that damage the environment.
✓ Renewable energy sources can be
replaced quickly by natural processes.

172 Energy
 End of chapter review

Quick questions
1. What types of energy do the following objects have:
(a) an arrow in flight? [1]
(b) water at the very top of a waterfall? [1]
(c) a pendulum mass at the centre of its swing? [1]
(d) a stretched spring? [1]
(e) a hammer lifted high? [1]
(f) the same hammer just before it hits a nail? [1]
2. For each of the following, give the energy type involved:
(a) fatty or sugary foods [1]
(b) matches [1]
(c) a battery [1]
(d) sunshine [1]
(e) a whistling noise [1]
(f) hot steam. [1]
3. What kind of energy transfer happens during the following actions:
(a) firing a catapult? [1]
(b) a car or bicycle slowing down when itsbrakes are applied? [1]
(c) lifting books to put them on a shelf? [1]
(d) melting ice? [1]
4. How many joules of energy are there in a kilojoule? [1]

Connect your understanding:

5. Explain, using energy transfers, how a rubber ball bounces. [4]
6. Explain why heat or thermal energy cannot be seen. [2]
7. Heat is transferred in each of the following processes. State in which
of them the heat is a useful energy output, and in which it is wasted:
(a) cooking food in a microwave oven [ 1]

(b) using an electric light. [1]

End of chapter review 173

 8. For the example in question 7 where the heat was wasted, explain what
useful energy transfer also occurred. [1]
9. An electric motor in a vacuum cleaner uses 300 J of electrical energy
every second. The energy wasted in the motor as heat is 60 J every second.
(a) How much useful energy is transferred every second? [2]
(b) Draw and label a Sankey diagram for the vacuum cleaner. The labels should
state the amounts and types of energy being inputted and outputted. [5]
10. What factors should a government consider when planning a new electricity
generating plant? [4]
11. A pole-vaulter's muscles are not very efficient at transferring energy into useful
work.

(a) What two kinds of useful energy does a pole-vaulter need when making
a jump? [2]
(b) What type of energy is stored in the food an athlete eats? [1]
(c) What form does the wasted energy take, and how can you observe it? [2]
(d) Draw and label a Sankey energy transfer diagram to represent the energy
transfers involved in a pole-vault. [5]

Challenge question
12. When the vacuum cleaner from question 9 is used inside a closed room,
the air in the room gradually gets warmer.
(a) Describe the energy transfers that take place to cause this warming. [4]
(b) Explain why all the electrical energy input will eventually end up as
increased thermal energy in the air. [2]

Energy
What’s it all about?
Looking into the sky, you can see objects beyond the
Earth - the Sun, the Moon, stars and planets. Find
out h ow astronomers like Copernicus and Galileo
explored beyond the Earth w ithout travelling into
space. W hat have w e discovered out there since, and
w here m ight w e travel in the future?

w ill learn about:

W hy w e have day and night, seasons and years
The M oon, and how its m ovem ent exp lains eclipses
The oth er planets in th e Solar System, and h ow they
com pare w ith th e Earth
O ur Sun and oth er stars: h ow w e see them and how th ey
help us to see other things in space
How our understanding o f the Solar System has
developed, and th a t it is still developing
w ill build your skills in:
Finding and using inform atio n
Recognising patterns in observations
Talking abo ut questions, evidence and exp lan ation s

Beyond the Earth

 Chapter 9 . Topic 1 Learning outcomes
• To describe how the movement of
Day and night the Earth explains the apparent
movement of the Sun and the stars
• To define a day, a month and a
year
• To explain why we experience
seasons on Earth

r---------------------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
W e see th e Sun rise and set each day and th at Use th e points o f th e compass - north, east, south,
th e M oon, stars and planets can be seen at w est
night

Activity 9.1: W hat is moving!

A In groups, find a safe way to make one member of the group spin, for example by
standing on tiptoe, or by sitting on a seat that revolves. Make sure that the others in
your group stand clear, but that you are all watching and ready to catch or support the
spinning person. Only do it for a short time, and take turns to spin.
B Discuss the differences between your observations when spinning and those when you
were watching. How do the room and the people in it appear?
A1 Look at the three pictures in figures 9.1 to 9.3. In each, what is moving? How did you
decide?

9.1 A bus moving. 9.2 Running animals. 9.3 Stars in the evening sky.

Key terms

The spinning motion of the Earth northern hemisphere:

the half of the Earth's
When you look up at stars in the night sky, they seem fixed spherical surface that lies
in their positions. But, if you look again an hour later, they north of the equator.
will have moved. In the northern hemisphere, there is just star: huge mass of
one star that seems to stay fixed. It is the star that seems to gas that is undergoing
be above the Earth's north pole - it is called the North Star nuclear reactions. Stars
(or sometimes the Pole Star or Polaris). are so hot that they give
out light all the time.

176 Beyond the Earth

Look at the photograph of the North Star in Figure 9.4. It
looks as if all the other stars are spinning round it. But that
is an illusion. It is the Earth that is spinning.
The Earth spins on its axis once every 24 hours. This explains
why the stars seem to rotate at night. It also explains why
the Sun seems to move across the sky each day, rising in the
east and setting in the west.

9.4 A photograph o f the North

Star and neighbouring stars, taken
over a period o f 45 minutes.

Key terms

axis: imaginary straight

line, running through
the centre of the Earth
between the two poles.
equator: imaginary
line running around the
9.5 The Earth is a sphere, spinning on a tilted axis. circumference of the
Earth halfway between
When you stand on Earth, you feel as if you are still. But the the north pole and the
nearer you are to the equator, the faster you are moving. At south pole.
the equator, you are spinning at over 1500 km/h. Standing
at one of the poles, you turn slowly around on the spot. pole: the north and
south poles mark the
ends of the axis about
How long does it take you to rotate 360°: a) if you which the Earth spins.
stand at a pole? b) if you are on the equator?

Explain why the North Star stands still, while all the
other stars seem to move.

Earth’s orbit around the Sun

As well as spinning on its axis, the Earth also makes an almost

circular journey - an orbit - round the Sun every year. Our Sun Key term
is a star 150 million kilometres away from us, and so the Earth
is travelling very quickly-over 100 000 km/h. Gravity keeps the orbit: circular or elliptical
Earth in this orbit. You will learn more about this in Chapter 10. path in which one object
The Earth spinning on its axis causes the positions of the travels round another.
stars to appear to rotate during the night (see figure 9.4). Gravity holds the objects
The Earth orbiting the Sun causes the position of stars to together.
appear to move over a year.

Day and night 177

 Daylight hours and the seasons

The Earth's axis tilts compared to the way it orbits the Sun.
The spin axis has a t ilt of 23°. This is why the length of the
day changes with the seasons of the year.

This side of the Earth J This side of the Earth

is facing towards the ■ is facing away from the
Sun: it is day here Sun: it is night here

Summer in northern Winter in northern

hemisphere hemisphere
Winter in the Summer in the
southern hemisphere southern hemisphere

Earth rotates on its Earth orbits the

axis once every 24 hours Sun once a year
9.6 The Earth's tilt means that the length o f day and night are not always
the same.

In figure 9.6 (right side), the north pole is tilted away from
the Sun and the south pole towards the Sun. So, places
north of the equator get a longer time in darkness (night)
and a shorter day. They are experiencing the season of
winter. Places in the southern hemisphere get longer days
and shorter nights, so there it is summer.

Activity 9.2: Modelling Earth’s orbit and

changing day and nignt_________________
Work in groups in a partly darkened room. Use a torch Key terms
and a foam ball with a thin rod stuck through it to model
the Earth's spin and its orbit around the Sun. Keep the seasons: divide the year
torch pointing towards the ball all the time. Use your into four periods of three
model to answer the following questions: months each: winter,
spring, summer and
A1 Where in the sky is the Sun at midday: autumn (or fall). Winter
a) if you live north of the equator? has shortened daylight
b) if you live in the southern hemisphere? hours and summer has
the longest. On the
A2 How many times does the Earth spin round during equator, day and night
one orbit of the Sun? are always 12 hours
each, so there are no
seasons there.
Explain why the stars that you see from a place in the the angle between
t ilt :
southern hemisphere are different from those seen the Earth's spin axis
from the northern hemisphere. (Imagine stars on the and the axis of its orbit
ceiling and on the floor of the room.) around the Sun.

178 Beyond the Earth

 The M oon’s orbit

The largest and brightest object in the night sky is our

Moon. Like the Earth, it is a sphere and is lit by the Sun, so it
is bright on one side and dark on the other side. It orbits the
Earth once every 27.3 days.
How much we can see depends on the positions of the
Moon and Earth compared to the Sun. This is why the
appearance of the Moon changes (see figure 9.7).

9.7 From one New Moon (completely dark) to the next takes 29.5 days -
one lunar month.

Copy and complete the following sentences. Use

words from the box to fill the gaps:

day, Earth, month, night, orbit, Sun

a) T h e ____________and the Moon are both lit by the

b) The length o f ________ _ a n d ____________on Earth

always totals 24 hours.
c) A year is the time it takes th e ____________to orbit
th e ____________.

d) The length of one lunar 'day' and 'night' on the

Moon add up to one lu n ar____________.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ The Earth spins round once on its axis every I can link the seasons to the
day. changing length of daylight time.
✓ The Earth orbits the Sun once each year. I can explain the apparent
movement of the stars.
✓ The Earth's spin axis is tilted.
I can use a model to explain day and
night, and the orbit of the Earth
around the Sun.

Day and night 179

 Chapter 9 . Topic 2 Learning outcomes
• To name the planets in our Solar System
Planets and the • To describe how the Sun and other stars are
sources of light
• To describe what happens in solar and lunar
Solar System eclipses
• To describe how planets and other bodies are
seen by reflected light
• To describe how the planets move around
the Sun
• To explain why a day and a year on another
planet are different from those on Earth

r Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
W e can see things if th ey give out light or if Find inform atio n from books or using the in tern et
they reflect light
_________________________________________________________________/

Planets and their moons

After our Moon, the largest and brightest objects in the

night sky are planets. They do not always appear next to the
same stars. Through our year, they seem to wander across
the sky. Their paths appear to us as complicated looped Key terms
shapes.
moon: natural object
Like the Earth, each planet is in an orbit around the Sun. made of rock or frozen
Including the Earth, the Sun has eight planets orbiting it, liquid, which orbits a
each at a different distance (see figure 9.8). Each planet has planet.
its own 'year' (the time for one orbit round the Sun) and
planet: object which
'day' (the time it takes to spin once on its axis).
orbits around the Sun
If you observe Jupiter using a telescope, you can see it has and is large and heavy
moons circling it. In fact, many of the planets have moons of enough to have become
their own. If you observe Saturn you can see it also has rings approximately spherical
(made of thousands of small icy objects). and to have cleared all
other smaller bodies out
There are other objects orbiting the Sun that are not
of its orbit.
planets. Pluto is a dwarf planet that spends most of its orbit
outside the orbit of Neptune. Beyond Pluto are icy objects Solar System: the Sun
called comets. Between Mars and Jupiter are four more and all the other objects
dwarf planets and smaller rocky objects called asteroids. that move around it
This collection of objects moving around the Sun is called under the control of its
the Solar System. gravity.

180 Beyond the Earth

9.8 The eight planets o f the Solar System (distances from the Sun and
the sizes o f the planets are not drawn to scale). You should learn and
remember their names and positions.

M e rcu ry Venus E a rth M ars Ju p ite r S a tu rn U ra n u s N e p tu n e

Mass (1024kg) 0 .3 3 0 4 .8 7 5.97 0.642 1898 568 8 6 .8 102

Rotation period 1408 5833 23.9 2 4.6 9.9 10.7 17.2 16.1
(hours)
Length of day 4223 2803 24.0 24.7 9.9 10.7 17.2 16.1
(hours)
Distance from
Sun 58 108 150 228 779 1434 2873 4495
(millions of km)
Orbit period 8 8 .0 224.7 365.2 687 4331 10 747 30 589 59 800
(Earth days)
Average surface 167 464 15 -6 5 -110 -140 -195 -2 0 0
temperature (°C)
Atmospheric
pressure at 0 9200 100 1 unknow n unknow n unknow n unknow n
surface (kPa)
Number of 0 0 1 2 67 62 27 14
moons
Table 9.1 Planet data

Table 9.1 includes information about the average

surface temperature of the planets. Explain which
other line of data best explains the pattern of
average temperatures at each planet's surface.

Again, referring to data in Table 9.1, notice that for

some planets their rotation period is very different
from their length of day. Explain for which planets
this happens and draw a diagram to show why.

Planets and the Solar System

 Which planets are closest to the Earth's orbit?

Which planet has the longest day? Explain how that

fits a general pattern. Which planet is an exception to
this general pattern?

Suggest why Pluto does not fully fit the modern

definition of a planet.

How you see things

You can see a source of light, for example an electric lamp.

You can also see things that reflect light, for example a page
from this book. You cannot read a book without a light
source shining on it.
Stars are the only light sources in space. Our Sun is a star -
the closest star to Earth. The next nearest stars are hundreds
of millions of kilometres away, so they look small and their
light is faint. You can only see planets, moons or other
objects such as asteroids if they reflect light from the Sun.
Some astronomers think there may be a ninth planet that
has not been discovered because it is so far from the Sun
that it does not get enough light to show up in telescopes.

Activity 9.3: W hat you can see - and what you cannot
In groups:
A1 Discuss why you only see stars other than the Sun at night.
A2 Discuss why it is easier to see the bigger planets that are close to the Earth, but
harder to see the smaller objects that are further away.
A3 Draw a labelled diagram to explain how you can sometimes see the Moon during
the day.

Eclipses - darkening of the Sun or Moon

Key term
The Moon's orbit can sometimes cause an eclipse. This
happens when the Sun, the Earth and the Moon all fall into eclipse: when one object
a straight line. interferes with our view
of another object.
Warning: Never look directly at the Sun. It can
seriously damage your eyes even during an eclipse.

182 Beyond the Earth

Table 9.2 Comparing solar and lunar eclipses.

Activity 9.4: Solar and lunar eclipses

In groups, demonstrate eclipses. Use a tennis ball to represent the Moon, a football to
represent the Earth, and a torch light to represent the Sun.
A1 Look towards the torch and move the tennis ball to see 'the Moon' eclipse 'the Sun'.
A2 In a darkened room, place a football (the Earth) between the torch (the Sun) and a
tennis ball (the Moon) to make a lunar eclipse.
A3 Use notes and drawings to describe the different appearance of solar and lunar eclipses.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Eight planets, including the Earth, orbit our I can name the eight planets, and
Sun. place their orbits in order of distance
from the Sun.
✓ Each planet has its own orbit and spin, giving
it a different 'year' and 'day' from the Earth's. I can explain what defines a planet.
✓ We can see stars (including the Sun) because I can find and interpret information
they produce their own light. about the Solar System from
secondary sources.
✓ We can see planets and moons because they
reflect the light of the Sun. I can recognise patterns in
information and identify gaps or
✓ When the Moon passes in front of the Sun,
unexpected values.
we see a solar eclipse.
I can explain how solar and lunar
✓ When the Earth passes between the Sun and eclipses occur.
the Moon, we see a lunar eclipse.

Planets and the Solar System 183

 Chapter 9 . Topic 3 Learning outcomes
• To describe how the planets
Changing ideas about were discovered
• To discuss how we have
changed our ideas about
I the Solar System the Solar System because of
scientific evidence
• To investigate the ideas of
Copernicus and Galileo
• To be able to talk about the
importance of questions,
evidence and explanations

Ancient ideas challenged

For thousands of years, people have been looking up into

the sky and wondering about all the lights they see. Many
ancient cultures described the Earth as a flat disc with a
domed sky above it.
By 330 BC the ancient Greek philosopher and scientist,
Aristotle, had stated that Earth is a sphere. His evidence
included sea travellers' observations that ships disappear
over the horizon and that the North Star rises higher in the
sky as you travel northwards. Observation of lunar eclipses
showed that the Earth's shadow is always circular.
9.13 The Earth imagined as a flat
However, he thought that the stars, planets, Moon and Sun
disc floating on a sea with the
must all revolve around the Earth on spheres of different
stars on a spherical dome.
diameters.

Careful observations, new techniques,

n ew evidence, new thinking

Astronomy continued to develop in other parts of the

world, especially in India. In the sixth century, the Indian
astronomer Arabyhata published an important book
in which he said that the Earth spins and so causes the
apparent motion of the stars at night.
Next, Islamic astronomers in Persia and Arabia built on
the Greek and Indian writings. They developed new
9.14 Aristotle's Earth - a sphere
mathematics and better methods of observation. Between at the centre o f other revolving
the tenth and the fifteenth centuries their observations spheres.
included the first sighting of another galaxy, Andromeda,
and recording the brightest supernova (exploding star) in
history. They also invented algebra and a new physics of
astronomy. In the sixteenth century, people reading about
this Islamic work sparked a new interest in astronomy
among Europeans.

184 Beyond the Earth

 i

N ew theories proposed and tested

In 1543, a Polish priest called Nicolaus Copernicus published

a new theory. He said 'We revolve around the Sun like any
other planet'. His ideas were attacked, and some people
were even killed for teaching them. After the invention
of telescopes, Galileo Galilei used one in 1610 to look at
Jupiter. He observed moons circling round the planet. His
observations also proved that Venus orbits the Sun.
The mathematicians Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton use
the new astronomical observations to develop new scientif
laws of motion and gravity. Kepler showed that the orbits
of planets are not perfect circles but ellipses - their distance
from the Sun has a maximum and a minimum point. Newton
explained this, using his new laws of motion and of gravity,
which were first published in 1687. Newton's laws changed
the whole basis of physics. 9.15 An Arabic astrolabe - an
instrument first invented by
More planets predicted and found Greeks that measures the angular
position o f an object in the sky.
Using telescopes to make accurate measurements of the
planets' movement, scientists applied and tested Newton's
laws of motion and gravity. The motions of the outer Key terms
planets were not quite as predicted. They calculated that
there must be other objects exerting gravitational forces. galaxy: collection of
They searched for these using bigger telescopes and found billions of stars held
two more planets - Uranus and Neptune. Finally, in 1930, together by gravity. Our
the dwarf planet Pluto was first seen. Sun with its Solar System
is part of the Milky Way
Exploring the Sun and the stars galaxy.
scientific law: a theory
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the German that has been tested by
scientist, Joseph von Fraunhofer, discovered dark lines in the experiment and shown to
spectrum of light coming from the Sun. These spectral lines be useful and reliable.
have enabled us to discover what chemical elements are in
the Sun and in other stars. theory: a set of ideas
that describes how things
Early in the twentieth century, the American scientist, work.
Annie Jump Cannon, used spectral data to classify more
than 400000 stars. This was more than any other scientist.
Another member of her team, Henrietta Swan Levitt,
3 scovered a type of 'variable' star that made it possible for
.iS to reliably measure the huge distances in space between
stars and ourselves.
Later, Russian-born American, George Gamow, was the first
to put forward the idea that the energy of our Sun and of
the other stars comes from nuclear fusion reactions.

R-

Changing ideas about the Solar System 185

 9 .3
N e w theories proposed and tested

In 1543, a Polish priest called Nicolaus Copernicus published

a new theory. He said 'We revolve around the Sun like any
other planet'. His ideas were attacked, and some people
were even killed for teaching them. After the invention
of telescopes, Galileo Galilei used one in 1610 to look at
Jupiter. He observed moons circling round the planet. His
observations also proved that Venus orbits the Sun.
The mathematicians Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton used
the new astronomical observations to develop new scientific
laws of motion and gravity. Kepler showed that the orbits
of planets are not perfect circles but ellipses - their distance
from the Sun has a maximum and a minimum point. Newton
explained this, using his new laws of motion and of gravity,
which were first published in 1687. Newton's laws changed
the whole basis of physics. 9.15 An Arabic astrolabe - an
instrument first invented by
More planets predicted and found Greeks that measures the angular
position o f an object in the sky.
Using telescopes to make accurate measurements of the
planets' movement, scientists applied and tested Newton's
laws of motion and gravity. The motions of the outer Key terms
planets were not quite as predicted. They calculated that
there must be other objects exerting gravitational forces. galaxy: collection of
They searched for these using bigger telescopes and found billions of stars held
two more planets - Uranus and Neptune. Finally, in 1930, together by gravity. Our
the dwarf planet Pluto was first seen. Sun with its Solar System
is part of the Milky Way
Exploring the Sun and the stars galaxy.
scientific law: a theory
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the German that has been tested by
scientist, Joseph von Fraunhofer, discovered dark lines in the experiment and shown to
spectrum of light coming from the Sun. These spectral lines be useful and reliable.
have enabled us to discover what chemical elements are in
the Sun and in other stars. theory: a set of ideas
that describes how things
Early in the twentieth century, the American scientist, work.
Annie Jump Cannon, used spectral data to classify more
than 400000 stars. This was more than any other scientist.
Another member of her team, Henrietta Swan Levitt,
discovered a type of 'variable' star that made it possible for
us to reliably measure the huge distances in space between
stars and ourselves.
Later, Russian-born American, George Gamow, was the first
to put forward the idea that the energy of our Sun and of
the other stars comes from nuclear fusion reactions.

Changing ideas about the Solar System 185

 Find out more about the scientists after Copernicus and Galileo who changed our ideas
about the Earth and its place in the Solar System. Include those mentioned on page 185
and others you think are important.
A1 Draw a timeline showing each important new idea and the person who published it
A2 What kinds of evidence did each scientist use?

The huge cost of space research means that much more can be achieved when nations
work together; an example of this is the International Space Station (shared by the USA,
Russia, Europe, Japan and Canada) and the Hubble Space Telescope (an ESA and NASA
project). Photographs taken from these have changed the way humans think about their
place in the universe. We are not at the centre of things, but on a tiny planet which orbits
one star out of billions in our galaxy. Our galaxy is just one of an uncountable number
that stretch as far as we can see.

9.16 Earth viewed from the International 9.17 The Hubble telescope ultra-deep field
Space Station. view shows that the 'black' areas in our
night sky are actually full o f hugely distant
and very faint galaxies.

What did Copernicus say about the movement of the

Earth and Sun that disagreed with Aristotle's theory?

Describe the new instrument that Galileo used.

Kepler used many thousands of observations to

develop his equations. Suggest why this use of
evidence was so important.

186 Beyond the Earth

Activity 9.6: Challenging ideas
In small groups, discuss what scientists need to do for a new theory to be accepted.
A1 Why are new theories needed, and how do they arise?
A2 If two theories could explain the same observations, how would you decide which
one to accept?

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ Aristotle showed from observations that the I can explain how scientists used
Earth is spherical. evidence to support new ideas about
the Solar System.
✓ Copernicus proposed that the Earth is a planet
orbiting the Sun. I can give examples of how new
theories are tested before they
✓ Galileo used a telescope to make more
become accepted.
accurate observations of the planets and their
motion.
✓ Kepler developed equations that described
the orbits.
✓ Newton explained the orbits with simple
mathematical laws of motion and gravity.

Changing ideas about the Solar System 187

 End of chapter review

Quick questions
1. How many days are in a lunar month? [1]
2. How many planets orbit our Sun? [1]
3. How far is the Earth from the Sun? [1]
4. Which planet orbits closest to the Sun? [1]
5. Which planet is furthest from the Sun? [1]
6. Which planet is largest? [1]
7. Which planet has the most moons? [1]
8. Look at the data in the table. Draw a diagram to explain why the length of the
longest day in summer and the shortest day in winter is different in these three
capital cities.
City Rekyavik, Iceland Tokyo, Japan Nairobi, Kenya
Longest day 21 h 45 min 14 h 35 min 12 h 12min
Shortest day 4 h 7 min 9 h 44 min 12 h 2min
Longitude 21.8° W 139.7° E 36.8° E
Latitude 64.1° N 35.7° N 1.3° S
Distance from the equator 7115 km 3963 km 144 km

Connect your understanding

9. Which two planets were not known at the time of Copernicus and Galileo?
Explain why. [3]
10. Give three connected reasons why Pluto is no longer counted as a planet. [3]
11. Explain how the Moon is lit and why it appears to change shape. [4]
12. Describe and explain the differences between a solar eclipse and
a lunar eclipse. [7]

Challenge question
13. Explain why we only ever see one side of our Moon. [2]

V— _________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ J

188 Beyond the Earth

w

C h a p te r 10
Forces and their effects

What’s it all about?

W e use the idea o f en ergy (see Chapter 8 )
to describe w hat m akes things happen. But
although w e k n ow a golfer hitting a ball is
transferring energy, that does not tell us the
direction the ball m oves in or h ow fast it
m oves. To understand these things, w e need to
talk about forces. The golfer uses a force w ith a
size that explains h ow fast the ball travels. The
direction o f the force tells us the direction the
ball m oves in.

Yo u w ill le arn a b o u t:
• C h a n g in g an o b je ct's speed o r its d ire c tio n o f tra v e l
• B a la n cin g fo rc e s, lik e fric tio n o r a ir re sistan ce
• G ra vity , fre e fa ll and o rb ita l m o tio n
Yo u w ill b u ild y o u r skills in:
• M a k in g and re co rd in g m e a su re m e n ts
• P la n n in g and c a rry in g o u t in v e stig a tio n s

Forces and their effects 189

 Chapter 10 . Topic 1 Learning outcomes
• To describe the effects of
Forces change motion forces on motion, including
friction and air resistance

r-------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Forces a re pushes o r pulls and are m e a su re d in M e asu re fo rc e s using a n e w to n m e te r (fo rce
n e w to n s (N ) m e te r)
M o tio n has a speed and a d ire ctio n P re se n t re su lts in th e fo rm o f a ta b le ___,

If something is not moving, but you want it to start moving,

you need to give it a push or a pull. Imagine a shopping
trolley on wheels. When you visit a supermarket, you go to
where the trolleys are kept and push one trolley to make it
move. In physics, we call the push a force.
As you push the trolley round the store, you speed up or
slow down. You change the size of the force. You also
change the direction of the trolley with pushes or pulls. You
change the direction of the force to make this happen.
In 1687, Isaac Newton published this idea:
'An object will carry on moving with a steady speed in the
same direction unless a force acts on it.'
Activity 10.1: Slowing down
On Earth, moving objects always seem to slow down and eventually stop. In groups, plan
an investigation into the movement of different objects on different surfaces to find out
which will travel the furthest before stopping. Consider:
• What surfaces to use. For example, a smooth dry surface, a wet surface, a rough surface...
• What objects to test. For example, something light, something heavy, something with
wheels, something round...
• How to make a fair test.
A1 Then do your investigation. Record your results in a table.
A2 Explain how the stopping forces affected the distance each object travelled.

Showing forces on diagrams

You can show forces as arrows on diagrams. This helps you

understand what forces are acting on objects and what
these forces will do.
The rules for drawing forces are:
• The direction of the arrow shows the direction of the force.
• The length of the arrow is to scale, to show the size of
the force.

190 Forces and their effects

 10.1 D raw ing diagram s helps us to understand forces. The w eig h t
o f a ball causes it to sp e e d up in a dow n w ards direction. The push
on a trolley causes it to sp e e d up in a horizontal direction.

10.2 There is friction b e tw e e n the

tyres on a bicycle a n d the rough
When two solid surfaces rub together, friction between them surface o f the track. It m eans the
acts to slow down and stop the movement. Friction between tyres grip th e track so the cyclist
your shoe and the floor is very useful (see figure 10.3). It stops can p e d a l the bicycle forw ards. The
you slipping. But friction between the moving parts in an cyclist has to keep pedalling, o r air

engine or a machine is a nuisance. We reduce it by using oil. resistance w ill slo w the bicycle dow n.

Air resistance

Gases and liquids provide some resistance to motion. If you ride

a bicycle fast you will experience air resistance. It feels as if a
wind is pushing you backwards, until you slow down and stop.
This is a force that depends on the speed at which you travel.
The size of the force due to air resistance also depends on the 10.3 A b a d m in to n p la y e r w ears
size and shape of the moving object. Smaller, more smooth sh o e s w ith a g o o d fric tio n g rip .
and rounded objects help to reduce the air resistance. Friction fo rc e s o p p o se th e pu sh
o f his fe e t a n d sto p him slip p in g .
Activity 10.2: Investigating friction A f t e r it leaves th e ra cket, the
sh u ttle c o c k slo w s d o w n ra p id ly
A newton meter
measures the force d u e to a ir resistan ce.

Key terms

air resistance: the force

that acts to slow down
10.4 M e a su rin g th e fric tio n a l fo rc e b e tw e e n a fla t su rfa ce a n d a
an object moving through
w o o d e n b lo ck th a t has m asses p la c e d on it.
air. It varies with the size
Working in small groups, design, and then do, an and shape of the object.
investigation into the factors that affect the size of the
friction: force between
frictional force on a wooden block.
two surfaces that are
A1 What is the effect on the friction force of increasing pressed together. It acts
the weight that pushes the surfaces together? to stop the surfaces
A2 What is the effect on friction of different surfaces, sliding over one another.
or adding water or oil?

Forces change motion 191

 India has a long coastline to protect. They use hovercraft,
which can travel much faster than ships because an air
cushion reduces friction between the craft and the sea or
land below.

10.5 This co a stg u a rd vessel travels

a t up to 90 km/h.

A Ensure you are wearing eye protection. Tie a cotton reel or a rubber bung to one end of a
piece of string. Hold the other end and swing the object round in a circle. You can feel the
pull in the string. That is the force needed to keep the object moving in a circular path.
B Now find a safe space (outside in an open area), where throwing the object cannot
damage anything. Once again, swing the object round in a circle, but then let go of the
string. In which direction does it fly off? Draw a diagram to show its flight.

If you want to change direction when you are already

moving, you need to use a sideways force. For example, if
you are turning left, you need a force pulling you to the left.
If a constant force acts pulling you to turn, and you stay
at a constant speed, then you can turn in a circle. This
force points towards the centre of the circle. It is called the
centripetal force.
For example, the tyre of a bicycle wheel moves at a steady
speed, in a circle. The spokes of the bicycle wheel provide
the turning force needed. However, if the tyre is wet there is
no force to make water on the tyre continue in a circle. The
water carries straight on and sprays off, making both the
rider and passers-by wet and dirty - see figure 10.6.

10.6 W a ter on a sp in n in g w h e e l te n d s to fly o f f in a stra ig h t line, so

b icycles have m u d g u a rd s (fe n d e rs).

192 Forces and their effects

 Describe what might happen if a car tries to turn a
corner too quickly on a slippery road surface.

Draw and label diagrams to show the direction of

the frictional force needed from the road acting on a
bicycle's tyres:
a) when the cyclist pedals hard to go faster
b) when the cyclist turns a corner
c) when the cyclist uses both brakes to stop quickly.

What would happen to the motion of objects movinc

in a straight line if there was no friction or air
resistance?

Check your skills progress:

✓ With no force, a stationary object stays I can measure forces using a newton
still. meter.
✓ With no force, a moving object continues
at constant speed in a straight line.
✓ If a force is applied to an object it
changes speed or direction.
✓ Turning a corner requires a sideways
(centripetal) force.
✓ A force acting forwards speeds an
object up; a backwards force slows an
object down.
✓ Friction is a force between surfaces that
slows things down.

Forces change motion 193

 C h a p te r 10 . Topic 2 Learning outcomes
• To describe the effect of
Gravity gravity on objects

r Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Mass and w e ig h t are d iffe re n t and have M easure forces using a new to n m eter
d iffe re n t units
Forces can change the shape of an object Record your results using a tab le

Activity 10.4: W eight and free fall

A Hold different masses in your hand and feel the weight of each one.
B Weight is a force. Use a newton meter to measure the weight of each mass in newtons.
Record your results in a table listing mass (kg) and weight (N).
A1 For each pair of readings in your table, calculate weight -h mass. What do you notice?
C Drop a heavy mass and a light mass into a cardboard box or tray on the floor at the same
time and from the same height.
A2 What do you notice about the time it takes for the heavy mass and light mass to
reach the ground?

Gravity is the pull force between two masses. The bigger

Key terms
the masses and the closer they are together, the bigger
the attractive force between them. The Earth has a very gravity: the pull of a
large mass indeed, so all other objects near it experience a large mass like the Earth
gravitational pull that we call weight. on other masses near it.

Mars has a mass nine times smaller than the Earth's. weight: the size of
the pull of gravity for a
a) If you measured your mass on Mars, would it be less given mass. You can feel
than, the same as, or more than your mass on Earth? something's weight when
b) If you measured your weight on Mars, would it be you try to stop it from
less than, the same as, or more than your weight falling.
on Earth?

You are in an aeroplane flying high up in the sky and

you measure your weight. What result do you expect?
Explain why.

The weight of an object is proportional to its mass.

Weight = m x g
The 'g' is the strength of gravity. Approximately, for objects
near the Earth's surface, g = 10 newtons per kilogram of mass.

194 Forces and their effect's

This force makes objects fall towards the Earth. When objects
fall in this way because of their weight, it is called free fall.
In the sixteenth century, Galileo did an experiment where he
dropped objects of different mass from the Leaning Tower in
Pisa, Italy. He found that they both landed at the same time.
Both objects gain speed at the same rate because the force
needed to change an object's speed also depends on its mass.

Galileo's experiment only works with two dense

objects. Explain why the result would be different if
you dropped a hammer and a feather together.

Orbital motion
10.7 G alileo d ro p p e d balls o f
In Chapter 9 you found out about the Earth and other d iffe r e n t size s fro m th e Lea n in g

planets orbiting the Sun. The force that keeps the planets in Tower.

their orbits is gravity - the pull of gravity from the Sun. The
same is true for anything that orbits. For example, the Moon
Key term
orbits the Earth due to the pull of gravity from the Earth.
Gravity is a force that acts at a distance. There is no string or free fall: the speeding
spoke fixing these two masses together; there is just a force. up downwards motion of
So, the object's speed of travel around the circle must be a body due to its weight.
carefully balanced against the pull of gravity (its weight).
Things only stay in orbit if they are circling at the correct speed.

Pairs of forces

Through studying gravity, Newton realised that forces

always seem to come in pairs that act in opposite directions.
For example, the pull of Earth's gravity on the Moon keeps it
in its orbit, while the pull of the Moon's gravity on the Earth
makes the oceans move and so causes tides.
10.8 A stro n a u ts in a sp a ce sta tio n
Another example is when we try to stretch or squash a p p e a r to b e 'w e ig h tle ss'. B u t in
materials. You apply a force to an elastic band to make it fa ct th e ir w e ig h t - th e fo rc e o f
stretch, and the elastic band pulls back on you. You can feel g ra v ity fro m th e Ea rth - is w h a t is
its force. Again, these two forces act in opposite directions. k e e p in g th em in th e sam e circula r
o rb it as th e space sta tio n .

• Earth
- - Moon

Gravity 195
 Newton meters work by stretching a spring. The force you apply makes the spring longer,
and so the pointer moves along the scale.
A Make your own newton meter using an elastic band or a soft spring, with a ruler to
measure its change in length. You could attach a needle to the moving end to act as a
pointer.
B Decide what measurements and calculations you will need to make, and design a
suitable table for recording your results. Remember, it is the change in length that you
need to know.
C Design and carry out an investigation similar to the one in Activity 10.4, where you
hang masses on your newton meter and measure the effect of the force.
A1 How can you use your results from Activity 10.4 to convert the values of mass into
weights measured in newtons?
D Investigate what happens to your elastic band or spring when you start to use heavier
weights.

A2 Is the change in length always proportional to the force applied? Explain why.

Check your skills progress:

✓ The weight of an object on Earth is the I can identify pairs of forces acting in
pull force of the Earth's gravity on it. opposing directions.
✓ Weight is measured in newtons and is
proportional to the mass of an object (in
kilograms).
✓ Gravitational pull changes with distance
from the Earth.
✓ Gravity is the force that explains the
orbits of planets, moons and satellites.

196 Forces and their effects

 Chapter 10 . Topic 3 Learning outcomes
• To describe the effects of
Balanced and forces on motion, including
friction and air resistance
• To describe the effect of
unbalanced forces gravity on objects

r---------------------------------------------------------------
Starting point
You should know that... You should be able to...
Mass and w e ig h t are d iffe re n t and have Iden tify pairs of forces acting in opposite
d iffe re n t units directions
W ith no fo rce, a statio n ary object stays still
W ith no force, a m oving object continues at
constant speed in a straig h t line
If a force is applied to an object it changes
speed or direction J

Key terms
Adding forces
balanced forces: when
Sometimes more than one force acts on an object. You can the resultant force is zero.
add these forces together to make a single force, called the resultant force: shows
resultant force. This resultant force shows you the combined the single total force
effect of all the different forces on an object. acting on an object when
You have seen how to draw forces on diagrams. Drawing a all the forces acting on it
diagram helps show how forces add up. are added up.

(a) Book on table (b) Fishing weight (c) Parachutist

10.10 A d d in g fo rc e s a n d fin d in g th e re su lta n t fo rce.

Sometimes the resultant force is zero. When this happens,

we say that all the forces on an object are balanced forces.
So, that object either stays at rest, or if it is moving already
it keeps a constant speed and direction. To balance, the two
forces need to be equal in size but opposite in direction.

Balanced and unbalanced forces 197

 Air resistance

10.11 These sky-divers w ill n eed to use a parachute to slo w down.

When the sky-divers in figure 10.11 jump out of a plane, Weight

they fall faster and faster. The force due to gravity makes 10.12 Balanced forces result in a
them speed up. The faster they fall, the larger the force due constant sp eed o f fall.
to air resistance. After a time, their speed stops increasing
and stays constant. This speed is called the terminal velocity Key term
(or terminal speed). It happens when the force due to air
resistance slowing them down balances their weight (see terminal velocity: the
figure 10.12). steady speed of an object
This terminal velocity is much too fast for a safe landing, so with balanced pull and
they use a parachute to increase the air resistance force. This air resistance forces
slows the sky-diver to a new, slower terminal velocity. acting on it.

Activity 10.6: Make a parachute

A Using light fabric or thin tissue and string or thread
with a small mass attached, design and make the best
parachute you can. Design one with a slow terminal
velocity.
A1 Explain the design choices you have made to get a
slow terminal velocity.
B Test your parachute. Measure its speed of drop by timing
it. Speed = distance/time.
A2 Describe your test method. What will you measure
and with what equipment? How will you record
your results and calculations?
C Compare your results with those of other groups. Discuss
how the design and materials affect the terminal speed. 10.13 A very sim ple parachute.

When an object floats in water, the water pushes upwards

and balances the weight of the object. The upwards force
from the water is called upthrust.

198 Forces and their effects

 Activity 10.7: Measuring upthrust
Weight
A Hang a wooden block from a newton meter and
measure its weight.
B Slowly lower the block into a beaker of water. What
do you notice about the reading?
A1 Describe and explain how the upthrust on the Upthrust
wooden block changes as the block is lowered 10.14 The forces that allow a ship
into the water. to float.
C Repeat the investigation using a metal object-
something that will not float - instead of the wooden Key term
block. Do you observe an upthrust on the metal
object? If so, how large is it? upthrust: the upwards
force from a liquid
A2 Explain, using the idea of balanced or unbalanced on a wholly or partly
forces, why the metal object cannot float. submerged object.

O A bus with a weight of 400 000 N crosses a bridge. What upwards force must the
bridge structure be able to provide?

O Because of their shape, an aeroplane's wings cause an upwards force called 'lift' when
it is moving. An aeroplane with a mass of 50 000 kg flies level and at a low height.
Calculate the total lift force on its wings.

o A ship takes on 600 000 kg of extra cargo.

Explain why it sinks lower in the water.

A racing car tries to set a speed record. At first it gets faster and faster, but soon it
reaches a terminal velocity. Draw a diagram and on it mark and label the forces acting
on the car at its top speed. Explain which of those forces increases with the speed of
the car, and how it sets the terminal velocity.

Key facts: Check your skills progress:

✓ The forces on an object combine to give I can add forces to find the resultant force.
an overall resultant force. I can explain that terminal velocity is
✓ A resultant force of zero means all the reached when gravity and air resistance
forces on an object are balanced. balance.
✓ Balanced forces on an object result in I can explain that an object floats when
steady motion in the same direction, or gravity and upthrust balance.
staying at rest. I can recognise where, and in what
✓ Unbalanced forces on an object change direction, push (contact) forces or friction
its speed or direction of motion. forces will act.

-L

Balanced and unbalanced forces 199

 End of chapter review

Quick questions
1. What force stops your feet from slipping?

10.15

2. What forces act on a falling leaf? [ 2]

10.16

3. Using g = 10 N/kg, calculate:

(a) the weight of an object with a mass of 2 kg [ 1]

(b) the mass of an object which weighs 3000 N. [ 1]

4. Explain why we lubricate machines with oil. [2 ]

Forces and their effects

Connect your understanding
5. Why can a hovercraft move much faster than a normal ship? [4]
6. An ice skater turns in a circle at a steady speed. Draw and label a diagram to name
three forces acting on her skate and mark each with an arrow to show its
direction. [6]
7. Explain the direction of Earth's gravitational force on different sides of the planet,
for example at the north and south poles. Why does nobody fall off? [4]
8. A sky-diver, dropping very fast, opens his parachute just a few hundred metres
before reaching the ground. Draw and label diagrams and use them to explain the
difference between the forces that act:
(a) when the parachute first opens and
(b) just before he lands safely. [6]
9. Dogs pull a sledge over a flat, icy surface. Their pulling force is 240 N forwards.
Air resistance is 160 N and friction from the ice is 60 N.
(a) Calculate the size and direction of the overall resultant force on the sledge. [2]
(b) Explain how you know whether the sledge is speeding up or slowing down. [2]
10. Explain why most of a swimmer's body will normally be under the water level.

End of chapter review 201

 11. Astronauts on a space mission travel from the Earth to the Moon.

10.19

Describe the different sizes and directions of gravitational forces they experience:

(a) close to the Earth [2]

(b) halfway between Earth and the Moon [2]
(c) when they have landed on the Moon. [2]
(d) Is there is any point on the journey when their measured weight would
be zero? Explain where and why. [2]

Challenge questions
12. (a) Explain how you feel your own weight, and why astronauts in a space
station do not feel their weight even though they are still pulled by the
Earth's gravity. [4]
(b) Explain why the astronauts and the space station they are in do not fall
to Earth but stay in orbit. [4]
13. Newton's First Law of Motion predicts that, when there is no force acting on it, an
object moves with a steady speed in a straight line. Explain why it is difficult to
show this in an experiment. What might you try? [5]

ki-

202 Forces and their effects

 End of stage review
1. (a) Malia is playing on a swing.

Select the two correct statements.

a At the highest point Malia has maximum kinetic energy
b At the lowest point Malia has maximum potential energy
c At the highest point Malia has no kinetic energy
d At the lowest point Malia has no potential energy [2]
(b) The drawing shows a solar LED street light. It has a solar panel,
a battery and an LED lamp.
(i) Complete the following sentences:
The energy source is __________________energy. The battery
stores_______________ energy.________________ energy is
transferred from the battery to the light. [3]

(ii) For every 10 kJ of energy stored in the battery, 8.5 kJ of useful

light energy is output from the lamp. Calculate how much
wasted energy is output.
(c) Fossil fuels include coal, oil and natural gas.
Explain why these fuels are non-renewable. [1]

2. (a) The eight planets in our Solar System are Earth, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury,
Neptune, Saturn, Uranus and Venus.
Name the planet that is closest to the Sun. [1]

L.

End of stage review 203

 (b) The table shows data for three planets: A, B and C.

Planet A B C
Length of day (hours) 9.9 17.2 10.7
Orbit period (Earth days) 4331 30 589 10 747

Write the name of the planet that is furthest from the Sun. [1]

Write the letter of the picture that shows a solar eclipse. [1]
(d) Choose from these words to complete the sentences below.
12 hours 24 hours 27.3 days 40 days week year

The Earth rotates once on its axis every__________ . The Moon orbits the Earth
once every____________. The Earth orbits the Sun once every________ . [3]

3. (a) Michael wants to investigate friction. He uses the equipment shown in the
drawing. He pulls the block over a table with the newton meter.
masses newton meter

.table

(i) Predict how the reading on the newton meter changes when he puts
more masses on the wooden block. [ 1]

(ii) Michael repeats his measurements for each mass three times and works
out the average. Explain why. [1]

204 End of stage review

r
(b) Two astronauts plan to travel to Mars.

Astronaut Mass Weight on Earth Weight on Mars

Asif 75 kg 750 N
Aleena 600 N 228 N
(i) Complete the gaps in the table above. [2]

(ii) Write the name of the planet with the weakest gravity. [1]

(c) Choose the correct expression to complete the following sentences about a sky
diver after she jumps out of plane.
Air resistance

Weight

(i) At first she falls faster and faster. This is because her weight is ______________
the air resistance force.

a less than
b greater than
c the same as
(ii) After 20 seconds her speed is constant. This is because her weight is
the air resistance force.

a less than
b greater than
c the same as [2]
[total 20 marks]

V. J

End of stage review 205

206

Periodic table
Periodic table
1 2 _________________ 3 4 5 6 7 ________ 0

1 4

H He
hydrogen helium

1 2
Key
7 9 relative atomic mass 11 12 14 16 19 20
Li Be atomic symbol B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon

3 4 atomic (proton) number 5 6 7 8 9 10

23 24 27 28 31 32 3 5 .5 40

Na Mg A/ Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 6 3 .5 65 70 73 75 79 80 84

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

85 88 89 91 93 96 [9 8 ] 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te 1 Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

133 137 139 178 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209

Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg 11 Pb Bi Po At Rn
caesium barium lanthanum hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon

55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

Fr Ra
radium
Ac**
actinium
Rf Db
dubnium
sg
seaborgium
Bh
bohrium
Hs
hassium
Mt
meitnerium
Ds
darmstadtium
Rg
roentgenium
Elements with atomic numbers 112-116 have been reported but not fully
francium rutherfordium authenticated
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111

La
lathanoids

Ac
actinoids

Elements 1 to 92 are naturally occurring elements on Earth. Elements 93 and above are man-made.
 Glossary
Biology cell membrane: outer layer of a cell that
acid rain: rain that is much more acidic than controls what enters and leaves the cell.
usual. cell wall: strong outer covering found in
adaptation: feature of something that some cells (such as plant cells).
allows it to do a job (function) or allows it characteristic: feature of an organism.
to survive.
chloroplast: green part of a cell that makes
amphibian: vertebrate with moist skin. It food using light.
lays jelly-coated eggs in water. circulatory system: group of organs that
animal kingdom: kingdom that contains get blood around the body.
organisms that are made of more than one climate change: changes to weather patterns.
cell and are able to move their bodies from
place to place. conclusion: decision that you reach. In
science, you use evidence from experiments
antagonistic pair: two muscles that pull a to make conclusions.
bone in opposite directions.
conifer: plant with needle-shaped leaves. It
antiseptic: substance that kills produces cones.
microorganisms but is safe for us to put on
our skins. consumer: animal that eats other living
things.
arachnid: arthropod with eight legs and a
body in two sections. continuous variation: variation that can
have any value within a range.
arthropod: invertebrate with jointed legs
and a body in sections. contract (muscle): when a muscle gets
shorter and fatter it contracts.
bacterium: type of one-celled organism
that is not a plant or animal or fungus. The cytoplasm: watery jelly where the cell
plural is 'bacteria'. makes new substances.
ball and socket joint: joint where a ball­ daily change: change in physical factors
shaped piece of bone fits into a socket during the course of a day.
made by other bones. data: numbers and words that can be
bar chart: chart that shows data using organised to give information.
columns. They are used to compare decay: when materials break into smaller
different sets of things. parts. Microorganisms often cause this.
biofuel: fuel made using plants or algae. decomposer: microorganism that causes
bird: vertebrate with feathers. It lays eggs decay.
with hard shells. deciduous: plant that loses its leaves during
bladder: organ that stores urine. a certain season of the year.
blood: liquid organ that carries substances deforestation: cutting down forests.
around the body. diagnosis: saying what disease someone has.
blood vessels: tube-shaped organs that diaphragm: organ that helps with
carry blood around the body. breathing.
bone: hard organ that supports or protects digestive system: group of organs that
the body, or allows movement. digest food and get it into the blood.
carnivore: animal that eats other animals. discontinuous variation: variation that has
cell: the smallest living part of an organism. a distinct set of options or categories.

Glossary 207
 Glossary W

disinfectant: substance that kills haemoglobin: substance that traps oxygen.

microorganisms on surfaces that we touch. hand lens: another term for magnifying glass.
echinoderm: invertebrate with a hard, spiny heart: organ that pumps blood through
outer covering. blood vessels.
ecosystem: all the organisms and the herbivore: animal that eats plants.
physical factors in a habitat.
hibernation: when animals go into a type of
environment: the other organisms and sleep during cold seasons.
physical factors around an organism.
hinge joint: joint where two bones form a
evidence: data or observations we use to hinge.
support or oppose an idea.
hybrid: offspring produced by reproduction
excrete: getting rid of wastes made inside between two different species.
an organism.
infected: when a disease-causing
extinct (life forms): does not exist any more. microorganism is in someone, they are
eyepiece lens: the lens of a light microscope infected.
that you look through. infectious disease: disease that spreads from
fern: plant that does not produce flowers or one organism to another.
cones but has roots. insect: arthropod with six legs and a body in
fever: high body temperature. three sections.
fish: vertebrate with slimy scales. It lays jelly- invertebrate: animal without a skeleton
coated eggs in water. inside it and without a 'backbone'.
flower: contains organs used in joint: place in your skeleton where bones
reproduction (to make seeds). meet.
flowering plant: type of plant that produces kidneys: organs that remove wastes from
flowers. the blood to produce urine.
focusing wheel: wheel on a microscope that kingdom: the biggest of the groups that
you turn to make an image clear. scientists use to classify organisms.
food chain: list with arrows that shows what large intestine: organ that absorbs water
eats what in a habitat. from undigested food.
fossil fuels: fuel, such as coal, oil and natural leaf: plant organ that makes food for a plant.
gas, made in the ground over millions of life process: something that all living things
years from dead organisms. do.
fuel: substance that releases energy. ligament: cord that attaches bones
function: another word for 'job'. together.
fungus: type of organism that is not a plant limewater: clear and colourless liquid that
or an animal. The plural is 'fungi'. turns milky when carbon dioxide is added.
global warming: increasing temperatures line graph: graph that shows data points
around the Earth and its atmosphere. plotted on a grid. Line graphs are often used
to show how one thing changes with time.
greenhouse effect: when gases in the
atmosphere trap energy and cause the Earth Time is put on the horizontal axis.
to warm up. liver: organ that makes and destroys
habitat: the place where an organism lives. substances.

208 Glossary
 Glossary
Louis Pasteur: French scientist who offspring: new organism made when
discovered that microorganisms spoil food. parents reproduce.
lungs: organs that get oxygen into the omnivore: animal that eats both plants and
blood and remove carbon dioxide. animals.
magnification: the amount to which organ: part of an organism that has an
something is magnified. important job (function).
magnify: to make something appear bigger. organ system: group of organs working
magnifying glass: used to make things together.
appear bigger (magnify them). organism: living thing.
mammal: vertebrate with hair. It gives birth ozone depletion: reducing the amounts of
to live offspring. ozone.
microbe: another word for 'microorganism'. palisade cell: cell found in plant leaves,
microorganism: tiny organism. We must use which contains many chloroplasts.
microscopes to see them. physical factor: non-living part of an
microscope: piece of equipment that environment (e.g. wind).
magnifies very small things. pitfall trap: jar buried in the ground to
migration: when animals move from one collect small animals that walk on the
area to another as the seasons change. ground.

model: simple way of showing or plant kingdom: kingdom that contains

explaining a complicated object or idea. organisms that are made of more than one
cell and make their own food.
mollusc: invertebrate with a large muscle
that it uses to move or feed. pollutant: substance that causes harm to
organisms.
moss: plant with small, thin leaves. It does
not have roots. pollution: when organisms are being
harmed by a substance.
mould: fungus that decays things.
pooter: device to suck small animals into a
muscle: organ that changes shape. Some collecting jar without harming them.
muscles move bones.
population: the number of one type of
nervous system: group of organs that organism in a place.
control the body.
predator: animal that hunts and eats other
nocturnal: active at night. animals (called prey).
non-renewable: something that will not prediction: what you think will happen in
last forever. an investigation.
nucleus: control centre of a cell. prey: animal that is hunted and eaten by
nutrient: substance that an organism needs other animals (called predators).
to stay healthy and survive. primary consumer: the first consumer in a
nutrition: getting substances needed for food chain, which is always a herbivore.
survival. producer: organism that makes its own
objective lens: the lens in a light microscope food, such as a plant.
that is closest to the specimen. Most light quadrat: square frame used to take samples
microscopes have several objective lenses, in a habitat.
with different magnifications.

Glossary 209
 Glossary
range: the highest and lowest values in a set skull: collection of bones that protect your
of data. brain.
relax (muscle): when a muscle stops slide: small sheet of glass on which you place
contracting it relaxes. a thin specimen.
renewable: something that will not run out. small intestine: organ that digests food and
absorbs it into the blood.
reproduce: when organisms have young (or
offspring). smog: unpleasant chemical fog.
reptile: vertebrate with dry scales. It lays specialised cell: cell with adaptations for a
eggs with a leathery coat. certain job.1'
resource: anything that is needed or used by species: type of organism. Organisms of the
an organism. same species reproduce with one another.
They have offspring that then have offspring
respiration: chemical process that happens
in all parts of an organism to release energy. of their own.

respiratory system: group of organs that get specimen: the thing you examine using a
microscope.
oxygen into the blood and remove carbon
dioxide. Also called the breathing system. spore: single cell released into the air by a
fungus and which is able to grow into a new
rib: bone that helps to protect your heart
fungus.
and lungs.
stage: flat surface on a light microscope
root: plant organ that absorbs water from
where you put a slide.
the ground, and holds the plant in place.
stem: plant organ that carries substances
root hair cell: plant cell found in roots that is
adapted for taking in water quickly. around a plant.
stomach: organ that helps to digest food.
sample: small portion of something, used to
discover what the whole of the thing is like. surface area: the area of a surface,
measured in squared units such as square
scientific method: stages that scientists use
centimetres (cm2).
to test out their ideas.
symptom: effect of a disease on the body.
scientific question: question that scientists
can answer using an experiment. tendon: cord that attaches muscles to
season: time during the year with a certain bones.
set of physical factors. tissue: group of cells of the same type.
seasonal change: change in physical factors top predator: the last predator in a food
during the course of a year. chain.
secondary consumer: the second consumer urine: liquid containing many wastes made
in a food chain, which is always a carnivore. inside animals.
sensitivity: how an organism detects vaccine: substance injected into people to
changes in things inside and around it. stop them getting an infectious disease.
skeletal system: all the bones in your body. vacuole: storage space inside some cells
skeleton: another term for your skeletal (such as plant cells).
system. variable: something that may change.
skin: organ that protects the body and helps variation: differences between
it sense things. characteristics.

210 Glossary
 Glossary

vertebrae: the bones in your back. The whole number: number without fractions
singular is vertebra. or a decimal point.
vertebrate: animal with a skeleton inside it, wilt: when a plant droops because it does
including a 'backbone'. not have enough water.
virus: particle that is only alive when inside yeast: type of fungus with only one cell.
a living cell and cannot reproduce.
volume: How much space a substance takes
up. Measured in cm3 or litres. Also called
'capacity'.

Glossary 211
 Glossary
Chemistry freezing: the change of state from liquid to
solid.
absorbent: soaks up liquids.
hazard symbol: symbol which warns you
acid: substance which has a pH of less than 7
about the dangers of an object, substance or
on the pH scale.
radiation.
acidic: having the properties of an acid.
humus: the part of soil which is made from
alkali: base that dissolves in water to make a dead or rotting plant material.
solution with a pH of more than 7.
indicator: chemical that changes colour in an
alkaline: if a base is dissolved in water then acid or alkali.
the solution is alkaline.
igneous rock: rock formed when magma
base: substance that neutralises an acid. It cools and solidifies.
has a pH of more than 7 on the pH scale.
independent variable: variable you decide to
boiling: the change of state from liquid to change in an experiment.
gas.
inner core: solid layer of the Earth, made of
boiling point: the temperature a substance nickel and iron.
boils at, and changes from a liquid into a gas.
lava: magma at the Earth's surface.
brittle: breaks when bent.
litmus: type of indicator which turns red in
condensation: the change of state from gas an acid and blue in an alkali.
to liquid.
magma: molten rock found below the
control variable: variable that you keep the Earth's surface.
same during an investigation.
malleable: can be formed into different
corrosive: substance that causes burns to the shapes.
skin and eyes and damages other materials.
mantle: the layer of the Earth beneath the
crust: the thin outer layer of the Earth. crust. It is mostly solid but it can flow very
crystal: solid in which particles are arranged slowly.
in a regular pattern. melting: the change of state from solid to
dependent variable: variable you decide to liquid.
measure in an experiment. melting point: the temperature a substance
evaporating: the change of state from liquid melts at, and changes from a solid into a
to gas that happens below the boiling point. liquid.
evidence: data or observations we use to metamorphic rock: rock formed when
support or oppose an idea. sedimentary or igneous rocks are changed
by very high temperatures and/or pressure.
extinct (volcanoes): no longer active.
mineral: solid substance with a fixed chemical
flexible: can be easily bent and will not
composition. Most minerals are crystals.
break.
model: simple way of showing or explaining
fossils: the traces of remains of dead a complicated object or idea.
organisms that lived thousands or millions
of years ago. neutral: neither acid nor alkali. If soluble, it
produces a solution of pH 7.
fossil record: collection of fossils identified
from different times in the Earth's past that neutralisation: chemical reaction between
shows how animals and plants have changed an acid and a base which produces a neutral
over millions of years. solution.

212 Glossary
 Glossary
opaque: light cannot pass through it. secondary sources: information that has
outer core: liquid layer around the inner been produced by somebody else.
core of the Earth, made of nickel and iron. sedimentary rocks: rocks formed from
palaeontologist: scientist who studies layers of sediment deposited by water, wind
fossils. or ice.

particle theory: model that describes how sediments: small pieces of rock, such as
particles are arranged differently in solids, pebbles, sand and mud.
liquids and gases. soil: mixture of small particles of rock, dead
pH scale: scale from 0 to 14 which measures animals and plants, water and air.
how strong or weak an acid or alkali is. state of matter: the three forms that a
physical properties: the properties of an substance can exist in: solid, liquid and gas.
object that can be observed and measured. transparent: light can pass through it.
porosity: the amount of empty space in a universal indicator: type of indicator
material. which can change into a range of colours
prediction: what you think will happen in depending on whether the solution is acidic
an investigation. or alkaline and how strong it is.

reliable: measurements are reliable when vapour: liquid that has evaporated to form
repeated measurements give results that a gas.
are very similar. variable: something that may change.
reversible change: change in a substance volume: How much space a substance takes
that can be changed back again. up. Measured in cm3 or litres. Also called
scratch test: test to see how hard a rock is, 'capacity'.
by how easy it is to scratch.

Glossary 213
 •v

Glossary
Physics light energy: energy that is transferred by a
air resistance: the force that acts to slow light source.
down an object moving through air. It varies moon: natural object made of rock or frozen
with the size and shape of the object. liquid, which orbits a planet.
axis: imaginary straight line, running non-renewable energy resources: resources
through the centre of the Earth between that cannot be replaced quickly.
the two poles. northern hemisphere: the half of the Earth's
balanced forces: when the resultant force is spherical surface that lies north of the
zero. equator.
chemical energy: energy that can be orbit: circular or elliptical path in which one
transferred in a chemical reaction, e.g. object travels round another. Gravity holds
burning fuel. the objects together.
conservation of energy: energy cannot be planet: object which orbits around the Sun
created or destroyed. The total amount of and is large and heavy enough to have
energy is constant. become approximately spherical and to have
eclipse: when one object interferes with our cleared all other smaller bodies out of its
view of another object. orbit.

electrical energy: energy that can be pole: the north and south poles mark the
transferred from a battery or power supply. ends of the axis about which the Earth spins.

equator: imaginary line running around the potential energy: the amount of stored
circumference of the Earth halfway between energy something has because of its position.
the north pole and the south pole. renewable energy resources: resources that
fossil fuels: fuel, such as coal, oil and natural can be replaced quickly in natural processes.
gas, made in the ground over millions of resultant force: shows the single total force
years from dead organisms. acting on an object when all the forces
free fall: the speeding up downwards acting on it are added up.
motion of a body due to its weight. scientific law: a theory that has been tested
friction: force between two surfaces that are by experiment and shown to be useful and
pressed together. It tries to stop the surfaces reliable.
sliding over one another. seasons: divide the year into four periods of
galaxy: collection of billions of stars held three months each: winter, spring, summer
together by gravity. Our Sun with its Solar and autumn (or fall). Winter has shortened
System is part of the Milky Way galaxy. daylight hours and summer has the longest.
On the equator, day and night are always 12
gravity: the pull of a large mass like the hours each, so there are no seasons there.
Earth on other masses near it.
Solar System: the Sun and all the other
heat: thermal energy that is transferred objects that move around it under the
from a hot object to a colder object. control of its gravity.
joule: the scientific unit for energy. Its sound energy: energy that is transferred
abbreviation is J. 1000 J = 1 kilojoule (kJ). by a vibrating object making a noise, e.g. a
kinetic energy: energy stored by an object musical instrument.
because it is moving.

214 Glossary
 Glossary
star: huge mass of gas that is undergoing tilt: the angle between the Earth's spin axis
nuclear reactions. Stars are so hot that they and the axis of its orbit around the Sun.
give out light all the time.
upthrust: the upwards force from a liquid
terminal velocity: the steady speed of an on a wholly or partly submerged object.
object with balanced pull and air resistance
weight: the size of the pull of gravity for
forces acting on it.
a given mass. You can feel something's
theory: a set of ideas that describes how weight when you try to stop it from falling.
things work.
work: transfer of energy that causes an
thermal energy: energy stored in an object object to move.
due to its temperature.

Glossary 215
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