CHAPTER (2)

Operations on Functions

Dr. M. Elgendy
Sums, Differences, Products, Quotients, and Powers Consider functions
𝑓 and 𝑔

we must be a little careful about domains.

Clearly, 𝑥 must be a number on which both 𝑓
and 𝑔 can work. In other words, the domain of
𝑓 + 𝑔 is the intersection (common part) of the
domains of 𝑓 and 𝑔

We may also raise a function to a power. By 𝑓 𝑛 , we mean the function

that assigns to 𝑥 the value [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 .
Dr. M. Elgendy
Example
4
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 9 − 𝑥 2 , with respective natural
domains [−1, ∞) and [−3,3]. Find formulas for 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓 · 𝑔, 𝑓
/𝑔, and 𝑓 5 and give their natural domains.

Dr. M. Elgendy
Dr. M. Elgendy
 Formula Domain
4
𝑓+𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 +𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 + 9 − 𝑥2 [−1,3]

4
𝑓−𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 −𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 − 9 − 𝑥2 [−1,3]

4
𝑓. 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 9 − 𝑥2 [−1,3]

4
𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 𝑥+1 (−1,3)
𝑥 = =
𝑔 𝑔 𝑥 9 − 𝑥2

4 5
𝑓5 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 5 = 𝑥+1 = 𝑥+1 5/4 [−1, ∞)

Dr. M. Elgendy
Composition of Functions

Dr. M. Elgendy
Composition of Functions; Earlier, we
asked you to think of a function as a
machine. It accepts 𝑥 as input, works on 𝑥,
and produces 𝑓(𝑥) as output. Two machines
may often be put together in tandem to
make a more complicated machine; so, may
two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 (Figure). If 𝑓 works
on 𝑥 to produce 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔 then works on
𝑓(𝑥) to produce 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)), we say that we
have composed 𝑔 with 𝑓 The resulting
function, called the composition of 𝑔 with
𝑓, is denoted by 𝑔 𝑜 𝑓 . Thus 𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑓 𝑥
Dr. M. Elgendy
Right away we notice that 𝑔 𝑜 𝑓 does not equal 𝑓 𝑜 𝑔. Thus, we
say that the composition of functions is not commutative.

We must be careful in describing the domain of a composite

function. The domain of 𝑔 𝑜 𝑓 is equal to the set of those values 𝑥
that satisfy the following properties:

1. 𝑥 is in the domain of 𝑓
2. 𝑓(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑔.

Dr. M. Elgendy
Figure shows how the domain of
𝑔 𝑜 𝑓 excludes those values of 𝑥
for which 𝑓(𝑥) is not in the
domain of 𝑔.

Dr. M. Elgendy
Example

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥/(𝑥 2 − 9) and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 , with their natural domains.

First, find (𝑓 𝑜 𝑔)(12); then find (𝑓 𝑜 𝑔)(𝑥) and give its domain.

Dr. M. Elgendy
Dr. M. Elgendy
Example
write the function 𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)5 as a composite function 𝑔 𝑜 𝑓

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Translations Observing how a function is built up from simpler ones can
be a big aid in graphing.

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Dr. M. Elgendy
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Dr. M. Elgendy
Dr. M. Elgendy
Example

Sketch the graph of 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3 + 1 by first graphing 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

and then making appropriate translations.

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Dr. M. Elgendy
Trigonometric Functions

You have probably seen the definitions of

the trigonometric functions based on
right triangles, Figure summarize the
definitions of the sine, cosine, and
tangent functions. You should review
Figure carefully, because these concepts
are needed for many applications later

Dr. M. Elgendy
Basic Properties of Sine and Cosine A number of facts follow almost
immediately from the definitions given above. First, since 𝑡 can be any
real number, the domain for both the sine and cosine functions
is −∞, ∞ . Second, 𝑥 and 𝑦 are always between −1 and 1, Thus, the
range for both the Sine and cosine functions is the interval [1,1].

Because the unit circle has circumference 2𝜋, the values 𝑡 and 𝑡
+ 2𝜋 determine the same point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦). Thus,

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡 + 2𝜋) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 + 2𝜋 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

Dr. M. Elgendy
 The points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 that correspond to 𝑡
and −𝑡, respectively, are symmetric about
the 𝑥-axis.

sin −𝑡 = −sin 𝑡

and

cos(−𝑡) = cos 𝑡

Dr. M. Elgendy
 The points 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 corresponding to
𝜋
𝑡 and − 𝑡, respectively, are symmetric
2

with respect to the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 and thus

they have their coordinates interchanged.
This means that

𝜋
sin − 𝑡 = cos 𝑡
2

𝜋
cos( − 𝑡) = sin 𝑡
2 Dr. M. Elgendy
Finally, we mention an important identity connecting the sine and cosine
functions

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 = 1

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Graphs of Sine and Cosine

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Example

Sketch the graphs of

1. 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑡

Dr. M. Elgendy
Period and Amplitude of the Trigonometric Functions A function 𝑓 is
periodic if there is a positive number 𝑝 such that

𝑓 𝑥+𝑝 =𝑓 𝑥

The period is defined to be the smallest such positive number 𝑝. For the
sine function, the smallest positive 𝑝 with the property that
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 2𝜋 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 is 𝑝 = 2𝜋

Dr. M. Elgendy
 2𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑡 + = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 + 2𝜋 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡
𝑎

The function 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑡) has period 2𝜋/𝑎

Example

What are the periods of the following functions?

1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑡) 2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑡) 3. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑡/12)

Dr. M. Elgendy
Four Other Trigonometric Functions
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
tan 𝑥 = cot 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥

1 1
sec 𝑥 = csc 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥

Example
Show that tangent is an odd function

Dr. M. Elgendy
Example

Verify that the following are identities

1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥

Dr. M. Elgendy
Relation to Angle Trigonometry Angles are
commonly measured either in degrees or in
radians. One radian is by definition the angle
corresponding to an arc of length 1 on the unit
circle, See Figure. The angle corresponding to a
complete revolution measure 360° , but only
radians. Equivalently, a straight angle measures
180° or π radians, a fact worth remembering.
180° = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 ≈ 3.1415927 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 Dr. M. Elgendy
Example

Find the distance traveled by a bicycle with wheels of radius 30

centimeters when the wheels turn through 100 revolutions

Dr. M. Elgendy
Trigonometric Identities

Double-angle identities

𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 = ቐ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 1
1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

Dr. M. Elgendy
Sum identities

𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2

𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2

Product identities

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑦
2

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑦
2

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑦 + sin 𝑥 − 𝑦
2
Dr. M. Elgendy
2.5 Exponential and logarithm functions

Exponential functions arise in many

applications. For generally, any function of
the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 , where 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1,
is an exponential function with base 𝑏 and
exponent 𝑥 . Exponential functions have
constant bases and variable exponents.

Dr. M. Elgendy
Properties
1. 𝑏 𝑥 . 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥+𝑦
𝑏𝑥
2. 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥−𝑦

3. 𝑏 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥𝑦
4. 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥
𝑎𝑥 𝑎 𝑥
5. 𝑏𝑥 =
𝑏

Dr. M. Elgendy
Example

Use the laws of exponents to simplify each of the following

expressions.

2/3 3 −1/3 2
1. 2𝑥 / 4𝑥 2. 𝑥 3 𝑦 −1 2 / 𝑥𝑦 2 −2

Dr. M. Elgendy
The Number 𝒆 A special type of
exponential function appears frequently
in real-world applications. Since 𝑒 > 1,
we know 𝑒 𝑥 is increasing on (−∞, ∞).

Dr. M. Elgendy
Logarithmic Functions Using our understanding of exponential
functions, we can discuss their inverses, which are the logarithmic
functions.
The exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 is one-to-one, with domain
(−∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞). Therefore, it has an inverse function, called
the logarithmic function with base 𝑏 . For any 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1, the
logarithmic function with base 𝑏, denoted 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 , satisfies

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 (𝑥) = 𝑦 if and only if 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Dr. M. Elgendy
The most commonly used logarithmic function
is the function loge. Since this function uses
natural 𝑒 as its base, it is called the natural
logarithm. Here we use the notation 𝑙𝑛(𝑥) or
𝑙𝑛𝑥 to mean 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑥). Since the functions 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥) are inverses of each
other, 𝑙𝑛(𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 and 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥 and their
graphs are symmetric about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥
Dr. M. Elgendy
Properties of Natural Logarithms

If 𝑎, 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1, and 𝑟 is any real number, then

1. 𝑙𝑛 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑙𝑛(𝑎) + 𝑙𝑛(𝑏) (Product property)

2. 𝑙𝑛 𝑎/𝑏 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑎 − 𝑙𝑛(𝑏) (Quotient property)

3. 𝑙𝑛 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟 𝑙𝑛(𝑎) (Power property)

4. 𝑙𝑛1 = 0

Dr. M. Elgendy
Example

Solve each of the following equations for 𝑥.

1. 5𝑥 = 2 2. 𝑒 𝑥 + 6𝑒 −𝑥 = 5

Dr. M. Elgendy
Example

Solve each of the following equations for 𝑥.

1. ln(1/𝑥 ) = 4

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2. 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 = 2

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3. ln 2𝑥 − 3 ln 𝑥 2 = 0

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Exercises

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For 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 , find each value

𝑓+𝑔 2

𝑓−𝑔 2

𝑓. 𝑔 0

𝑓/𝑔 3
Dr. M. Elgendy
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 ,

𝑓𝑜𝑔 1 𝑔𝑜𝑓 1

Dr. M. Elgendy
For 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2/𝑥, find each value

𝑓+𝑔 𝑥

𝑓 4 𝑥 + 𝑔4 𝑥

𝑓. 𝑔 𝑥

𝑓/𝑔 𝑥
Dr. M. Elgendy
For 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2/𝑥,

𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥

Dr. M. Elgendy
Find 𝑓 and 𝑔 so that 𝐹 = 𝑔𝑜𝑓

𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥+7

Dr. M. Elgendy
𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 𝑥 15

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Find 𝑓 and 𝑔 so that 𝐹 = 𝑔𝑜𝑓

𝐹 𝑥 = 1/ 𝑥 2 + 1

Dr. M. Elgendy
𝐹 𝑥 = 1/ 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥

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Sketch the graph of 𝐹

𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥−2−3

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𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥+3 −4

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𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥−2 2 −4

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𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥+1 3 −3

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Convert the following degree measures to radians.

a.30° b. 45° c. −60°

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Convert the following degree measures to radians.

d. 240° e. −370° f. 10°

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Convert the following radian measures to degrees
7𝜋 3𝜋 −𝜋
a. b. c.
6 4 3

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Convert the following radian measures to degrees

3𝜋 −35𝜋 4𝜋
d. e. f.
18 18 3

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Evaluate without using a calculator
𝜋 3𝜋
a.tan b. sec 𝜋 c. sec
6 4

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Evaluate without using a calculator

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
d. csc e. cot f. tan −
2 4 4

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Verify that the following are identities
1
a. 1 + sin 𝑥 1 − sin 𝑥 =
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥

Dr. M. Elgendy
b. sec 𝑥 − 1 sec 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

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c. sec 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = cos 𝑥

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 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥−1
d. = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥

Dr. M. Elgendy
 2 1
e. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + =1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥

Dr. M. Elgendy
f. 1 + cos 𝑥 1 − cos 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

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Use the approximations 𝐼𝑛2 = 0.693 and 𝐼𝑛3 = 1.099 together with the
properties of natural logarithm to calculate approximations to each of the
following
a. 𝑙𝑛6 b. 𝑙𝑛1.5

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c. 𝑙𝑛81 d. 𝑙𝑛48

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Write the expressions as the logarithm of a single quantity.

a. 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 1 − 𝑙𝑛𝑥

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 1 1
b. 𝑙𝑛 𝑥−9 + 𝑙𝑛𝑥
2 2

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c. 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 2 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 2 + 2𝑙𝑛𝑥

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d. 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 2 − 9 − 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 3 − 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 3)

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Simplify the given expression

a. 𝑒 3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 b. 𝑒 −2 𝑙𝑛 𝑥

Dr. M. Elgendy
c. 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 d. 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 −2𝑥−3

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e. 𝑒 𝑥−𝑙𝑛 𝑥 f. 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 3 𝑒 −3𝑥

Dr. M. Elgendy
 2 −𝑦 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
g. 𝑒 𝑙𝑛 3+𝑙𝑛𝑥 h. 𝑒 𝑙𝑛 𝑥

Dr. M. Elgendy
Solve for 𝑥 , Hint: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑐 ⟺ 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏.

a. 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 8 = 𝑥 b. 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 𝑥 = 2 c. 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑥 = 3/2

Dr. M. Elgendy
Solve for 𝑥 , Hint: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑐 ⟺ 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏.
𝑥 1
d. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 64 = 4 e. 2𝑙𝑜𝑔9 =1 f. 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 =3
3 2𝑥

Dr. M. Elgendy
Solve for 𝑥 , Hint: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑐 ⟺ 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏.

g. 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 + 3 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 = 2

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h. 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 𝑥 + 3 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 𝑥 = 1

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Use natural logarithms to solve each of the exponential equations.

a. 2𝑥 = 17 b. 5𝑥 = 13

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Use natural logarithms to solve each of the exponential equations.

c. 52𝑥−3 = 4 d. 121/(𝑥−1) = 4

Dr. M. Elgendy
with my best wishes

Dr. M. Elgendy