CHAPTER 3 A A PTET NETWORK THEOREMS [Applications in D.C. Circuits With and Without Controlled Sources} 183.1. INTRODUCTION Important and fundamental theorems of circuit theory have been introduced in this chapter. Mlustrative examples have also been provided to explain the applicability of these theorems in different types of d.c. networks (with independent sources as well as with ‘controlled sources). A thorough understanding of each theorem is important because analysing of electrical and dectronic circuits needs these theorems very much. 83.2 THEVENIN’S THEOREM This theorem is possibly the most extensively used network theorem. It is applicable where it is desired to determine the current through or voltage ‘across any one element in a network without going through the rigorous method of' solving a set of network equations, 11 3.2.1. Statement of Thevenin’s Theorem’ Any two terminal bilateral linear d.c, circuits éan be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source and a series resistor. and curnent ne ropes errs este 1i 3.2.2 Explanation Let us consider a simple d.c. circuit as shown in Fig. 3.1(a). Weare to find I, by Thevenin’s theorem. Fig. 3.1 (a) A Simple d.c. circuit In order to find the equivalent voltage source, 1, is removed (Fig. 3.1(b)) and V, is calculated. Vi aIn= Fig. 3.1 (t) Finding of V,, cihimonn smsias eteent OT vehi athena {s that any linear active network consisting of independent and or dependent ral network elements can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting ofa voltage s0uro® being the opeh circuited voltage across the open circuited load terminals and ‘of the source network looking through the open circuited load terminals. (99) .Next, to find the intemal resistance of the network (Thevenin's resistance or equivalent resistance) in series with V,_, the voltage source is removed (deactivated) by a short circuit (as the source does not have any intemal resistance) as shown in Fig. 3.10). Ry ane, nth Fig. 3.1 (q) Finding of R, As per Thevenin’s theorem, the equivalent circuit being Fig. 31(@), Fig. 3.1 41 3.2.3 Steps for Solution of a Network Thevenin’s Theorem Remove the load resistor (R, )and find the open circuit voltage (V,) across the open Grcuited load terminals. . Step 2 Deactivate the constant sources _(for voltage source, remove it by internal resistaricé and Tor current source delete the source by open circuit) and “find thé internal resistancé (Thevenin’s resistancé) of the source side looking through the open circuited load terminals. Let this resistance be Ry, Obtain Thevenin’s equivalent circuit (Fig. 3.2) by placing R,, in series with V, .. Reconnect R, across the load terminals as shown in Fig. 32. Step 1 Step 3 Step 4 100 Circuit att Thon Equivalent Dd} 11 3.2.4 Different Methods of Finding R,, (Thevenin’s equivalent resistance or Internal impedance (@) For independent sources. The most commo, method of finding Rp,, the internal resistance ¢ any linear, bilateral network containing independent current or voltage sources is to deactivate the source by internal resistance ic, for independent current source, deactivate it by removing the source and for voltage sours, deactivate it by shorting it (assuming the interna resistance of the voltage source being zero). Then find the internal resistance of the network To through the load terminals kept open circuited This method is illustrated in~the following examples. (®) For the circuits containing dependent sources in addition to or in absence of independent source 1st method. Find V,,, across the open circuited load terminals by conventional network analysis Next, short the load terminals and find the shor circuit current (/,,) through the shorted terminals ‘The internal resistance of the source network is then obtained as V, ae ae 2nd method. Remove the load resistance and apply a d.c. driving voltage v,. at the open circuited load terminals. Keep the other independent sources deactivated during this time (ie, short the voltagt source terminals and open the current source term nals). A d.c. driving current i,, will flow in the circuit from the load terminals due to‘application of U4.Network Theorems 101 The internal resistance of the source network is then obtained as = : v, Ry at, Both the two methods highlighted above have been illustrated in the following examples. ExAmPLe 3.1 In the network of Fig. £3.1, find the current through the 10.9 resistor utilising Thevenin’'s Theorem f-20.54-504-107,-100} Fig. 63.1 SOLUTION. Let the resistance r, (10) be removed and the circuit is exhibited in Fig. E3.1(a). Fig. E3.1 (a) At node C, application of KCL yields 1, +1,-1,=0 i. Mas * Va. h {assuming the open circuit voltage across the terminals x-y in Fig. E3.1(a) to be V, .; obviously, the potential at C node is V, .] _, 1-Va, 20-Va. Vac +12 ie, + ~ wut? 1 5 or, ~ -05V,, -V,,-02 V,, =24-20-5 or, 17V,,=+226V V,,=1329V Next, the independent voltage sources are removed by short circuits (Fig. E3.1(6)) 20 ] Fig. £3.1 (b) eo woot 0 or, Rn = Thevenin’s equivalent circuit being shown in Fig. E3.1(0), Fig. £3.1 (¢ 1, (current through %)* In, = ie, “7 =126A +10 7 Thus current through r, is 126 A. Exameiz 3.2 In the circuit of Fig. E3.2, find the power Fig. £3.2 SOLUTION. Let us first remove the 1 resistor from x-y terminal as shown in Fig. E3.2(2) Fig, E3.2 (a) mawrzo102 Circuit 1 EE results With terminals @-b open circuited, Iya, and y=ly Be. or, 02V,,401V,,-122 Abo, ha? ty ‘or, V..=10V E i nt and + 0) Figure E3.2() represents the circuit with nth eaaee ats Again, V,-5 (Y= h 0) x10 ; ; (Pa F5z 79 7389 Substitution of (1) and (2) in (3) yields _Faln+4)- Fn la +5) oy BH +H) Fig. £3.2 (6) Eli nthe n-ne) (+54 +4) Thevenin's equivalent circuit being shown in E(% % 4) Fig. E3.2(0). y - Fle h : ig. E3.2(0) or, ea A ny V,, in (4) represents the Thevenin voltage Ry across a-b, Next, the voltage source is deactivated © 10 such that Figs. E3.3(b) and (c) represent the circuit configuration. Fig. E3.2 (¢) " Jo " i: Here, current through 122 resistor is then given > " by " * : Vi. __ 10 : Ins aged 3° ©. Power loss in 19 resistor Fig. €3.3 =(231)? «1=5.33 W. Obviously, It, and II Excampie 3.3 Thevenize the bridge circuit across a-b in “The resistance through @-> is Fig. E33. By =U ll) +I) A nls +h)+e ali +) (yh ty +H) © a 12b*hhathantsue n+ M(t +) oo in the giverr bridge circuit, Fig. £3.3 SOLUTION. Let 7, be removed and the branch © omts be named. Fig. E33(a) represents the and onfiguration. hhh+hhht hhnt hth, (+r) +r)103 Exawrce 3.4 In the circuit of Fig. E3.4, find the power loss in r, utilising Thevenin’s Theorem Iyn2A 1720 Flay naa 250 Fig. E3.4 SowuTION. Let 7, be removed and let us first find the open circuit voltage V;,, across the open circuited a-b terminals (Fig. E3.4(a)). fy © ©) Fig. E3.4 (a) Here, Vp, =V5 -lory [+ no current flows through r, hence [no voltage drop will occur across 7] or, Vy =4-2%1=2V To find Ri. (ie,, the internal resistance of the Gircuit across a-b), all the constant sources are deacti- vated ic,, V; =0 and I, =0. Fig, E3.4(b) represents the required circuit. Obviously, Rp =H, + =3 © " © Fig. E3, Thus we have obtained the equivalent Thevenin’s circuit (Fig, E3.4(c)) where Vue = Vy =2V, Ry, = Rigg 3D 1, (load current through 1,) a2 et Acoma a4 Power loss P, in roll +r, =(0.25)? «5 = 0.3125 W. Exampis 3.5 Determine the current through the 50 resistor in the circuit of Fig. E3.5. 20 ® sa Qsv x Fig. £3.5 SOLUTION. 50 resistor is removed from the Gircuit of Fig. E35 and obviously, the open circuit voltage across x-y is 5 V (Fig. E3.5(a)) ie, V, =3V amawrro Fig. E3.5 (0) To obtain the Thevenin resistance of the given Gireuit across the open circuited terminal x-y, the independent sources are deactivated and shown in . Fig. E3.5(b). ie $0 { Fig. 3.5 2 Itis lent from Fig, E3.5(b) that Lin Thus, the Thevenin. current ie, the current through the 5 resistor is given by eee I, - Rats OS ea 1A. (Fig. E3.5(0))Exampte 3.6 What is the power loss in the 10 0 ean In I I... resistor ? Use Thevenin’s theorem in Fig. E3.6 Ry (across x-y) using Thevenin’s theorem, *¥% 10a 20 t pe be] °* a Fig: 63.6 — SOLUTION. 10 resistor is removed from the i: &: circuit of Fig. E3.6 [Ref. Fig. E3.6(a)). SoLUTION. In Fig. E3.7, R,+R, 4 + Ry vv, 20 ,=17—_" +: (Ry + Ry) + (Ry + Ry) ® 10 Sia @sa [by oe division formuly = 2* Gy 3)4@4a) 14 — moe 53.6 fete ae wnt BTS RHR FRY Application of KCL at node ‘x’ yields wpe 342 ag = ee @G+2)+@+3) . ee Thus, the voltage drop across R, =1x2=2¥ - and voltage drop across R, =1x3=3V Also, V, =5Ax10=5V Vey =¥,-V, Vey . =133-5=-367V ie, Yis at higher potential. [ie, y terminalis ve] To find R,y, across x-y, current source i Obviously, V,_, is identical 1 Vy. removed and (R, +R) is in parallel to (R, +R) With reference to Fig. E3.6(b), Rigg = (Ry + Ry)|] (Rg + Ry) [Fig- £3700) = 5/)5=252. Fig. E3.7 (a) Exampte 3.8 Find the current in the 3.Q. resistor for the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit being drawn in circuit shown in Fig. E3.8. Fig. E3.6(c), A 3.67 Tog #1 = 525 = =0315A ton =I Fy +10" F 39 Dua 20 Dsa Quy (anticlockwise) +. Current through 100 resistor =0.315 A. — Fig. 63.8Network Theor 105 CC SOLUTION. The current sources are transformed to voltage sources first (Ref. Fig, E3.8(a), _ | Owv Oav© Fig. E3.8 (a) Next, the 39 resistor is removed (Fig, E3.8(b)) 59 Fig. £3.8 (0) The circulating current (I, )in the left-most loop is then given by 20-5 15 24541 8 I Vae =20-3a+5)-10 -3.125V — [ie,, ‘b’ terminal is +ve] To find the Thevenin’s resistance of the given circuit, the sources are deactivated as shown in Fig. E3.8(¢). 5a Rn Ry als ols 20 1a Zsale>$7a Sia Fig. £3.8 (€) on Here Rn 778 : I The Thevenin’s equi- Mah) 350 valent circuit being given in © Fig, E3.8(d), the current through == 3 resistor is given by Fig. £3.8 3-125 0,806 A (anticlockwise) ‘Thus, the current through the 3.Q resistor is 0.806 A. Example 3.9 Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the network showon in Fig. E3.9 at the right of terminal a-b. fener n19y Fig. E3.9 SOLUTION. Let the terminals ab be open circuited. This leads to 1, =0 and the depending voltage source? I, is also zero. Also, I, =0. Obviously V,, (ie., the open circuit voltage across a-b) is zero, Next, a de voltage supply v,, be applied across 4-bsuch that the input current be I, at terminal a Applying KVL at the left loop under this condition, MANA +h yh +2h or, Pg =H hy +H (ly - 1. Applying KVL at the outer loop, Me=hh+hh ) +21, ; (2) tc However, (a) becomes Py ahh t hl, +2, and (b) becomes v4 = 1, +1, (d) From (4), Using this value of I, in (0), Pac = 41, -(ye —h) on, 20, =51, ‘Thus, the internal resistance of the circuit across ab is 250. The given circuit is thus Thevenised to give Ve OV Rigg =25Q- mav>za——_——$—$———— terminal. Fig. E3.10 . SOLUTION. Let a d.c. voltage V be applied at x —— SOWTION. Application of KVL at loop aaih, _[« terminal being + ve]. Obviously, v, in Fig. E3. is(I, x3)or31, V. Vag +i, +34 ig +10=0 ~The magnitude of the dependent source is the —— or, ~9+25+3425+1020 [-V,_,=9V] o, 4ie4 ie, ix-tA (52, )or, (15% 15) V- cDroping is 2<(-)=-2V Applying KV in lop 1, This gives V_, =10-228V V=(1+1) 1, +50, -1x 1, * Vv. or, V=21,+15,-=2, +4, . — To find R., (Rp) the : Application of KVL in loop-2 yields are removed (Fig. E3.10(a)). 0=(14+3 +2) I, ~50, -1x 1, Ry pe Pouant or, 0=61, -151, -91,-1, (2) ~ Thus, from (2), 1, = 222 30 = Utilising this in (1), V=21, -1.56 1, 3) 3a sa 20 Obviously, from &). = Ry = 0.442. y A . Thus, the internal resistance of the given circuit Fig. £3.10 ie) actoss x-y terminal is 0.44.9. Exampue 3.12 Find Thevenin’s voltage across a-b 20 resistance has no effectivity as its shorted. terminal in the circuit of Fig. 3.12. Also find the ‘leo, 30 resistance in branch aii not efectve as gral ritance acres the open circuited ermal the branch itself is open circuited ‘Thevenin’s equivalent circuit has been shown in Fig, 3.10(6). 1 [Vy=10V;R,-5a% Rya2037-10; ©)v, |1=24, Vy= unknown} En ’ Yer ee Fig. £3.12 y SOLUTION. Let the terminals a-b be open Fig. 63.14 mae108 Circuit They, — SOWTION, Let R, be removed, the configuration being shown in Fig. E3.14(a), Here V,. (2 Vy) eareny V.=25410220V eh TE Fig. E14 To find Rr, (intemal resistance of the circuit looking through the open circuited terminals), the constant sources are deactivated (Fig. E3.14(6)). Here Ry =r=5Q. Thus, the given circuit has been Thevenised across the open circuited terminals r-y where V,.=20V and R, =59 ‘Thus, the Thevenin’s current (I) through R, can be obtained from the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, (Fig. E3140). circuit or, Ra Fig. £3.14 i Thevenise the circuit to the left of terminal x-y in the network shown in Fig. £3.15. Assume K =0, — SowuTion. In the given Fig. 3.15, vy ey, sy * Vac As K=0,(KV,_, ) the dependent source becom, zero. Thus i=(Vy/m)A or, Let us now deactivate the constant sources Then i=0 and @ i=0.If a driving voltage v is now applied at x-y terminals, the input current entering through x terminal being i, Ry a7 a [when R,,, is, the input resistance looking back through x-y terminal while ai =() But obviously, i, Rin Thus, with K=0 the given circuit has been thevenised where, Yae(@¥p,)== S18 v 4 and Ri (=O Exampte 3.16 Find the current through R assuming R=3Q. Use Thevenin’s theorem in the circuit shown in Fig. E3.16. 20 20 4 Qsv Mia Se © Mia Fig. £3.16 Fig. £3.16 (a) SotuTion, Let R be removed. It may be observed that 1 A current would flow only towards the left of terminal A- B causing a voltage drop o! 2x1 (ie, 2 V) in the 20 resistor. Vue *(Vy +2)V=34+2=5V [Fig. E3.16(@)) Also,Tofind R,,, (= Ry, jall the constant sources are deactivated and the circuit configuration is shown in Fig. E3.16(b). Obviously R,,, =20 20 , 30 @® © —_—— Fig. £3.16 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit being drawn in Fig. E3.16(c), the current through R(=32) is given by Y.. 5 In = —=1A ™ Rig +R 342 Exampce 3.17 In Fig. £3.17, a resistance “r” is shown to be connected across an active network. It is given that when () r=0,V=5V (ii) 1 =0, current output of the active source is 2.5 A. What would be the current through r when the value of r is 5.0? Ray [=| $9 } Fig. £3.17 Fig. £3.17 (a) SOLUTION. It is evident from the given condition that r=00 being denoting open circuit across the output terminals of the active network, V,. (voltage at the terminals of the active network when r=<) becomes 5 V. On the other hand, r=0 indicates the short circuit of the active source and the output current being J, itis given that 1 225A Thus, Riy (internal resistance of the given source) Figure E3.17(a) being representing the Thevenin’s ‘equivalent circuit, the current through 5.0 resistoe is v, ee A. > ol ta Ry tS 2+5 7 ome Examove 318 Obtain Thevenin's equivalent to the left of terminal a-b in the circuit of Fig. £3.18. Fig. £3.18 SOLUTION. In Fig, E318, the loop current being @V,, it would create a drop of (r, « V,) across 1, Assuming V, =V,.. Application of KVL in loop-1 gives To determine R,,,.2 b terminals are shorted, V, becomes zero. Since V, =0, the voltage control is also equal to zero. Thus, 5%) are in series with V. The circulating current being ¥ and hence, the internal resistance of This gives the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as 3 ExdBce $19 Find Thevenin’s equivalent impedance of whe given circuit in Fig. £3.19 looking from cy terminals. 3 ASW Fig, £3.19 pmaerxraSOLWTION. Let vq be deactivated and v be replaced by 2,., the drivi Itage at x-y and 7, =i, (Fig. E3.1%(a)) @ fiweiz 3.20 (a) Find Thevenin’s impedance of the it given in Fig. E3.20 looking from (i) input (i) output. (8) Find Ze (Fig. E3.20(b)) at terminals a-b and x-y respectively Fig. £3.20 SOLUTION. (a) In loop-1, 2, +? (Fig. £3.20] But io + Big), fo +7 ig + Big) =ig (t + % + Br) This gives internal resistance looking from the input side as y Za inpes) = 1th thr)2 110 Circuit Tey To find the output impedance, let R removed by a driving point de voltage v,. (.,_ such that iy. =~ ips (Fig. E3.20(a))- ny fac Jee £3.20 (a) o Fig. E3.20 (®) In the left loop, v=iR, +0, 8) Also at node p, nodal analysis gives : vy, +HO or or, -) Re aNetwork Theorems iw Using (4) in (3), D=iR, or u(1=m)=iR, 1 (fom x-y) ©N be obtained from the same y deactivating the source v and applying Dye aby such thet v,, 20, and input current being, ig. Obviously, v being zero, uo =0. circuit’ Thus v4, =i,, x equiv. resistance between p= b [ref. Fig. £3.20) R R, SorreR: Zapp) 84 ligg = (Ry Ry)! (Ry + Ry (3.3 NORTON’S THEOREM Norton theorem is converse of Thevenin’s theorem. It consists of equivalent currertt source instead of equivalenf voltage source as done -in ‘Thevenin’s theorem. The determination of internal resistance of thé source network is identical in both the theorems. However, in final stage, ie. in the ~ Norton equivalent circuit, the current generator is Placed in parallel to the internal resistance unlike to that in Thevenin’s theorem where the equivalent voltage source was placed in series with the 11 3.3.1 Statement of Norton’s Theorem A linear active network consisting of independent and or dependant voltage and current sources and linear bilateral network elements can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in Parallel with a resistance, the current source being the short circuited current across the load termi:ial and the resistance being the internal resistance of the source network looking through the open circuited load terminals. (13.3.2 Explanation In order to find the current through r, , the load resistance (Fig. 33), by Norton's theorem, let us replace r, by short circuit (Fig. 3.3(a)). V Obviously, 1-5 and 1212 Fig. 3.3 (a) Finding of | Next, the short circuit is removed and the independent source is deactivated as done in Thevenin’s theorem (Fig. 3.(b)) Here, Fig. 3.3 (+) Finding of .,, (or R.,) ‘As per Norton’ theorem, the equivalent source Grcuit would contain a current source in paralle! to the internal resistance, the current source being the short circuited current across the shorted terminals of the load resistor (Fig. 3.(c)) R, Ratt Obviously, 1, _— Equivalent source network :®O " 3.3 (e) Norton’s equivalent circuit It may be noted here that determination of B,, for the source system in Norton Theorem is identical to that of Thevenin’s theorem alreudy described. pmavr zaJf 3.3.3 Steps for Solution of a Network Utilizing Norton's Theorem Remove the load resistor and find the internal resistance of the source network by deactivating the constant sources. This procedure is exactly same as described for Thevenin's theorem. Let this resistance be Re Next, short the load terminals and find the short circuit current flowing through the shorted load terminals using conventional network analysis. Let this current be i. Norton's equivalent circuit is drawn by keeping R,,. in parallel to i,. as shown in Fig. 3.3(c). Reconnect the load resistor (R, )across the load terminals and the current through it (I, )is then given by Roe * Roe * Ry, B21 Find Norton's equivalent circuit to the left of terminals x-y in the network of Fig. E3.21. 1A Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Fig. £3.21 SoLUTION. Let us first short the terminals x-y (Fig. E3.21(a)). 10A sa Ma S00 Fig. E3.21 (a) Here, I,, is the current through the 5 @ resistor. 1, =10x 0 =6.67 A 10+5 {by current divider rule] 112 Circuit : Fig. £3.30 SowuTion. x-y be shorted first (Fig. E3.30(a)) ip 32 @ 29 @ Fig. £3.30 (a) Atnode1, 2-642, 3 6 2 [assuming voltage at node 1 to be o or, va2V At node 2, i, +3i 1 Ben 1t3x 5 a2 A To find Ryy,x-y is open circuited (Fig. E3.30(b)) and the constant source is deactivated. A dc. voltage v,. is applied such that the input current is i, . Fig, £3.30 (b) The given circuit has thus been Nortonised with Ry, 222 Lt ly 22a Examte 3.31 Find Norton's equivalent circuit across xy for the circuit shown in Fig. E331 Fig. £3.31 SoLUTION. It is evident from Fig. E331, Vey =, Application of KVL in the lef loop 1, -2 +21, -05 1, =0 or, This gives _V, Next, short circuiting the xy terminals, Fig, E3.31(a) gives 2V = slA 2a [10 resistor is defunct due to shorting of x-y terminal, hence /, =0 making the dependent source 0.5 1, to be zero] pmawrxoFig. £3.31 (a) The internal resistange-ef the give circuit is thus obtained as. 7" } Fig. £3.31 (6) Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. E3310) : where, I, @Iy)=1A Ryy =082 Ex 32 Fini the current in the 1 Q resistor foeross terminals 1-2 in Fig. E332 using Norton's theorem. Fig. £3.32 SOLUTION. Let the 10 resistor be removed from 1-1 terminals of the circuit shown in Fig. E3.32. The new circuit configuration is shown in Fig. E3.32(a). ae 0 Be Fig. £3.32 (a) 118 Circuit ee 210 +305 — Here 0, 10+ % +2P0 0) 2 5Ax50=25 V 7 [loop current in the leftmost loop y Fig. £3.32(a) is 5 A causing a drop y 345 #25 V in the polarities shown, Se Ugg #1043 x25 =85 V inorder to find Rig let us first short the utp, terminals 1-1 of Fig. £3.32 and application of Kq. at node a of Fig. £3.32) yields Myf e5 OF %=2-Flee lh Fig. £3.32 (4) However, in loop xa 11' y of Fig. E3.32(b), =10-9) -20)=0 ie, 3uy+10=0 8 Using (A) in (B), we get 3(25-51,.)+10=0 ie, 1,¢=5.67 A Pac _ 85 This gives” Ry, = 20 29S. =150. gives Sint “7 5.67 Norton's equivalent circuit thus gives I, , = 5.674 and Ray =13 as shown in Fig. E3.32(c). Ol Fte DEE Fig. £3.32 () Here I (current through 10 resistor) R int_ = 5.315 A. ale Ruy #1 ‘Exanece 3,33 Find the power loss in the 10. reste in the cjzcuit of Fig. 3.33 using Norton's theorem. 1 = Oia <) 0aNetwork Theorems 119 SOLUTION. Removing the 1062 resistor, Vion pele 5=5V (Fig. E3.3%ay) Fig. £3.33 (a) Next, shoft circuiting x y terminals in Fig, E3.33(H), and assuming the node voltage at “a” being v, nodal analysis at this node yields 144i +1, St =) From (I), 51. + fee é or, 1,.=0.1923 A This gives 5 Ryy = 22 = =260 rT, 0.1923 Thus, Norton’s equivalent circuit is given by 1, =0.1923 A, Ry =262. Fig. £3.33 (c) Referring to Fig. E3.3c), R Ble aA OMA oa eR, +10 ++ Power loss in the 109 resistor =(Iyoq)? * 10= 0.195 W. Evamece 3.34 Find the current in 190 resistor using Ey} SOLUTION. Removing 10 resistor, with reference to Fig, E334(a), 1 =O and hence ©, = 10V (05 1 source gets eliminated as : =O), Fig. £3.34 (4) xt, short circuiting the output terminals (Fig, £334(b)), nodal analysis at node (1) gives 10 +05 Fig. £3.34 (>) But Thus from (1), 3i,.-10 or, This gives Ry, Norton’s equivalent circuit is then obtained in Fig. E334) wm aero120 Circuir Th where hy, (ely) 205A viously, in the left 100P. Y, =i, h and ing Se right loop, 2, (drop across 1, due to 2 V source) Fo eal » =1x1=1V This gives a) i \——— =2 A. A 22219 Lem veo 19 19 5 3 =2x1=2V. oO 210 By Superposition, )2v nine, 5 +0, +05 =14( = 175V. Fro E541 id Exaneie 3.42 For the circuit shown in Fig. E3.42, find Next, taking the lower current source only (Fig. the current through r,. [V,= 12 V,r,=42, 1-34 E3.41(b)). 1 =20,V,=24V} tT n M 5 go y © Fig. 3.42 |. E3.42(a) SoLuTioN. Let us first take the source V, only deactivating the other source (Fig, E3.42(a)).Network Theorems 125, OO v, _2 nt 442 Here, P= =2A Next, deactivating I and V, taking only V, (Fig. £3.42(b)), 50 3a re Pe ei 3. ©: vs © © Fig. £3.42 Then we take only the current source and deactivate A and Vy (Fig. E3.42(c)). Here, I" = Taking note that I” and I” are in reverse directions in comparison to I’, using the principle of Superposition, 1, the current through yer-r-1" =2-4-1=-3A ie, the net current through r, will flow downward and its magnitude will be 3 A. EXAMPLE Find the current in the 10 Q resistor. SovuTion, Referring to Fig. E3.43(a), for the 10 V source only, po, 10__10x7_7, Sx iy Mey 8 5+2 7 wa | L |i) Fig. £3.43 (5) Fig. £3.43 (c) Assuming 2 A current source only, referring to Figs. E3.43(b) & (0), where Next let us assume only 1A source (Figs. F3.43(d) and (e)) —~ =0.18752 x1 “O15 +10 0.0625 A mawr zn124° Cir 2 5 2s10 4 -ye-(3) 2 =-(18)2--5a : _ hea "3324107 sJiv2 (e)3> 4 Following Superposition theorem, This gives 2-1-3 v, Neth th 542274 ie, the current through the short circuit link is 7 A. Examece 3.41 Find v, in the circuit of Fig. E3.41 using Superposition theorem. 3 [with 5.33 A sour, An In Fig. E3.41(6), : i, #533 1 Bara +2 AW a5 533A 19 > ame” a 533A Fig. £3.41 Soumion. Let us first take the 2 V source Ag, deactivating the current sources (Fig. E3.41(a)). 2x12 -20 > 213 is *. 0, (drop across 1, due to 2 V source) ee 19 =1x1=1V This gives i, 9-2-2 2x2 in, = zs 22a Lo 241 yeh v3 =2x1=2V. yn10 By Superposition, = LV. Fig. £3.41 (¢) Exampte 3.42 For the circuit shown in Fig. E3.42, find Next, taking the lower current source only (Fig. the current through r,. [V;= 12 V,r,=4,1=34 E3.41(b)). 1,=20,V,=24V} 1 3_ 15 i=(-5) =-5)3=-BaA > teed ss ? as ® 5 n 2a Ov Jy, ; iQ 19 4 + > © sa@n-10 ccomenne —— Be: Fig. £3.42 Fig. £3.42(a) ae j SOLUTION. Let us first take the source V, only Fig. £3.41 (0) deactivating the other source (Fig. E3.42(a)).ui - 12 - nen 442 Here, I= 2A Next, deactivating I and V, taking only V, (Fig, £3.42(b)). v, zn aA tn 442 Fa Fe h " n Or gn Ms ® © Fig. £3.42 Then we take only the current source and deactivate V, and V, (Fig. E3.42(0)). Here, I” Taking note that I" and I” are in reverse directions in comparison to I ,using the principle of Superposition, 1, the current through -r-I" -4-1=-3A ie, the net current through 7, will flow downward and its magnitude will be 3 A. Find the current in the 10 Q resistor. —— Fig. £3.43 SOLUTION, Referring to Fig. E3.43(a), for the 10 V source only, Peg tl os. OT 7g S20 Mri0 8 8 542 7 Fig. £3.43 (c) Assuming 2 A current source only, referring to Figs. E3.43(b) & (cl, where r Thus 1, Next let us assume only 1 A source (Figs. F3.43(d) and (e)). 1 3x10 5+10 =0.18750 =0,0625 A 10+5 5a Fig, £3.43 (0) pmawero126 Circuit Thooy _ x10 sate Fig. £3.43 (e) <. (through 10. resistor, by Superposition) = Thy lag Z ans 0.0625 = 0.6875 A. Exact 344 Find v by Superposition Theorem (Fig. E344). sa © D ya Fig. £3.44 Soumion. Taking the 10 V source only, with reference to Fig. E3.44(c), Fig. £3.44 Taking the 5 A source only, with reference to Fig. E3.44(b), iy 5_ aera +10 =, =167x10=16.70V By Superposition theorem, =0; +0 =6.67 + 16,70=23.7 V. Examece 3.45 Find i, and i from the circuit of Fig. E345 using Superposition Theorem. 630 Souumion, Assuming only 6 V source to 4 active, with reference to Fig. E3.45(a), 6+ (145) ig +2i9 =0 3 or Biy=6 g-gh @ Fig. £3.45, Next, assuming 1 A source active only, wit reference to 2. We finally get, 1=1.2 i -0.4 i =0.8 i vt -2i8 25A and i =—S ie, i, (5=-0.25 A Using the principle of Superposition, -1.25=-0.5A 0.25=0.5 A. and ExawpLe 3.46 Find i in Fig. E3.46 using Superpositia theorem if V,= 10 V, 1,=5 A, Ry= R, = 102. Fig, £3.46 SOLUTION. With source V, only, =05AThus, by Superposition principles, "+i 205425-3A (3.5 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM This theorem is used to find the value of load resistance for_which there would b jount of power transfer from source to load. 11 3.5.1 Statement of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem A resistance load, being connected to a dc network, receives maximum” power when the load re. equal to the internal resistance (Thevenit’s equivalent Tesistance) of the sourcé network as seen from the load terminals. Tas. Explanation ‘A variable resistance R, is connected to a de source network as shown in Fig. while Fig. 3.5(b) represents the Thevenin voltage V, and Thevenin resistance Ry, of the source network. The aim is to determine the value of R, such that it receives maximum power from the de source. ‘ig. 3.5. (a) Load connected to the de source network. With reference to Fig. 3.5(0), ‘Thevenin equivalent of dic, source network —— Fig. 3.5 (b) Equivalent source network and toad, while the power delivered to the resistive load is 2 V, \ PaPR, { 9. (Ry +R, ) P;, can be maximised by varying R, and hence, maximum power can be delivered when (dP, / dR, )=0. However, aP, 1 aR, (Ry, +R, PP *R 2d a Bao 1 m+ RF A (V3 R,)- V3 R, . (R, RF aa, V8 ) 1 ag, Rn RFT 2 : GUC, + RL) VE - VER, (Ry, + Ry) x2(Ry +R) o (Rry +R, -2R,)_ VG (Roy - Ry) (Ry +R.) (Ry, + RP But Finally which gives (Rp ~R,)20 or, Ry = Ry Hence, it has been proved that power transfer from a de source network to a resistive network is maximum hen the internal resistance of the de source network is equal to the load resistance, Again, with R, =Ry,. the system being perfectly matched for load and source, the power transfer becomes maximum and this amount of power (P_,,, )ean be obtained as 2 Ry Ve (k, +8 (it may be noted that this is the power consumed by the load). Obviously, the power transfer by the source y ms Ve would be also 5°, the load power and source power being the same. The total power supplied is thus pep te to 7 4Ry 2 Ry, wm4aw>zroDuring maximum power transfer the efficiency 1 becomes x 100 = 50% The concept of maximum power transfer by making the source resistance equal to the load resistance has wide application in communication circuits where the magnitude of power transfer is sufficiently small. To achieve maximum power transfer, then the source and load resistances are matched and with flow of maximum power from source to load, low efficiency of 50% is tolerated. On the other hand, in electric power transmission systems, the load resistance being sufficiently greater than the source resistance, it is difficult to achieve the condition of maximum power transfer ordinarily. Moreover, in power system, emphasis is, given to keep voltage drops and line losses to a minimum value and hence operation of the power system, operating with bulk power transmission capability, becomes uneconomical if it be operated with only 50% efficiency just for the sake of maximum power transfer. Hence in power transmission systems this criterion of maximum power transfer is seldom realised. If 3.5.3 Steps for Solution of a Network Utilizing Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Following steps may be executed to solve the problems relating to maximum power transfer theorem 128 Circuit re Th, 10 59 Ro — Fig. £3.47 SowuTION. Let R be replaced first and the op, circuit voltage be V,,. (Fig. E3.47(@)) , 5a 119 ha — Fig. £3.47 (a) Here The drop across a-b branch is then Viy-2et-2V ‘25s Obviously, 2 6-32 =V, 4, t6V=2 462220 Voe =Va-n FOVRE e or, Vue =64V Step 1 Remove the load resistance and find / To find internal resistance of the circuit acros Thevenin’s resistance (Ry, ) of the source ~ x-y, with reference to Fig. E3.47(b), network looking through the open a circuited load terminals. Rp = M112 + SH]P=E Step 2. As per maximum power transfer theorem, __ this Rj, is the load resistance of the ; network ie, R, = Rr, that allows maximuny 19 5a power transfer. * Step 3 Find the Thevenin’s voltage (Vj) across the aon, ‘open circuited load terminals. Step 4 Maximum power transfer is given by : ¥ Ve Fig. E3.47 (b) AR. / As per maximum power transfer theorem, Boampie S47 Find the value of R in the circuit of Fig. R= Ry = 0.852 E3.47 such that maximum power transfer takes place. and Pp. Ven (6.4)? What isthe amount ofthis power ? inex (mx. Power) = 8 = aNetwork Theorems 129 Exampce 3.48 What should be the value of R such that Examece 3.49 Assuming maximum power transfer maximurn power transfer can take place from the rest of — from the source to R, find the oalue of this amount of the network to R in Fig. £3.48 ? Obtain the amount of — power in the circuit of Fig. E349 this power. Le AMO Ait | 30 ' ] LA hte rg O49 Fig. £3.48 % SOLUTION. R is removed by open arcuit. With SOLUTION, Let us first convert the “I” source to reference to Fig. E3444), "V" source and remove R from x-y terminal, the ; voltage at these terminals being V, . 1-% 3330 With reference to Fig. E3.48(a), 30 . > 2 c 4 Fig. £3.49 (2) a > 333«10=3333V 2 Fig. £3.48 (0) [It may be noted that b will be having -ve : » V_.y =drop across 50 =1.6x5=8V polarity as the current in 100 resistor flows from b a ‘Thus in the left loop, 2 aay “10+, +8=0 ort 3.33V__ [y terminal being +ve] or, V,.=2V , hea A Vith reference to Fig. E3 Again, with reference to Fig. E348(H), Ry, ee (internal resistance of the circuit looking through Ry == + 5=8.330 x-y) is obtained as ew) _10x5 ie 1a se ~10+5 5 R, © ORs 209 7 » e hme 30 iy y sa Fig. £3.49 (0) — ‘As per maximum power transfer theorem, Fig. £3.48 (b) R=R,, =8330 ‘As per maximum power transfer theorem, R= Ry, =5.330. Vee. 2? _ 158 mw. and Pow "GR 53130 Circuit ee amie 35 What resistance should be connected ‘across X-y in the circuit showon in Fig, E3.50 such that maximum power s developed across this load resistance ? What i the amount of this maximum power ? O91 as ’ — Fig. £3.50 ‘Sowwnon. Let 7, be the resistance that is to be connected across x-y for maximum power transfer from source to load. As per maximum power transfer theorem, ¥, should be equal tothe internal resistance of the network looking through x-y. Let this be Ry- To find R,,, all the sources are deactivated (Fig. E350(2)). 19 20 sa e Row Fig. £3.50 (a) Here, R,, =[(1)/10)+2)|)3]+5 ji -2}s _ +10 ‘Thus, the load resistance (r, ) must be having a #21 : value of “01 such that maximum power transfer is possible. __ Next, the open circuit voltage across x-y in Fig. 3.50 is to be calculated. With reference to Fig. E3.50(b), at node (1), KCL gives i, tig ti, =5 4— 0-15 0, Ds . ayo 0 assuming the voltage at node (1) to, on 4020401025415 or, 1.3020 ie, v=15.4V =3.1A This gives Vi. =i x3=3.1x3=9.3.V ‘Amount of maximum power transfer is giv, by Vee 03" . TRp ax 421 34 We 65 Exameie 3.51 Find R to have maximum power trans in the circuit of Fig. E3.51. Also obtain the amount» maximum power. Fig. £3.51 SoLUTION. Let us first convert the cure source to voltage source first as shown in Fi E3.51(a). Ris also replaced by open circuit. Here, is the open circuit voltage at the output termint The application of mesh equation at the lef lot yields -20+6+ 1(104+5+2)=0 4 7 or, A. This gives Yen 104 2 =11.65V [+ V,,. =drop across 20" potential of 10 V batter!Network Theorems 131 The internal resistance of the circuit looking from x-y terminals is obtained by deactivating. all sources as shown in Fig, £3.51(b) wa 30 22 ky y Fig. €3.51 (6) Here Rp, = 15%? 30 ._- As per the theorem of maximum power transfer, R=17652(= Ry) and P,,,,(amount of maximum power transfer) Vi, _ 11.652 > =19.22W. oo (83.6 MILLMAN’S THEOREM The utility of this theorem is that, any number of parallel voltage sources can be reduced to one equivalent one. 11 3.6.1. Statement of Millman’s Theorem When a number of voltage sources (V,, Vyy....,V,.) are in parallel having internal resistances (Ry, Ryyoseesy Ry) respectively, the arrangement can be replaced by a single equivalent voltage source V in series with an equivalent series resistance R as given below (Refer Figs. 3.6(a) and (b)). 2 & @ ) —— Fig. 3.6 (a) Anumber parallel of voltage sources fading power to a load resistance (0) Equivalent voltage and resistance of the source network following Millman Theorem As per Millman’s Theorem, ve TMG EMG tn 8 MG, Gp FG tat G, 11 3.6.2 Explanation Assuming, a de network of numerous parallel voltage sources with internal resistances supplying, power to a load resistance R, (Fig. 37), all voltage sources are converted to current sources as shown in Fig, 33. Let I represent the resultant current of the parallel current sources while G the equivalent conductance (Fig, 3.8) such that Ial+ Fig. 3.8 — Eqivalent current sources ond conductonce: Next, the resulting current source is converted toan equivalent voltage source as depicted in Fig. 39. Fig. 3.9 Equivalent voltage source of the current source 1_thtlysutl, Thus v= G [+ anal ~ signs appeared to include the cases where the sources ‘may not be supplying current in the same direction] R=t = cm Also. y, R 1 R 1 where R is the equivalent resistance connected with the equivalent voltage source in series.Thus finally, 11 3.6.3. Steps for Solution of a Network Utilizing Millman’s Theorem Following steps can be executed to get a direct solution of the problems relating Millman’s theorem : Step 1 Obtain the conductance (G,,G,,....) of each voltage source (V, , V»,....)and find G, the equivalent conductance removing the load. Apply Millman’s theorem to find V, the equivalent voltage source given by Step 2 Determine (R), the equivalent series resis- tance with the equivalent voltage source (V). Rak G The current through the load is then given by Step 3 Step 4 Vv Re R, R, being the load resistance. Exampte 3.52 Using Millman’s theorem, find the current through Ry, in the circuit of Fig. E3.52 and find the voltage drop, — (2-740; B= 100 Fig. E3.52 SOLUTION. Let V be the equivalent voltage source while R the equivalent resistance to be inserted in series with the voltage source of the Millman’s equivalent source network. Here, d Substituting the numerical values, 4x4} -2xts10x1 —_4___4 4 1 +o4 4 ain rome 5 2 Fig. £3.52 (a) From Fig. E3.52(a), the equivalent cirai (Millman’s network), 4/3 410 3 The current through 10 © resistor is thus 0.124 while the drop across it is 10 x 0.12 =1.2 V. Example 3.53 Find the current through the 10 resist using Millman’s Theorem (Fig. E3.53). 6 peg SotuTion. First the current sources combined such that the total current is obtained a I=l+h= 1 G-G+G => + ig. £3.53Network Th Converting current source to an equivalent voltage source 18 vat 8 gy Gil 1 and R= -t aa 1a — © Fig. £3.53 (a) Figure E3.53(a) being representing the Mill man’s equivalent network, the current through 19 resistor is, feo 1a R+1 141 Exampue 3.54 Find Millman’s equivalent for the left of the terminals x-y in Fig. £3.54, ov Fig. £3.54 SOLUTION. Let us first convert the current source of 1 A to voltage source (Fig. E3.54(2)). 20 Osv @2av y @ —_— Fig, £3.54 Millman’s equivalent voltage is then given by YG +g 6x }s201 Ve G+G, ye} 2) 341 = 222d By, er) aw toe 3 aia Millman’s equivalent circuit is thus obtained and shown in Fig, E3.54(b), "3.7 RECIPROCITY THEOREM 1.3.7.1. Statement of Reciprocity Theorem In any branch of a network, the current (I) due to a single source of voltage (V) elsewhere im the neticork is equal to the current through the branch in which the source was originally placed when the source is placed in the branch in which the current (1) was originally obtained 11 3.7.2. Explanation In simple sense, the location of the voltage source and the through current may be intercnanged without a change in current However, the polarity of the voltage source should have the identicality with the direction of branch current in each position. The limitation of this theorem is that it is applicable only to single-source networks and not in multisource network. Moreover, the network where reciprocity theorem is applied should be a linear one and containing of resistors, inductors. capacitors and coupled circuits. The network should not have any time varying element. 41 3.7.3 Steps for Solution of a Network Utilizing Reciprocity Theorem Step 1 The branches between which reciprocity is to be established are to be selected first. Step 2 The current in the branch is obtained using conventional network analysis. Step 3 The voltage source is interchanged between the branches concemed. Step 4 The currentin the branch where the voltage source was existing earlier is calculated It may be observed that the currents obtained in step 2 and step 4 are identical to each other Exawee 3.55 Show the application of reciprocity theorem in the network of Fig. E3.55.SOLUTION. With reference to Fig. £3.55, ‘equivalent resistance across 2-y is given by Ry =(2 +HI/3]+2=350 1, =2.86-143=143 A. With reference to Fig. E3.55(a), Fig. £3.55 (2) Ry = @113)+142=043-2 420 20V 93814 — aco This gives I= 1, Po =2381x 3-143 0 234 5 Hence we observe that when the source was in branch x-y as in Fig. E3.55, the a-b branch current is 1.43 A ; again when the source is in branch «-b, (Fig. 3,55(a)) the x—y branch current becomes 1.43 A. This proves the reciprocity theorem. ExawLe 3.56 Show the validity of reciprocity theorem in Figs. E3.56 and 3.56(a). 52 10a + wal won Fig. £3.56 50 0a wa wa Fig. £3.56 (a) 134 Circu ee The, the SoLuTIon. Let Fig. £3.56 be redrawn as 4), in Fig. E3.56(b) 15a Wo 1 SOV: - pa 02 Fig. £3.56 (b) Here R,. (the equivalent resistance across» 50 V battery} is given by Ry =[{(10 + 10)|| 20} || 10] +5 =10Q 1-2 25a 10 This gives (10 + 10)||20 [(@0 +10)||20] +10 = 5xe254 20 5 AL 10+10 10+10+20 (1, +1)=1-T, while I, =(Iy + 15) =2570 125. 40 and obviously 1, = 1.25 A ‘Again redrawing Fig. E3.56(a) in Fig. 3.56( across the 50 V source, the equivalent resistances 10x5 nf = (3.33 || 20)+2 22), a0-+10| +0 (3.33 ||20) = 2.855 +20 =22.862 5a 100 ts i on a 102 4, ed £3.56 (c) 50 1 7 n= 99 gg "2187 A This gives (1, +D=l, and T=(1, +1)Network Theorems 135 Thus we see that in Fig. £3.56, 1, = 1.25 A. On the other hand, in Fig, E3.56(a) with place- ment of 50 V source in 1, branch, now, f=125 A ‘Thus the reciprocity theorem is proved (3.8 SUBSTITUTION THEOREM 11 3.8.1 Statement of Substitution Theorem The voltage across the current through any branch of adc bilateral network being known, this branch can be replaced by any combination of elements that will make the same voltage across and current through the chosen branch. In other words, the theorem, in its simplest form tells that for branch equivalence, the terminal voltage and current must be same. 14 3.8.2 Explanation Let us take a simple network (Fig. 3.10) where we take to see the branch equivalence of the load resistance R,. Obviously, substitution theorem Figure 3.11 represents the branch equivalents of the x-y branch (R, ) where it may be noted that in all the cases of Fig. 3.11, the terminal voltages and through currents are identical and equal to that of the branch x-y (R, ) . + 3A wsafsv yer Fig. 3.11 Equivalent of branch x-y of Fig. 3.10 It may also be observed that a known potential difference and current in a branch can be replaced by an ideat voltage and current source respectively The limitation of this theorem ts that the theorem can not be used to solve the nefcork contaming two or more sources that are not im series or sm parailel 11 3.8.3. Steps for Solution of a Network Utitizing Substitution Theorem Step 1 First obtain the concerned branch and through current, given by hy Step2 The branch may be substituted by an independent voltage source as 4 below (Figs. 3.12 and 3.13). oO 3 vet Fig. 3.12 Substitution by voltage source. A OF RO 4 Fig. 3.13 Substitution by current source. ‘® 3.9 COMPENSATION THEOREM 11 3.9.1 Statement of Compensation Theorem linear Ina pme-invariant network resistance (R) of an uncoupled bran: (D is changed by (AR), the cw would change and can be obta ideal voltage source of (Vas been connected [such 2 V, = 1(AR)} in series with (R+ AR) when all sources in the network are replaced by their internal resistances. when the urrent [The source voltage (V/) opposes the flow of original current] 41 3.9.2 Explanation Let us assume a load &, be connected toa de source network whose Thevenin’s equivalent gives wmawe re