YE 3 ; TEXTILE Lea SAW A PaU le DESIGN Fs ISBET TEXTILE DESIGN H,. NISBETGRAMMAR TEXTILE DESIGN New, Revised and Greatly Enlarged Edition WEAVING CALCULATIONS By R. SEN, se, (Cal.), nse, Tech, (Mane), AMC. 29 Mlustrations. ‘This is an up-to-date and accurate book on weaving calculations. All the dierent methods of calculation, derived from fundamental principles, have been explained and illustrated whenever possible by examples based on data commonly used in practice. No advanced knowledge of mathematics on the part of the reader is essential in order to be able to understand this book. In case of inwportant calculations, intricate details have also been included as these help in actual practice. The work is fully illustrated, the rmeny illustrations greatly helping in simplifying the text, ThE MECHANISM OF WEAVING By THOMAS W. FOX, tse. Tech. Over 600 Pages. 285 ls. During recent years several admirable books have been written con weaving, but it has been too much the custom to consider designing, fabric structure, and the calculations relating thereto, a the most important parts of the subject. Hence, only one treatise has appeared within the last twenty years in which the mechanical side of weaving has not been subordinated to the structural side. The present treatise is designed to supply this deficiency, and to place within the student's reach exact and practical information bearing upon the principles of weaving as exemplified in the various processes of the trade. If this book assists in some small 1 give students a better knowledge of the textile industry, the author will feel that his Iabour has not been in vain. Within the compass of this volume it is manifestly impossible to deal fully with all kinds of weaving mechanism. Some branches ‘of weaving have been unavoidably passed over, but an effort has ‘been made to include the leading types of machinery.GRAMMAR TEXTILE DESIGN H. NISBET, F.T.I. Textile Technologist and Consultant AUTHOR oF» /ARY OPERATIONS OF WEAVING” (2 VOLS), THE MANUFACTURE OF TERRY PILE FABRICS" THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED With 669 Ilustrations D. B. TARAPOREVALA SONS & CO. PVT. LTD. TREASURE HOUSE OF BOOKS AL NAOROJI ROAD, BOMBAYPREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. ‘Tax request for & third edition of this treatise is « source of gratification to the author as affording some evidence that, as a text-book and s work of reference, it supplies the needs of students, manufacturers and others for whom it is written. In addition to the revision of parts of the the present volume is enlarged by 50 addit to a total of 553; and 32 new figures to a total of 669. Descriptions are also given, in Chapter IX, of several American types of flat steel doups for heald and Jacquard hamesses for gauze, leno and other varieties of cross- weeving; and Chapter XI introduces new warp ondulé motion applicable to ordinary looms. ‘The increasing importance and rapid development of the srtificial silk industry is fully recognised by the addition of an entirely new chapter, (KIX) of 38 pages, with illustrations reproduced from 15 actual examples of cloth illustrating the decorative value of artificial silk in the embellishment of textile fabrios. This chapter also describes. the essential features of the chief types of artificial silk and their reaction with yes in the production of multi-colour effects by cross- yeing. It also gives © comparison of the properties of natural and artificial silk, and explains the uses of artificial silk staple fibres. It is hoped that thie treatise will be of some service in advancing the interests of the weaving industry. XH, NISBET. Wee Diossony, Maxcnaren, PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. Iv responding to the demand for » second edition of this treatise, the suthor has taken the opportunity to extend several chapters of the previous edition, and also to ‘enlarge its scope by the addition of eight new chapters. ‘The chapter treating of terry pile fabrics is augmented by descriptions of several distinct modifications of terry pile motions; a description of figured terry weaving by means of the Jacquard machine; and also of a method of weaving terry pile fabrics in an ordinary “fsst-reed” loom without the aid of @ “terry motion” for that purpose, , In the eight new chapters, there are given detailed descriptions, accompanied by much useful and practical information, relating to the structure, designing, and manufacture of the principal types of textile fabrics comprising the following commercial varieties : leno bro- cade; brocade; damask; Alhambra; piqué or toilet welt matelasse;; toilet quilting; patent satin or Mitcheline; tapestry; ‘and Scotch or Kidderminster carpet. Embracing, as it does, a much wider range than that of its predecessor, the present volume will prove even more helpful as a text-book for students of weaving and designing, and also as a work of reference for alll who are interested in, or desire information relating to, the construction, production, and use of textile fal HARRY NISBET.PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. ‘Tas Grammar of Teatile Design is a treatise upon the Fandamental Principles of Structural Design in Woven Fabrics, and the application of those principles in the Production of various types of cloth. Tt has been chiefly prepared as text-book for students of weaving and designing in all branches of the weaving trade, and contains much information of practical utility to designers, salesmen, manufacturers, and others, to whom a knowledge of the construction, characteristic features, and uses of textile fabrics will be helptal. In the descriptions of fabrics that are produced by the ‘id of special mechanical devices, these are briefly described and illustrated by scale diagrams, and include descriptions of three types of steel-wire doug hamesses for cross- weaving; a loom for weaving leno fabrics in which warp ends are crossed by @ system of douping in front of the reed; and a loom for weaving ondulé fabrics in which warp ends, and sometimes picks of welt, are caused to assume undulating or wavy lines in the direc- tion’ of warp, or weft, respectively. HARRY NISBET. CONTENTS. (CHAPTER 1. emnopverios. eos Prnii of Fabri troctre (14) an the une of Deg Paper oo. ss pages 15 CHAPTER 1, Tae Prin Weave ano 19s Mopinicaions, ‘The Plain, Calico, or Tabby Weave (5). Firmness of Textore (5) Varaty of Texture (§ 8). Variety of Porm: Ribbed Fabrice (92-15. Corded Fubrin (f 14). Matt Weaves (815,16) - pages 6.25, cuaPreR m, Twine axo Kissa Weave, (Oaasication of Twil Weaves ($17). 1. Continuous Twille: (0) Warp. face Twills (18). (%) Woft face Twils (619). (c) Warp and Weft ‘face Tells (§ 20). The Angle of Twill (§ 21), Taflvences afecting ‘the Prominence of Twill and Kindred Woatea: (a) Character of Weace, () Character of Yarn, (e) Number of Threade ger Inch, (@) Direction of Teill in Balation to the Direction of Twiat im Yor (8 2236), 2. Ziguag or Wavy Twills ($ 27-29). 3, Rearranged Twill Satin Wearos (Gf 80-82). Table of Intervals of Salection for the Construction of Satin Weaves (§ 82). Corkscrew Twills($§ 28, 34). ‘Rearrangement of Twill Wenves on Satin and other Bases (85, 96) 4:Combined Twills (137). g. Broken Twitls (9. 6, Figured oF Ornamented Twills ($39) - + pages 297 CHAPTER Iv. Duwoxp axo Kinpuep Weaves, Diamond Weaves (j 40). Honeyoomb sod Kindred Weavee (f $1) Brighton Weaves (43). Sponge Weaves (f 48). Huck-s-Back and Kindred Weaves (§ 44). Grecian Weaves (§ 45). Linear Zigaag or Spider Weaves (§ 46). Crtpe or Oatmeal Wenves (88 47, 48) ages T2100x CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. Broron Comoe. Plain Onicobbed Bedford Conde; luo Plain Twilibbed Bedford Corda (88 49, 61). Figured Bedford Cords (882,59). Tabulatod Data of Particulars relating to the Manatuctare of Soventoon Varlotien of ‘Bedtord Goud Fabrics desribed in this Chapter (§4)- pages 110-125, (CHAPTER VI. Bacuep Fanaios. Wetebncked Wunin(§ 58), Warped Pabrce (66, Revenibe or Doublefaood Fabrics (§ 57) - cee gee 198188 CHAPTER Vit. Foeruns. Varieties of Fustlans (8). Imperial or Swansdowa (59). Canton ‘or Diagoosl(f 60). Moleskin 61). Beaverten (62). Velveteen and Velveteen Cattng (6871). ibbod oF Corded Velvtean (672) Figured Velveteen (#9 18, 14). Corduroy (815, 10). Figured Corasrcy (4 77). Contaroy Cutting Machines (4 78, 79) pages 188.168 (CHAPTER VIII. ‘Penny ano Looe Pics: Fanasoa. Mathods of Producing Terry Pile on Textile Fabrice (£0, 81). Terry Plo ‘Motions (482, 69). “Holden's Terry Motion (§84). Lister and Carter's ‘Torry Motion (§ 85). Dogdale's Terry Motion (§ 86). Smith's Terry Motion (§ 87). Hacking’s Torry Motion (§ 68). Vavielies of Piala Terry Pile Fabrics (§ 69). Throc-pick Tey Fabrio (§ 90). Four. piak and Five pick Terry Fabrics (§ 91). Sluplek Terry Fabric ($92). Figured Terry Pile Fabrics (93). ‘Terry or Twin Jeoquard Mo chines (98). Draft and Shedding Plans for Three, Four. and Five: iok Figured Terry Fabrion (§ 95). Methods of Preparing Applied Designs for Figured Torry Fabrics (§ 96). Fast Reed Terry Pile ‘Weaving (9897, 99), Practioal Detals of Torey Pile Weaving (690). Loop Pile Fabrics (¢ 100). - + pages 169.210 (CHAPTER IX, Gaoze axp Ner Lamo Pann, Gauze, Net Leno, and Leno Brocade Varletles of Crose-Wesving (G01). Plain Guoze and a Heald Gauze or Leno Harnose (102, 103). Cellular Gauze Fubrics(§ 104). Not Lono Pabrios(¥§ 108-107). Gauze CONTENTS. xii sand Net Leno Figuring by means of soveral Back Standard Heald to ‘ach Doup Heald ( 108-116). Leno Specialities Produced by = ‘System of Crossing Warp Ends in froat of the Reed ($117) A Devin for the Production of Special Leno Hifects (§ 118). Fall ross Leno Fabrice (j 119). Relative Merits of » Top and u Bottom Soup Hlaraes 120). Relative Merits of Dierent Type of Dobbioe for Gause and. Lano Fabrice (§ 121). Shaking Deviow for Lano Weaving (§ 122126, Practical Details of Leno Weaving (127.190), Tempered Steel-wire Doup Harnesses for Cross ‘weaving (191-182). Flat Steel Doup Healds. ‘Their Applica- ton and Method of Operation (188-185). Marqulsette Lenos in ‘which Two Threads Cross Two (§ 186). Fiat Steel Jaoquard Doup Harness (§ 137). Limitations Traposed Uy the Use of a Stuel Doup Harness (§ 188). Mock or Imitation Leno Eset (§ 199) ges 211-278 CHAPTER X. Fiovunn Lzxo Buocae Fase. ‘Vavitioe of Leno Brocade Fabrics 140), Haential Features of « Leno TBrosde Jacquard Heroes (f 141). Formation of Neatral,” * Open,” tusd " Croce” Warp Sheds (f 142), Difeent Schemes of Crossing Warp ‘Threads (148-144), Varlous Types and Modifications of Leno Jacquard Machines and Harnesses (145-149). Devoge's Special Mosications (& 14 ‘Varlous Methods of Preparing Leno Brocade ‘Designs sai sho of Cutting the Pattern Cards ‘therefrom (G5160-188) ~~ Sos pageasr9-s12 ‘CHAPTER XI. ‘Tuo, Larres, AND Swives FiouneD Fannics: aso OxDULE Farsice. ‘Tiasue Figured Fabeles (156). Madras Muslin Fabric (157-156) Tappet Figured Fabrics (§ 169-161). Crossthread Lappet Figuring ($162). Spot Lappet Figuring (§ 163). Swivel Figured Fabrice (§ 164). Warp Ondule Fabrics; also Special Types of Reeds (or their Production (§ 165). Special Loom Attachments for the Development of Warp Ondulé Etfects ; Foulds’ Ondulé Loom (§ 168). Flelden's Ondulé Motion Adapted to the Ordinary ‘Types of Looms (i 167-168). Weft Ondulé Effects and Methods of Producing them (168-170) = ++ pages 818-247 CHAPTER XI. Bnocane Fasnice ‘Wott Broce Figuring 172). Method of Preparing Applied Design for Wettsigued Brocade Fabrics (§172), Splitahed ” Jasquard Figuring Harnes for Brocade Fabrice (§178). Warp and Wef-igured Brocade Fabrica; alae Method of Preparing Applied Designs for theee Fabrics Brocade Figuring with Extra Warp Threads and Extra Pla of Wat (§ 177) Hate Warp Fisng (178) Hata We Figuring (§ 179) agen 348-971x conrexrs. CHAPTER XII. Dawasx Fannios. Varieties and Howat! Featares of Damask Fabrice (180-181). The ‘Compound Presver Harnom (§§ 182-18). Damask or Twilling Seoquard Machines 105). ‘The Boubrosk Damask or Twilling Machine (§ 180). Method of Preparing Applied Damask Designs 187-100). Compound Damask Fubice (9 190-181) (CHAPTER XIV. Aumannma ax Kinonen Fasisca, Vareton and Charnotarinic Featuree of Alhambra. Fabris; aluo the ‘Prepartion of Applied Alhambra. Designs (§ 192108)‘ Tyelll ‘Counverpanes (194-106). Alhambra Fabrics Devoid of Binding Weaves {§ 198). Figured Repp Fabrica ($107) - ‘mage d00-412 (CHAPTER XV. Prquts ox Tovar Wapre: aiso Marzuasss Famnics, Vareton and Charactritc Features of Piqua or Toilet Welts (198). ‘Methads of Eimbailahing Pigué Fabrics (§ 109). The Strature of Piqué Fabrice § 200). Plain Plgué Fabrice (j 201-208). Hacked Pigué Pabrin (04). Decorative Becta in Pqué Fabra (§ 206). The “Float” Harnaae Moanting (§ 208). Method of Preparing an Applied Darga for» **Float” Harness (§ 207). Pigné Fabris with Net Leno Stripe (§ 208). Data Relating to the Manufuoture of Piqué Fabrice (6200). Matelasse Fabrics and their Characteriatc Featuen(§ 210) ‘The Development of Aypled Designs for Matalase Fabrics (§ 211) 145 CHAPTER XVI ne Tomar Quiveme Fance Distinctive Restares and Modifations of Tole Quilting Feri (§§212- 'N8). Dandy” Tollting 216). "Hunap” Teleting (217) Yevioton of Tollt Fabrice (§ 218). Jacquard, Harmen for ‘Toilet Guiting Pubes (219). Two-pck, One Shuttle Tle Quilting (22). Tarek Tollt Quilting (5221). Eawetial Bquiment of» Loom for Weaving th Halas” of Stockingiack” and Fatback” Visite of Toilet Quilting Fabrics also « Method of Operating the Comberbarde (§ 222). Fourick Tolle Quilting and its Various Modifetions (§ 229, Fivepiak Toit Quilting (§ 224). Si-pck ‘olet Quilting (§ 828). ‘The Additonal nhelishment of Tolet Quilting Fabric by mens of Esta Coloured” Warp Threads (§ 226, Proprstion of Aypied Toilet Quilting Devige (§ 237-226. Data Raatng to Tea Beampleof Tat Quilting Fabris 6 229) aas-a73 CHAPTER XVII. ue Parenr Sari on Mrronnuine Fannice Origin and Buena) Features of the "Patent Satin” Type of Fabric M390, Koen Rauipment. of « Patent Gain Loom: alo the ago 72-209 conresTs. aw Construction of the Jacquard Hares; the Method of Drawing-in the Warp Threuds; and the Shedding Plan for Patent Satin Petrie (G-281). A Modied Stractare of the Patent Satin Fabre (289). Method of Preparing an Applied Patent Eatin Deagn (§ 253). Data Relating to the Manufacture of Ten Examples of Patent Satin Fabrice G30) : : eee page 7-480 CHAPTER XVIIL : ‘Tavestay Fassics: uso Kinpsnurneren on Scoroa Caurer Faasics, Vaviet of Tapestry Fabrice (§ 286.996). Tapestry Fabrice with On ‘Series of Warp and Two Seran of Welt, with All-welt Surfaces (§ £37) ‘Tapestry Fabra with Two Warp and One Serica of Weft, with All- warp Surfaces (§ 288). Tapestry Fabrien with Two Serice Each of Warp and Welt Threads (§ 239). Construstion of « Jacquard Harnea for Tapestry Fabries (§ 240). Method of Preparing Tapestry Designs (20). Instructions for Card Cutting (§ 242). Data Relating to the Construction of Two Examples of Tapeatry Fabrics of Cours and Fine ‘Textures repectively (§ 248), Kidderminster or Scotch Carpet Fabrics (5244). Drafting and Shedding Plans for Producing Scotch Carpet Fabris (248). Spiel Type of Jaoqoard Machine and Har sss Employed for Weaving Scotch Carpet Fabrics (246). Operation of the Jacquard Machine and Harneas ina Sooteh Carpet Loom 624) - + pages 481-801 cHaPTeR XIX. ‘Tar Drconarive Vator op Antivicias. Sux 1s Textjur Pannic Characteristic Popertion of Artificial Silk also, Ite Spocial Function ia the ‘Weaving Invdstry (248-25). Turtrations of Fifteen Typical Baamples ‘of Fabrics Bmlellshed with Artifeial Silk; and Technical Data Re Inking to Their Construction and Manulacture, vit: 1, Blouse, Drest, tnd Shicting Material (§ 252); 2, Blouse and Dress Material (§ 853) 3, Blows and Dress Fabric of Light Velle Texture (§ 254); 4, Simple ‘Dobby Strive Figuring (§ 265); 6, Figured Check Fabric (§ 256); 6, Wacp Stripe Jacquard Brocede Figuring (267); 7, Juoquard Brocade Figuring on Voile Texture (258); 8, Warp Ondulé in conjunetion ith “Net Lano™ Rie (250); 9, Light-Tertare Dress Fabric of the Doble-Plan ” Weave (280); 10, Dobby Stripe Figuring with Warp of Haney Twisted ” Yarn (§ 261); 14, Coton Crépe-Volle Drss Fabric of vory Light Texto, with Egtra-Warp Figuring (§ 262); 12, Chenile: Voile Dress Fabric, and Metiod of Proparing the Design (§ 268); 13, ek Bifect Developed Uy “Fancy. Twisted" Toeade (§ 284); 14, Wrench Tapestry Upholitering Fubvic-of Light Texture (| 268); 25, Upholstering Fabre of Medium Texture of the“ Double-Plain” Weave (§ 266); Chiet Types and Vavetes of Artif Silk and Their Reaction with Dyes (§ 267288); Multi-Colonr Biseta Produced by Cross-Dyeing (9 209); The Productiow of Three-Colowe Eiets in Fabien containing Acetyl. Gululoe(§ 270.271): Comparison of the Physical Properties of Natural and Artin Silk (G5 272-286); Avteal Sill Staple Fibres 287) : me pes 602-699 Teor : Do 2 gon 40-653CHAPTER I, ANTRODUCTION. Guvanat, Paiwctrie or Fapnic Sravcruns axp tue Use oF Dustox Parzn, § 1. All woven fabrics are composed of at least two distinct series of threads termed “warp” and weft” respectively, Warp treads le lengthwise of the ai parll with he selvedges (self edges), and welt threads, also termed “picks” of welt traverse at right angles to warp threads, During the operation of weaving, warp threads are withdrawn simulle- neously from their source a a continuous sheet or layer of evenly distributed threads that are spread out to the required ‘width of cloth; whereas weft is (with exceptional instances) ingertod only one thread or “ pick” at a time, by means of a shuttle which places continuous thread in successive parallel Tengths, extending across the entire width of cloth between the salvedges, around which the welt returns for each successive “pon {§. The intorlacoment of warp and weft threads is effected by dividing or separating (in a prearranged order for eaoh pi of welt) the sheet of warp threads into two separate and distin layers, one above the other (seen thus ——————, when viewed from the end of w loom) to form an opening or division termed a “warp shod". A shuttle, carrying a supply of weft in the form of a "cop," or on a bobbin or qui, is then pro- jected through the warp shed” to leave trail of weft between the two Iayers of warp threads, These subsequently close upon the “ pick” of welt which is “beaten up” or pushed by. the eed to ite ultimate place in the fabric, of which it becomes an integral prt. Suovessive picks of welt are similarly inserted in successive “ warp sheds” of diferent farmation produced by B a ORAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESION. separating warp threads in different orders, and according to» prearranged scheme of interweaving warp and welt, as repre- ‘sented by the design, After each pick is inserted, it is beaten up to ite appointed place close to its predecessors, and thus is & temtle fabric evolved in accordance with some definite scheme or plan of interweaving which constitutes the structural ot ‘woven design. §8. This mode of interlacing two distinct series of threads ‘constitutes the chief and essential principle governing the con- struction of every type and variety of woven fabrics irrespec- tive of the special division to which they belong, ‘The particular ‘order or sclieme of interweaving those threads constitutes a ‘minor principle of fabrie structure that becomes the distinctive fab characteristic feature of the class of fabrics embodying it. Tt is the diversity of schemes of interweaving warp and wet that «gives rise to an almost infinite varity of textile fabrics, an exact classification of which would be an extremely difficult, if not ‘impossible, task. ‘This difficulty is greater from the cireum- stanoe of many fabrios being each known by a variety of trade ‘names not only in different parts pf the same country, but even, in the same locality. ‘Under these circumstances the value of such « classification ‘would be nullified, inasmuch a8 it could not be of general appli- cation ; otherwise it would greatly facilitate reference by om- ploying a definite term to signify & particular type or variety of fabric. All these varieties, however, may be classified under ‘comparatively few chiet divisions, each representing distinot types of fabries known by technical descriptions and names more or less universally recognised. Each type is characterised by some special constructive clement which distinguishes it from other types, and, a8 « rule, specially adapts it for particular ‘usea, ‘The present treatise is devoted to describing the char- acteristion of the principal types of fabrics and of their chief varieties and modifications; also the principles governing their construction, and the preparation of designs for them; the chief purposes for which they are employed, and other helpful information of # practical character relating to their manu- Incture.INTRODUCTION. 3a $4, Tontile design is of two kinds, namely (1) structural, and (@) decorative. ‘Tho fist relates to the specific manner in which ‘warp and welt throads are interlaced, by which is evolved woven Gerign, which constitutes the technique of fabrio structure. The socond relates tothe scheme of ornamentation by which a tertile {ubric is decorated, which is also more or leas dependent upon ‘woven design. It isthe chiet object of this book, however, to Gemonstrate the fundamental principles of structural or woren design, which may be aptly desoribed ns the “Grammar of Tex- tile Design”. ‘Atextlo fabric may contain only one element of woven desig and yet be profusely embellished without having recourse to colour. Many white and grey linon and cotton, and also white silk, damask, and brocade fabrios, aro good examples of that clase, ‘Tho construction of such fabries, and of damasks in particular, is frequently based upon some simple elementary sweave which is simply roversed to dovelop the figure and {ground portions, thereby eausing warp to preponderste on the surface in some parts, and welt in others; hence the contrasting tones of light which enable the figure and ground portions to be distinguished. ‘The most elaborately deoornted fabrios will ften- times be found to contain not more than three or four different varieties of simple weaves effootively introdueed in the scheme of decoration ; whilst most fabrics amployed for domestie par- ‘poses, and many others, contain but ono element of design of » simple character and specially suited for « specific purpose. An examination of such fabrios will show that warp and welt are interwoven in some simple definite order or sequence that ooours ‘with perfeot regularity throughout the entire fabric, ‘xoepting by the employment of colour, it would frequently ’be impossible to clearly distinguish the various forms und details ‘of an elaborate design, ware it not that « designer has at his ‘command sn almost unlimited choio ot fundamental weaves by which he may develop its various pdrts to obtain contrast and variety of effet. | Hnog itis equally if not more important that ‘textile designer should be conversant with the principles of fabrio structure, as that he should bo an artist and oxpert raughtaman. 4 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESION. {ti important to observe that in all examples of designs con- tained in this book, filled and shaded squares, or other symbols, ‘on design or point paper, sigify that warp threads are raised over welt, wherover those marks are placed, and blank squares signify welt passing over warp. This observation is made in consequence of some writers adopting the reyerse practice of {adicating warp and wott by blank snd filled squares, reepect- ively. But itis quito immaterial whichever method is adopted, 10 long as it in specitiod Use of Design Paper. §.5. 18 ig also expedient, at this siage, to explain the use of squared poper on which textile designs aro prepared. This is rrled with two sets of Tines crossing at right angles to form 8 series of rectangular spaces. At regular intervals apart thicker lines, called “bar lines,” are ruled in both directions to form large squares termed “bars”. ‘These large squares, or bars,” ‘enclose a number of smaller rectangular spaces which may be ‘either in equal numbers in both directions, or there msy be ‘more or less divisions in either direction, uniformly, acoording to the rato of warp threads and pioks por inch in cloth. In one direction, however, the thicker lines are ruled at regular intervals of either eight or else twelve spaces, according to the established practice in the construction of Jacquard machines, in which needles and hooks are (with excoptions) arranged in rows of sither eight or else twelve, The thicker lines also incidentally {facilitate the counting of spaces when setting out e Jacquard design ; and they also serve as an index or guide to a card- cutter, as he “reads off” a desiga and records it by punching holes in the pattern oards. For the present purpose, however, it is suficiont to state that, excepting when employed for designs for certain compound fabrica, the narrow divisions on design paper correspond, in one direction, to warp threads, and in the other direction to picks of weft. If the number of spaces be- ‘tween two bar lines are alike in both direotions, as 8 x 8 or 12 19, ether series of divisions may represent ether series of threads; but if the number of divisions are not alike each way, those of which there are cither eight or twelve spaces in aINTRODUCTION, 5 “bar” must represent warp threads, according to the index of the Jacquard machine for which the desiga is intended. ‘The ratio of warp and welt spaces in a bar should, however, corre- spond as nearly as practicable to the ratio of warp thrends and picks per inch in the finished fabric, in onder to ensure the correct shape of figures in a pattern, For example, if a design is to be prepared for a fabric that will contain eighty warp threads ‘and sixty picks per inch, to be produced by means of « 400's Jucquard machine, the proper counts of design paper for itis ‘that ruled 8 x 6 and for » 60's Jacquard machine, that raled 19 x 9 is the proper counts, By placing a dot in a small square, it signifies that the oorre- ‘sponding warp thread must be raised above the corresponding pick of weft in cloth; and s blank square signifies that weft ‘must pass over warp a the parts indicated. CHAPTER I. THE PLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND 178 MODIFICATIONS. §6. The “plain,” “calico” or “tabby” woave, as it is variously desoribed, is the most simple and elementary com- bination of two serio of threads employed in the construction of textile fabrios; albeit, it produces relatively aonger fabri ‘than is obiained by any othor simple combination of threads, ‘ercepting that of “ gauze” or" cross-weaving”. ‘The minor principle observed in the construction of plain cloth ia the interlacement of any two contiguous threads of either warp or weft in an exactly contrary manner to each other, with every thread in each saris passing alternately under tnd over consecutive threads of the other series uniformly ‘throughout the fabric. By this plan of interlaoement, every thread in each series interweaves with every thread in the other series to the uttermost extent, thereby producing « compara: tively frm and strong texture of cloth. Also, a complete unit of the plain weave occupies only two warp threads and two picks of weft, as represented in Fig. 1, whiah is the design (as in- dicated on design paper) for that weave. Tho reotangle enclos- ing two shaded and two white squares indioates one unit ofthe design, which is repeated sixteen times. The construotion of plain cloth is clearly demonstrated by means of Fig. 9 24 and 3p, which are diagrams representing a plan, s transverse seation (crosewise), and longitudinal section (lengthwise) reepeotively of that cloth, Firmness of Texture, 57. The degree of firmness of texture in woven fabrics is largely determined by the manner of interweaving warp and wal, and wil be grotar or lee according a8 the two eres ©PLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND IT$ MODIFICATIONS. 7 ‘of threads interlace more frequently or les frequently, respec: tively. ‘Thus, if two pieces of cloth are woven from similar warp and weft and with the seme number of warp threads and picks per inch—(a) with the plain weave, in which all threads interlace to the uttermost extent, and (b) with any other weave —the Intter would be less firm, and therefore of weaker texture than the former, because the threads composing it would be bent in a lesser degree than those of the plain weave, thereb ‘causing them to be less firmly compacted. For this resson itis, important that the counts of warp and weft, the number of ‘warp threads and picks per inch, and the weave, should be pro- perly proportioned, in order to obtain the best results. This T2120312 -2—Plan and tect hase of fabrio structure, however, does not come within the scope of this treatise. ‘Notwithstanding the very simple charncter of the plain weave, it is produoed in a great variety of forms and textures, possess- ing totally different characteristics, which adapt it for specific purposes. Apart from those arising from the employment of different textile materials, and also without in any way depart- ing from the true principle of the plain weave, as defined in § 6, ‘the varieties of texture and form are produced (a) by the em- ployment of different counts of yarn for different fabrics; (b) by ‘the employment of warp of one counts and weft of another ‘counts ip the same fabric; (c) by the employment of warp weft, or both warp and welt, of different counts in the same Fro. 1.—Plain or tabby weate,, Fi ofthe tabby 8 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. fabrio; and (@) by subjecting some warp threads to a greater degree of tension than others during weaving. Variety of Texture, ‘The term “texture” ia here used to signly the general autlhiog of «abi as rgads marl, couse Yur, ave dloosity of threads, weight, bulk, how it feels when handled, Fro. 8-—Plain calico cloth. ‘and other properties peculiar to woven fabrics, Plain cloth is ‘produced in a greater variety of textures than perhaps any other ‘woave, and varies from the fine, light, open and airy texture of muslin, to that of coarse and heavy hempen sackcloth. When [produced from cotton yarn of counts ranging in different fabries ‘from about 20's to 100's for both warp and weft, and contain- ing from about 40 to 160 warp thresds and picks per inch, it is known as calico—a fabrie produeel in greet quantities, and ‘extensively used in both a grey (ie, of tho natural colour ofPLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 9 cotton) and bleached state, for a variety of domestio purposes. A true plain cloth is one in which the counts and qualities of both warp and weft, and also the number of warp threads and picks per inch, are similar. When these conditions exist either precisely or approximately, whether the texture is fine or coarse, light or heavy, it will produce @ general evenness of surface, resulting from warp threads and picks each bending or yielding Bro, 4—Simple warp-sibbed loth, to each other's influence in ® corresponding degee. Fig. 3 illustrates an example of grey “calico” of medium quality, ‘containing seventy-two warp threads of 96's ‘T, and sixty-two picks of 30's W., per inch. (The rectangle encloses one square inch of cloth.) Variety of Form : Ribbed Fabrics. §.9. The least variation of form in the plain weave is effected by employing warp and welt of sufficient difference of counts 10 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. fand density of threads to produce « ribbed or condéd effect throughout thefabrio. The ribs or oords will lie in the direotion of the coarsest threads, and will be more or leas prominent ‘sccording as the difference in counts between the two series of threads is greater or loss respectively. Fig. 4 illustrates an example of cloth woven from comparatively fine warp and coarse Po. 84, m, ¢.—Plan and sections of simple warpsibbed cloth, weft, which develop a series of ribs lying in the direction of welt, and known as warp ribs. By reversing these conditions, the ribs would lie in the direction of warp, in which ease they ‘would be termed cords, or we/t ribs. In either case the rib conrser and stronger threeds, and the yielding quality of the finer and weaker threads, which perform all the bending underPLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND 198 MODIFICATIONS, 11 ‘and over the coarser threads. This is clearly illustrated by diagrams, Figs. 64, 58 and bc, which are s plan, transverse section and longitudinal section, respectively, of the warp- ribbed cloth, Fig. 4, which contains sixty-cight warp threads and sixteen picks per inch. (The rectangle encloses one square inch of cloth.) Pio. 6.—A third example of warpribbed cloth Another variety of the plain weave i illustrated in Fig. 6. In this example the rib formation results not entirely from any {reat difference between the counts of warp and counts of weft, te in the previous examples, but only partly from that cireum- stance, and, in a greater measure, in consequence of slternate warp threads being held at « considerably greater degree of tension than intermediate warp threads, during the operation of 2 ORAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. weaving, This diferenoe of tension between what are virtually to serie of warp threads—alibough each stron is of exactly the same kind of yarn —neowmitaten the use of two warp boams One containing, say, all odd-numbered warp threads, an the ‘Pio, 64,—Tranaverse section of cloth represented by Fig. 6. Fig. 62.—Longitodioa! section of clo reprevented ‘oy Pig other all even-numbered warp threads. Only one system of welt, which is of coarser counts and much softer than the warp, ‘employed. Tn consequence of some-warp threads being held taut during weaving they are prevented from bending, and ‘therefore lie in an almost perfootly straight line throughout thePLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 13 length of cloth. This causes picks of welt to lie perfectly straight and in two planes, above and below taut warp threads, fand 0 form prominent ribs on both sides of the cloth; whilst slack warp threads freely bend over and under picks of weft, to bind them firmly in position, as indicated in transverse and longitudinal sections, diagrams Figs. 64.and 6, to, 1-—Repp (warp-2ibbed) cloth, ‘The amount of contraction of warp during weaving, in cloth of this deseription, will vary according to the counts of weft and. umber of picks Der inch, as well as according to the degree of ‘tension upon the warp during weaving. The contraction will be greater or less in proportion to the thickness of weft and the number of picks per inch in cloth. In the example, Fig. 6, 4 GRAMMAR OY TEXTILE DESIGN. hich contains eighty-four warp threads of 90's T. and forty-six picks of 16's W. per inch,'the amount of contraction is equal to ‘if per cent. for taut, and 83} per cent. for slack warp threads, (Tho rectangle encloses one square inch of cloth.) § 10. One more variety of ribbed cloth, based on the principle of the plain weave, will serve, along with the two previous examples, to demonstrate its variation of form in the develop- ment of ribbed fabrics. This is the well-known “‘repp” cloth, illastrated in Fig. 7, 90 extensively employed for window blinds in railway carriages and other vehicles, and for the upholstering of furniture. In general appoarance it closely resembles the ribbed cloth illustrated in Fig. 4; but a close inspection of both ‘examples will reveal a great difference in their construction and texture—the repp cloth being much firmer and stronger than the ribbed cloth Tn the produetion of repp cloth, a8 illustrated in Fig. 7, two ‘istinct series of both warp and wott threads are employed-—the counts and character of each series being such as to develop a series of very prominent and sharply defined ribs in the direction of weft. ‘The warp series comprise two counts of yarn—one fine ‘and strong, which is held at greater tonsion during weaving, and the other coarse and soft, which is held at s lesser degree of tension, to enable it to easly yield and bend over coarse and under fine picks of weft. Hach sories of warp threads is wound ‘upon a separate warp beam to allow of « different rate of con- ‘rection during weaving. ‘They may be srranged in the harness ‘and reed in the order of one fine snd one coarse warp thread alternately ; but a superior rib will be produved by running two indicated in plan, Fig. counts of yarn—one fine and strong, similar to the fine warp, ‘and the other very ooarse and strong. These are inserted, one fine and one coarse pick aliernately, thereby requiring « loom ‘with two shuttle boxes at each end of the sley, and a “ pick: fand-pick” picking motion, i, one oapable of ‘picking twice, ‘or more than twice, in suooession, from each side of a loom, ‘When coarse pioks are inserted, all medium warp threads only fre raised to form ribe; and when fine picks are inserted, allPLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 15 fine warp threads only are raised, thereby forming deep furrows by binding down all medium warp threads between the coarse picks, as seen in longitudinal section, diagram, Fig. 88. ‘The Sample of repp cloth illustrated in Fig. 7 contains 21 x 9.— 42 medium, and 21 fine warp threads per inch ; and 17 coarse and 17 fine picks per inch. (The rectangle encloses one square inch of cloth.) Pio, 8, 8-—Plan and Wingltodinal section of repp cloth $11. In the foregoing examples of ribbed fabries, the ribs ‘of the respective pieces are of uniform size, and occur in im- mediate succession, thereby producing » general evenness of effect and uniformity of texture throughout the entire piece of cloth, Cords or ribs sre, however, frequently employed a8 simple means of crnamenting what would otherwise have been 16 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. entirely plain fabrics, but which are made to assume & variety ot decorative effects of a vory pleasing character. Such effeots are, of course, confined to siripes, running either up of across the cloth, and to checks. Stripes may be formed in an upward direction in © plain calico fabric by disposing comparatively coarse warp threads or else groupe of warp threads either at regular or irregular intervals apart, according to the effect de- sired. Such threeds may be either of uniform counts, to pro- luce plain ribs, or of different counts, to produce variegated ribe. By inserting coarse picks of welt instead of coarse warp threads in the manner just described, stripes would be formed across the piece; and by introducing soarse threads in both series, checks i 1 Fra, Fro. 10 ot goat vasiny ay be forme fami example f thi Se ofcabaing avin ef acai yoke Inttert tdorel cber ta eee thet teaver y tng oot oso ecg hy ola 12, The development ot nib and cor not dependent pos tte eoploat af suet tate ane sn as Bah. Bey ay be formed fons congo sei wo of soon coun by easing toot wore ead eine tong toe req yowiones oye is sna se y ne oo ws Tvaly coats es Mi Sompoed Heel sed et Cina todPLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 17 interweaving such groups of threads with separate threads of the other serigs, If threads are grouped in uniform quantities throughout, the riba will be of uniform size; but if grouped in Fiat, Bro. 12 By this method the rib formation is caused by the eombined recistance of the grouped threads, which Ie siraight, thereby ‘compelling the separate threads of the other series to yield ‘and bend under and over them, in accordance with the prin- ciple of fabrio structure which’ determines that the relative 23: = Fro. 18, Fro, prominence of threads diminishes in proport of bending performed by them in cloth. § 18. Simple ribs of various sizes may be formed 16 the dires- tion of welt by separating alternate warp threads (as in the plain ‘ealioo weave) and inserting two or more picks of welt in the c nto the amount 18 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. same warp sheds. Figs. 9 to 12 are dosigns for this class of ‘ib weaves containing two, three, four, and six pioks respectively, in each warp shed. Each design repeats on two warp threads, ‘and auch number of picks as are contained in two ribs, namely, Po. 15, Fo. 18 four, six, ight and twelve respectively. In the production of ‘those or other weaves, in which soversl successive picks are in- sorted in the same shod, itis necessary to furnish a loom with ‘ elvedge motion, o operat selvedgo warp threads in « different order from that of warp threads forming the body of the fabric, and thereby prevent picks of weft from being pulled backward into the shed when « shuttle passes through the same shed for ‘several picks in suosession. § 14. Simple cords may be formed in the direotion of warp by raising warp threads in uniform groups of two or more threads which may pass through heald eyes either separately or in groups. Figs, 18 to 16 are designs for cords in which two,PLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 19 ‘three, four, and six warp threads respeotively are grouped to- ‘gether, Each design repeats on as many warp threads as are ‘contained in two cords, and two picks of welt, Sinoe each pick is contained in a separate warp shed, itis unnecessary to employ ‘8 apecial selvedge motion when weaving those designs. Fro. 18, Jt was stated in § 19 that varioguted cords or sibs may be formed by an irregular system of grouping threads cither warp vay or welt way respectively. Tt should bo observed, however, Yat much greater scope is afforded inthis respeot by grouping warp threads, than by grouping picks of welt; also that varie Fr. 19, ‘ted cords (warp way) may be produced more economically chan variegated ribs (weft way). ‘This ariaes from the fact that »ords of any variety may be formed in » plain loom simply by varying the drafting of warp threads through the heals ; whereas ‘ariegated ribs would require to be woven in a loom mounted with a dobby or even a small Jacquard machine (lor large 20 GRAMMAR OP TEXTILE DESIGN. ‘pttorns) and furnished with selvedge motion. Also, in adai- tion to the extra cost of such looms, the weavers woula require to bo paid a higher rato of wages. Fige. 17 to 20 are designs {or variegated cords, each repeating on twenty-four warp threads ua. 9. ‘and two picks. By turning those designs on their side they be- ‘come variegated ribs, repeating on two warp threads and twenty- four picks. Matt Weaver §15. Simple matt weaves are those in which groups of two ‘or more contiguous warp threads and picks interlace with each 125) “ Fro. Fro, 22 ‘other #0 as to produce a chequered or dic effect, as represented {in desigas, Figs. 21, 99 and 93. ‘Tho simplest of theso weaves is that known as « two-and-two or four-end matt weave, indi- cated in Fig. 91, n which warp threads and picks interweave in pairs throughout the fabric, on the principle ofthe plain weavePLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS, 21 ‘This matt weave is extensively adopted for & great variety of fabries, of which dross materials, shirtings, aaileloth (lor ships’ saila), and “duck” cloth are, perhaps, the more notable ex- amples, Figs. 22 and 23 are designs for three-andthree (six- 1,” oH Fro. 28 Fro. end) and four-and-four-(eightwend) matt weaves respectively. ‘When these and larger matt weaves are employed, the number of warp threads and picks per inch in cloth should be propor- Fro. 10,26, tionately increased, otherwise they would produce fabries of an ‘open and flimsy texture, in which the threads would become easily displaced, in consequence of the very few intersections ‘made by them. § 16 Variegated matt weaves are developed by combining irregular groups of warp and welt threads, after the manner 2 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. indloated in Figs. 24 to 99, of which the first three are designs repeating on twelve, and the last three, on sixteen warp threads ‘and picks. They may be formed with weft preponderating on Yaa. a1. Fro. 28, ‘the face, as Figs. 94 and 97; with warp proponderating on the face, as Figs. 95 and 98; or they may be designed as true counterchange or diaper patterns, as Figs. 26 and 29, in which Fo, 29, warp and welt sre exactly counter to each other and in equal ‘quantities on both the face and back of the fabric. It will be observed that in these designs, as in all others of the same clase, there are only two orders in which warp threads interweave withPLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 23 welt, thereby requiring not more than two healds for their pro- uotion in cloth, although the healds would require to be oper- ated by & dobby or other shedding device, for designs repeating ‘on such number af picks as are beyond the reasonable seope of Atappets. CHAPTER Il. ‘TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES, 1517. Twill wonves form a distinot departure from any of the foregoing, and they constitute » most useful variety of weaves extensively employed in the construction of numerous classe of fabrics. They exist in ondloss varitios of form, and are based cn simple prinoiplo af design; but whatover particular appoar- nce they assume, they are generally characterised by» series cof more or less pronounced diagonal wales or ridges and furrows, swith either warp or walt preponderating, or in equal quantities, on tho {aoe of the fabrio. ‘The twill may be produced continuously sithor from right to left (2, sinistrally), asin Fig. 90; or fom left to right (ie, deztrall); oF again, it may be produoed in reverse directions in the same fabrio, as desired. The varoty of twill woaves is so considerable as to render an exact classifi cation of thom impossible. For the presont parpose, however, ‘they may bo broadly divided into six chief varieties, namely (2) continuous tila; (8) xigaag or wary twills; (8) rearranged twile, including satin weaves and “corkscrew” twils; (4) ‘combined ‘wills; (5) broken ‘wills; (6) figured und other twill ‘weaves of an indefiable charnctar. Each of these divisions may be subdivided into (a) warp-taco twills; (2) weltface twill; and (@) warp and well-foce twils, in which warp and ‘welt are in eithor equal or unequal quantities on the face of the 1. Continuous Twills, § 18. (a) Warp-face Twills—These are formed ty raising all ‘warp threads, excepting one, in each repeat of the pattern, for ‘each pick, and stepping one warp thread in consecutive rotation (o the right or left, according to the required direction of twill) ey‘WILL AND KINDRED WEAVES. 25 tas successive picks are inserted. ‘These will develop a series of Giagonal wales or ridges of warp, separated by furrows formed by single stitches of welt. ‘Twill weaves may be formed on any number of warp threads and pioks, from three upwards. Figs Fra, Fro, 8 30 to 35 are designs for warp twills repeating on three to eight warp threads and picks respectively, and will be sufficient to indieate the principle of their construction, $19. (0) Weft-face Twills—These are produced by reversing Fre, 2, Fo. 83, the conditions stated in § 18, by raising one warp thread only, in euch repeat of the pattern, for each pick, and proceeding in & similar manner to that described for warp-face twills. This will Produce a series of diagonal ridges of welt separated by single Stitches of warp, as indicated in designs, Figs. 36 to 41, which 26 ORAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESION. tre for welt twille repeating on three to eight warp threads and picks respectively, $20. (c) Warp and Weft-face Twills—These may be formed with either equal or unequal wales of warp and weft arranged io. 3. Fra, 88 alternately. If the wales are equal, that is if both warp threads fand picks pass over and under the same number of threads uniformly, warp and weft will necessarily be in equal quantities ‘on both the face and back of the fabrie; but if the wales are Fic. 96 Fe. lunequal, warp and weft may be either in equal or unequal quantities on the face and back of cloth. Equal wales are formed by alternately raising and leaving down equal groups of ‘two or more warp threads for euch pick, and stepping one warp‘WILL AND KINDRED WEAVES. a7 thread in consecutive rotation as successive picks are inserted. ‘Tho least of this class is that variously known aa the “ two-and. two” (-—!), the “Eiarvard" and the “ Cassimere twill given in Fig. 42; which repeats on four warp threads and picks. ‘This is Fro, 98, Fie. 8. 1 very useful weave, and one that is perhaps more extensively employed thas any other of its class. Tho principle on which it is constricted is conducive to the production of firm and strong cloth of comparatively light texture, These q Pra. 40, Fro. 41 arise from warp and welt interlacing with such frequency and in auch a manner as to permit of the threads of each series lying close together. On examining this weave, it will be seen ‘that alternate threads of warp or welt interwesve in an opposite 28 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. manner at the same time; that is, when one is above, the otber ‘below the some threads of the other series, although all threads in both series interweave in a precisely similar manner to each other. For these reasons, this simple twill weave is Fi. 42 Fr 48 capable of producing a firm, close and compact texture, and ‘one of the most useful weaves to a textile designer. Figs. 43 and 44 ate two other examples of twill weaves having warp and welt in equal quantities on both the face and back of loth, Fio. 4. Fig. 43 is a sixcend (5~") twill, and Fig. 44 an eightend ( twill, Tt will be observed in Fig. 43 that the first and fourth thrends in either serie, eounting from any thread, interweave in'an opposite manner to each other at the same time. Like-‘TWILL AND KINDRED WRAVES. 29 wise with the first and fifth threads in Fig. 44. Knowledge of these features ia valuable to « designer in the development of ad other designs having a twill foundation. Fro, 1, Fro, 36. Figs. 45, 46 and 47 are designs for twill weaves to produce ‘unequal wales of warp and weft in equal quantities on both {aoe and back; whilst Figs. 48, 49 and 50 are designs for twills Fra. Fro. 48, having unequal wales of warp and weft, but with warp pre- onderating on the face, ‘The three designs of each of these latter variaties repeat on eight, twelve and sixteen warp threads Ad picks respectively. ‘Before procoeding to describe the second class of twill weav ‘© enumerated in § 17, it will be both interesting and instructive 30 ORAMWAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. to indioato tho main influenoos affecting the angle aid also the relative prominence, of tills in cloth, ‘The Angle of Twill, $1. The angle of twill in soy continuous twill weave in which the progression is complished by advancing one thread Fro, 49, Fro. 50, only at « time, with both warp and welt is determined by the ratio existing between the number of warp threads and picks in ‘given measurement, say, one inch. If warp threads and picks Fro. 61. ia, 52. tre in equal numbers per inch, the angle of twill must neoes- ‘sarily be one of forty-five degrees, irrespeative of any difference that may exist between the counts of warpand welt; but if the threads of one series are more numerous than those of the other, the ‘angle of twill will assume an inclination towards those threads‘TWILL AND KINDRED WRAVES. a1 in greater number. Thus, if thore are more warp threads than joke per inch, the angle of twill will incline in the direction of” ‘warp threads in proportion to the excess of warp threads over ppioks; but if there are more picks than warp threads per inch, the angle of twill will incline more in the direction of welt High-angle or low-angle twills may also be formed by advanc- ing two or more threads together in one series, and one thread ‘only in the other sories, as in Figs. 51 to 54. If a high-angle ‘ill ia produced by this method, or if warp threads exceed pioks per inch, the twill should be developed with warp, as in Figs. Bland 52. Ta low-angle twill is required, or if picks exaoed io. 68. io 84, ‘warp threads per inch, the twill should be developed with weft, as in Figs, 69 and 54. Influences Affecting the Prominence of Twills and Kindred Weaves, § 22. A twill weave will assume either a more or a less pro- nounced character in cloth, according to different cireumstances. ‘The relative prominence of twills is chiefly determined by (a) ‘the character of weave; (b) the character of yarn; (c) the ‘number of warp threads und picks per inch; and (d) the direo- tion of twill in relation to the direction of twist imparted to yarn during spinning. (@) Character of Weave—A twill weave will be relatively ‘more pronounced if developed from longer than from shorter floats of yarn; but unless the freer interlagement of thread: ‘counterbalanced by & proportionate increase in their number por 32 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. inch, the fabric will be relatively weaker, for reasons stated in § 7. Ib isto obtain longer floats of yara that high-angle twills should be developed with warp, and low-angle twills with welt, ts explained in § 21. If those conditions were roversed, the twill would lack fulness owing to the short flushes of yarn, ‘as-may be readily observed on examining the reversed side of a {brie of this class. (@) Character of Yarn.—A more pronounced twill will result cither from eoarse-spun or soft-spun yarn than from fine-spun or hhard-spun yarn; also from folded yarn (i¢., thread consisting ‘of two or more single strands of yarn twisted together) than from single yarn, (© Number of Threads per Inch—A twill will be relatively more or leas pronounced in proportion to the number of warp threads and picks of welt per inch. @ Direction of Twill in Relation to the Direction of Twist én Yarn—I the same twill weave is produced to the left in one fabrio, and to the right in snother fabric of exuctly similar tox- ture, ind woven from éimilar yarn, or (which amounts to the same) ifthe same twill is produced in both directions in different parts of the same fabrio, it will appear to be more pronounced in one direction than in the other, according to the direction of twill in relation to the direction of twist in the yarn composing it, This difference is also observable between the obverse and reverpo sides of the same fabri, expecially if warp and weft are in equal or in nearly equal quantities on both sides. For ‘ample, if s twill inclines to the left (thus \) when viewed obvervely,it'will incline to the right (thus,/) when viewed on the reverse side, albeit the direction of twist in both warp snd weft remains the same. ‘Therefore the direction of twill in relation to the direction of yarn twist is different on each side ‘of tho fabri, with the result that the twill appears to be more prominent on one side than on the other. In this case, however, the influence exerted by the deflection of the warp line out of ‘8 straight course between the breast beam and back rest of a loom (to spread the warp threads and thercby obtain what ia termed “cover” in cloth) will be a contributory factor affect f prominence of twill on both sides of « fabrie. ‘This‘TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES, 38 iroumstanee, however, does not entirely account for the differ- fence between the obverse and reverse sides of » twill cloth, otherwise no difference would be manifest between the same ‘will produced to the right and to the left in different parts of the same fabric, ‘What actually occurs, is that'the series of ridges and furrows ins twill fabrie-are more sharply defined and pronounced if thoy incline in the opposite direction to the twist in yarn with which ‘the ridges of twill are formed ; and per contra, the twill will be less prominent if the twill and yarn twist We in the same direation. € 93. This peouliar and interesting phenomenon in twill and allied weaves has engaged the attention of several textile experts ‘who have sought to discover the eanse; end although various theories have been suggested as probable explanations of ita true cause, this instill a matter for conjecture, and cannot, therefore bye state positively According to one theory this phenomenon is attributed to the effet produced by the refleotion of light at different angles from the fibres composing the threads, secording to the direetion in which the flores lie in relation to the direetion of twill. ‘his ‘nay partly account for the different effects, but it is apparently not the chief factor, as may be easily demonstrated by taking 4 ieee of cloth in which the same twill is produced in both irvetions, in different. paris, and viewing it in a neutral or ‘well-diffused light, when a decided difference will be observed between the twill inclined to the right, and that inclined to the lett. ‘The twill in the opposite direction to the twist of yarn will be more distinet than that in the same direction ss yarn twist, Tt would appear, therefore, that the difference is caused either partly or entirely by some influence exerted by the direo> tion of twill upon the twist of yarn. This preconception forms the essence of another theory based on the assumption that since the spirality of span thread is artificial, and not natural feature of such a thread, the fibres composing it sub- Sequently tend, under favournble conditions, to recover their ‘tigival straight and free condition, thereby ouusing the thread to ‘twat, especially when itis subjected to tensile strain. Henoe D a GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. ‘Pia, 55.—Showing the obverse side of y2 twill loth of courte texture, pro ‘duced trom folded warp and wet Ssted sinistrally, or welt-way (when folded) and with the till produced upward from ltt tr trully.” (ote the prominence of twill) io, 56.—Showing the reverse sido of the pie of twill cloth roproventod ‘ia Fig. 55. (Note the pecullar inclination of warp threads from « straight course, and it eect in satduing the twill){TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES, 3b it in suggested that, during weaving, when the respective threads ‘are under tonsion, they tond to untwist in cloth, and oonso- quently roll, slightly out of their original perfectly straight course, and assume & more or lees oblique inclination between ‘tho points where they intersect with other threads, unless some ‘means are adopted to prevent or check auch tendenoy by pro: ducing the twill in the reverse direction to that of the yarn twist. io, B7.—Showing a thread epan with s right-hand twit, o twia-way’ $94, The diffrent effeote of the same twill weave produced in reverse direotions in the same fabric are exemplified in a very striking manner by Figs. 65 and 56, which represent portions of the obverse and reverse sides respectively, of an actual ex- ‘ample of grey cotton two-and-two twill cloth, containing thirty. five warp threads per inch of 4/6's yara ; and twenty.two picks er inch of 4/10's yarn, Tho single strands of yarn composing {he folded threads of both warp and welt are span “twist” ay, i, deztrally, with the twist or epiality extending upward 36 GRAMMAR OP TEXTILE DESIGN. from left to right, thus / (when the thread is viewed cither suspended vertical, or extending away from the observer) and ts indicated in Fig. 57: but the doubling twist of the folded ‘read isin the reverse direction to that ofthe single-yar twint (in secordance with usual practioe in doubling spinning), namely, “weft” way, i.¢., sinistrally, with the twist inclining from right ‘Pio, 08.—Thread spun with left-hand twat or“ weltoway”. (Right-band American wyle) 10 left, as indicated in Fig. 68. ‘Tho twill on the obverse or face sie of cloth inclines to the right, and therefore oppose the direc- tion of twist in the warp threads, which are both coarser and ‘more numerous than picks of weft, and are consequently more ‘pronounced then these. Hence, the twill is much more pro- ‘minent on the obverse than on the reverse side of the cloth, ‘where it inclines inthe same direction as the warp twist. $95. According to the second theory explained in § 98, a‘TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES. 37 twil will be more pronounced if produoed in such « direotion that tho tendency of threads to untwist and roll out of their Atraight course will be prevented or checked, ‘Thus, if the un- twisting action of threads that form the ridges of the twill fnunos them to incline to fhe left the diection of the twill «leo Should he produced to the let, whereby the threads will support, Sach other atthe extremities ofthe flont, on those sides towards thigh they tend to roll. I, however, the threads ae left un- fupported at those parts, as wauld oocur if the twill were pro- o. 69.—Showing the drvcton of twill fr a warp-ace twill fabio pro- ‘duced with warp yarn spun “ twistway,” to develop a bold till ib, ‘duced in the same direction as the angle of twist, their tendency {to untwist and roll would be unchecked, and the floats would therefore assume a slight inolination in the reverse direction to ‘the twill, as clearly observed in Fig, 56, 5.96. But whatever may bo the dominant factor determining, the relative prominence of twill, it may be repeated that if they ‘te produced in the reverse direction to that of the twist in the yarn, they will be more pronounced than if both the angle of ‘wist and that of the twill are both inclined in the same direction, 38 GRAMMAR OP TEXTILE DESIGN, ‘And 0 long as this dictum is observed, it is immaterial in ‘whichever direction twill may incline, or in which direetion the yarn is twisted during spinning. Therefore, if « bold warp ‘twill is produced from yarn spun “ twist-way,” ag indioated in Fig. 67, the twill should incline upward from right to left, x8 represented in Fig. 59. Likewise, if s weft twill is produoed from yarn spun “ weft-way,” as indicated in Fig. 58, the twill ‘so should incline upward from right to left, as represented in ‘Fig. 60. (This may at first appear inconsistent, until it is ob- served thet the direction or spirality of twist in a spun thread Fro, 60.—Showing the direction of twill for w wetbtace twill fae pro duced with welt yarn spun " wol-way,” to develop a bed bill Hb inclines in reverse directions when placed at right angles to itself, a8 indicated by arrows in Figs. 67 and 68) Again, if « ‘will weave having warp and weft displayed in equal or nearly ‘equal quantities on both sides of cloth is produced from warp spun “ tvist-way ” and weft spun “ wott-way,” the till should, in this ease also, incline upward from right fo let, as indicated in Fig. 61. ‘It, however, » welt twill is produoed from yarn spun ““twist-way,” or « warp twill from yarn spun“ walt-way, ‘the twill should incline upward from left to right, a8 indicated in Fig. 62.TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES. 39 Fra. 61.—Showing the direction of twill ina fabric having & warp and welt face, and produced from warp yarn span *twist-way," and wat yarn spon“ wett-way,” to develop a bold twill Fro, 62.—Showing the . duced from yarn epus “ twit-way" to develop bold twill ib. 40 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN 2. Zigzag or Wavy Twills. 4.97, This subdivision of twill weaves comprises those in which the direotion of twill is frequently reversed, to produce 2 sories of waves running horizontally, tocording to the particular manner in made, Any regular twill weave may be welopment of wavy (wills; also the twill may be reversed at regular or irregular intervals on either warp threads or picks, ‘sccording to the effet desired. It should be observed, however, that jas a rale, tho bost results will be obtained by reversing the ‘will on that series of threads which predominate on the face of Fro. 68. Fro. 4. the fabric. Thus, if the warp preponderates over weft, the waves should reverse on warp threads; and if the welt preponderaies ‘over warp, the waves should reverse on picks of welt provided, ‘of course, that the prepondersting threads are not inferior either in number or quality. By sdopting this course, long: floats, which would otherwise ooour at all points where the twill is reversed, and which look like imperfections in cloth, ‘are avoided, and sharper wave crests and furrows are produced. ‘Tho scoompanying examples of wary twills are uniformly besed on the regular twill weave represented in Fig. 63, which repeats ‘on sight warp threads and picks, and requires eight shafts of Ihealds to weave it, with warp threads drawn through them withWILD AND KINDRED WAVES. a 42 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DRSIGN. § 98, Figs, 67, 68 and 69 are variegated wave effects pro- uoed by reversing the twill at irregular intervals of warp threads, 80 as to produce large and amall waves in a horizontal Jrsight-over” draft, as indicated above the design. This will weave has warp preponderating over weft in the ratio of five of warp threads to three picks of weft, thus 4,1, "Figs. 64, 65 and 66 aro horizontal wavy (wills produced by roversing the weave (Fig. 63) at regular intervals of eight, twelve fand sixteen warp threads, thereby causing them to repeat on sixteen, twenty-four, and thirty-two warp threads, and only eight picks, respectively. As indicated by the drafis immediately above the designs, each design requires only eight shafts of hhealds (as does the original weave) for its production ; but they ‘would ench require a different set of healds in consequence of Fra. 65. Fra. 66 the different methods of drafting the warp threads through them. If the same weave (Fig. 68) were employed to produce similar wavy effects to those of Figs. 64, 65 and 66, but verti- cally instead of horizontally, the draft shown above (Fig. 63) ‘would answer, and the healds would be raised in consecutive order, forward and backward alternately, for eight, twelve, and sixteen picks reepectively, thereby eausing the designs to re- peat on twioe that number of picks. This latter course would involve the use of dobbies or other shedding devices eapable of ‘weaving designs repeating on a large number of picks; whereas, in the former case, the designs could be woven by means of ight-piek tappets Fro. 6. Fi. 68, direction, In Fig, 67 the twill is reversed, at intervals of four, eight, and four warp threads continuously. In Fig. 68 the intervals are eight, four, and eight warp threads continuously ‘and in Fig, 69 they are four, eight, four, eight, and four warp Fro, 60. threads continuously. By thus reversing for an equal number cof warp threads in both directions, the waves assume a hori- sontal coyrea so far as one or more than one repeat of the pattern is concerned. Only eight heals are required to pro‘TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES. 43 duce these designs; but the drafting of warp threads through them must be 88 indicated above the respective designs, ‘This ‘causes the patterns to repeat on thirty-two, forty, and fifty-six ‘warp threads, and eight picks respectively. Pro, 70 Fra, 7 $9, Figs, 70, 71 and 72 are wavy offecta in which the waves are produced obliquely by reverting the twill uniformly Ma 72 ‘At shorter intervals in one direction than in the other. The cbliguty of the waves may be more or less acute according to ‘he aystom of reversing, and the intervals at which the reversale 44 GRAMMAR OP TEXTILE DESIGN. ‘cur, as seen in the examples given. In Fig. 70 the intervals are eight and four warp threads slternately, throughout. In Fig. 71s more acute obliquity is obtained by reversing the twill at intervals of eight, four, eight, four, and four warp threads, continuously ; and in Fig. 72a still more acute slant is produced by reversing the twill at intervals of eight, four, four, and four ‘warp threads continuously. These designs repeat on cight picks, and roquire cight shafts of healds, with warp threads drafted as shown, to produce them. In the development of ‘wavy twill designs, the relative sizes of waves are determined by the number of threads on which the twill is produced in any direction, 8, Rearranged Twills. § 80. Reatranged twills are those evolved by the rearrange- ‘ment of either warp thresds or picks of any regular or continu- ‘ous twill weave, according to some definite plan. For example, consecutive threads of a given weave may be redistributed at regular intervals of two or more threads apart, as required ; or, ‘as an alternative method, threads of a given weave may be taken at intervals of two or more, and arranged consecutively to form ‘a new design. Satin Weas ‘The simplest application of this system of rearranging twill ‘weaves obtains in the development of what are known as “ satin ‘weaves, produced by rearranging simple continuous warp-face or wellface twills (as represented in Figs. $1 to 96, and 37 to 41 respeotively), according as warp-lace or wellface satin weaves are required, Satin weaves are characterised by an ‘even and smooth surface, of either warp or weft, resulting from «perfectly regular distribution of intersections of those threads. ‘They constitute one of the most useful varioties of weaves and are extensively employed, in conjunction with other weaves, element or component part of elaborately decorated fabrics, ‘as well as in the production of pieoe-good fabries constructed centirely on the basis of one of such weaves. Although satin weaves are (for convenience of elassifiontion) generally regardedTWILL AD KINDRED WEAVES. 4 as derivations or rearrangements of simple continuous twill twoavoo it will be soon that they bear no resemblance whatever to that clo, but aro entirely diffrent in respect of th distriba- tion of intersotons BL. In the production of satin weaves, the intersections or binding points of warp and wott should be distributed as freely tnd far apart a possible, on such number of threads as are to Constitute one repeat of the pattarn. 'The more perfectly such distribution ia accomplished, tho more perfect wil be the even- ness and smoothness of cloth. ‘The rearrangement of any con- tinuous twill weave, to produce either «simple satin weave, or other design having a satin basis, may be made in accordance with an arthmetial formula to obtain the “interval of election” ‘hich dtarmines the positions of intersections or binding points ton conseoutive threads of either aries for any size of satin vweave, excepting thoge contained on four and six threads (which se imperteot satin weaves). Having desided upon the number of threads on which to construct aatin weave, the “interval of selection” may bo either of the reaiprocals of that number and which have no common measure, . Baample ; tis required to construct & ten-end satin weave The only two reciprocals of ten, which have no common reaware, re three and seven; therfore sither three or seven toay be taken as the“ interval of selection,” and the interseeions Aisposed at intervals of three or sven threads of either series, on conscoative threads of the other series ‘Tho application of thin formala will bo easily understood by reference to Fig. 79, where a ten-end weftface eatin (B) is pro- Auoed by transposing the throads ofa tonend wett-face twill (A) ia the manner indiested; namely, by disposing say every third warp thread A, in consecutive rotation to produce B. Or the same result is virtually attained by the method shown at Fig. 14, whareconsocutive warp threads A are rdiaposed at intervals of three theeads to produce B. The only difference betwoun Figs. 73 and 74 is in the reversed sequence of intersections. Again, similar results would obtain by rearranging picks instead of warp, threads, and also by adopting the reciprocal number, the interval of seletion ™ ‘TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES. Y WETS EAGT 2345678910 ay 12345678910 a i, 7—Showing fe oration oan Tio, Th—Showiag a Altratie Meth ‘i Sata Wears,‘TWILL AND KINDRED WRAVES. 7 Some numbers, as five, eight, ten, and twelve, each permit of only two reciprocals which have no common measure; whilst some have four, and others more than four reciprocal divisions which haye-no common measure. As regards those numbers which have four minor reciprocal divisions, a similar distribution of intersections will result whichever one of the four divisions is io. 15. Fic. 76. Fra. Th. selected as the interval; but as regards those numbers which offer a greater choice of intervals, the choice of the best“ interval of selection "is entirely a matter of judgment and not of rule. In ‘such cases it is advisable to construct weaves based on each of ‘the respective reciprocals, and then choose that “ interval of selection” which gives the most perfect and regular distribution of intersections. Fr. 78 Tio. 13. Fr. 80, § 39. The following table shows the intervals of selection for the construction of satin weaves on five, and seven to twenty: two threads, Instead of the numbers given, their resiprooals ‘may be taken. Where two intervals are given, each of these or ‘their reciprocals will produce similar results. Where more than two fhtervals are given, the number or numbers shown in 48 ORAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. heavy type (or their reciprocals) will give the most perfect dis- tribution of intersections ; and those weaves indicated in italics tre the only satin weaves (inoladed in the following table) in ‘which the distribution of intersections is geometrically per- feet — TTaven oF Ixrenvaca op Skcecrtox ron rte ComsTnvcrion for Surry WEA 6nd aatin—2, 47 Gand antio— 5,7. fond satis. Mand satin 2, 8,4, 5,657.8 Sond eatin—2, 4 YB-end satin, 7 10-end satin, 1s-end aatin—2, 8 4,6, 6,7, 8,9. lend satin—2, 3, 4 5. a0-end satin, 7, 8 Wend satio—6. Blend satin—2, 4 8, 8,10 IBend satin —2,8,4,5, 8. 22nd satin, 6, 7,9, end satin 8, 8. “Corkscrew” Twills. §.83 Corksorew twills constitute © variety of rearranged ‘wills largely employed in the production of worsted garment {fabries, for which they are eminently suited, as they are capable of producing firm and compact textures of great, strength, warmth, Fro. 81 Pro. Fro, 68. Figa. TO and 79 to 94 ate woft-satin weaves constructed In accordance ‘with theabove table, Fig. 75 ether called four-end “satinate” weares Tha iga 77 sod 18 ace alternative arrangements of the sixend satin treave,” ‘The arvangomest shown in Pig. 71a preferable to that shown ia Fig. 16, ait given a moro perfect distribution of intersections and durability. Perfect corksorew weaves are characterised by ‘8 somewhat subdued twill formation, with either warp or weft ‘only visible on the face of the fabric, and are usually constructed fon an odd number of warp threads and picks. . ‘The latter