Chapter 5

Actuation Systems for Mechatronics

2.1 Introduction
Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are
responsible for transforming the output of a microprocessor or control system
into a controlling action on a machine or device.
Thus, for example, we might have an electrical output from the controller
which has to be transformed into a linear motion to move a load.
 Another example might be where an electrical output from the controller has
to be transformed into an action which controls the amount of liquid passing
along a pipe.
Flow Diagram Of An Actuator
2.2 Types of actuation system

The four main types of actuators:

1. Electrical actuation system

2. Mechanical actuation system

3. Hydraulic actuation system
4. Pneumatic actuation system
2.2.1 Electrical actuation systems
In any discussion of electrical systems used as actuators for control, the
discussion has to include:
1. Drive systems, such as DC and AC motors, where a current through a
motor is used to produce rotation.
2. Solenoid-type devices where a current through a solenoid is used to
actuate a soft iron core
3. Switching devices such as mechanical switches, e.g. relays, and solid-state
switches, e.g. diodes and transistors
 1. Electric Motors
Electromechanical device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.
 Are frequently used as the final control element in positional or speed control
systems.
 An electric motor uses magnetism and electric currents to operate.
 Magnetism is the force that creates rotation for a motor to operate.
 There are two basic categories of motors, AC and DC.
 Both use the same fundamental parts but with variations to allow them to
operate using two different kinds of electrical power supply.
1.1 Classification Of Electric Motors
 Basically motors can be classified into Direct Current (DC) and
Alternating Current Motors (AC)
1.1.1 DC Motors
 As the name implies, use a direct unidirectional current sources of electricity :
(Batteries and DC Power supply)
 When power is applied, it turn in one direction at a fixed speed.
 The direction of rotation of the DC motor can be reversed by reversing either
the armature current or the field current.
 They are optimized to run at a fixed, usually high RPM.
 Torque is highest at the rated speed and lowest at low speeds.
 Almost all can be reversed.
 Inexpensive and commonly available
Classification of DC Motor
Brushed DC motor
 Brushes: provide stationary electrical contact to
the moving commutator conducting segments.
 The brushes are usually spring-loaded to ensure
continual contact with the commutator.
 Field pole
North pole and south pole
Receive electricity to form magnetic field
 Armature
Cylinder between the poles
Electromagnet when current goes through
Linked to drive shaft to drive the load
Major components of a DC motor
 Commutator: Overturns current direction in
armature
Cont..
How Brushed DC Motor operates ?
Current flow to the armature coil through brushes from the DC voltage supply causes the armature
to act as an electromagnet.
The armature poles are attracted to field poles of opposite polarity causing the armature to rotate
in a clockwise direction
The electromagnet is the moving armature part and the permanent magnet is the fixed stator part.
After it turns part way around, the force of attraction between the unlike poles becomes strong
enough to keep the permanent magnet rotating.

a)

Figure : Brushed DC motor operation.

Cont..
Brushless DC motor
 A brushless DC motor has permanent magnets on the rotor and a rotating field
in the stator.
 The permanent magnets on the rotor eliminate the need for a commutator.
 Instead, the DC currents in the stator coils are switched in response to proximity
sensors that are triggered as the shaft rotates.
Advantage of a brushless motor
 It does not require maintenance to replace worn brushes.
 Because there are no rotor windings or iron core, the rotor
inertia is much smaller, sometimes making control easier.
 There are also no rotor heat dissipation problems, because
there are no rotor windings and
 There is no arcing associated with mechanical commutation.
1.1.2 AC Motors
The main difference between AC and DC
motors is that the magnetic field generated by
the stator rotates in the case of AC motors.
The principle is:
 A magnetic field in the stator is made to
rotate electrically around and around in a
circle.
Another magnetic field in the rotor is made to
follow the rotation of this field pattern by
being attracted and repelled by the stator field.
Because the rotor is free to turn, it follows the
rotating magnetic field in the stator.
1.2 Electric Motors used in Mechatronics
1. Stepper motors
 Are DC operated motors
 Is a device that produces rotation through equal angles, the so-called steps, for each
digital pulse supplied to its input.
 Every revolution is divided into a number of steps, and the motor must be sent a
voltage pulse for each step.
 The amount of rotation is directly proportional to the number of pulses and the
speed of rotation is relative to the frequency of those pulses.
 For example, if with such a motor 1 pulse produces a rotation of 6° then 60 pulses
will produce a rotation through 360°.
 Are used most often in “open-loop” control systems
Cont..
 Generally, stepper motors produce less than 1 hp and are therefore frequently
used in low-power position control applications.
 Used in rotary and linear applications.
 Conversion of rotary to linear motion inside a linear actuator is accomplished
through a threaded nut and lead screw.
2. Servo Motors
 The servomotor is driven by a programmable controller that processes the
sensor input and generates amplified voltages and currents to the motor to
achieve specified motion profiles (closed-loop).
 Is typically more expensive than a stepper motor, but it can have a much faster
and smoother response
 Three basic types of servo motors are used in modern servo systems:
• AC servo motors, based on induction motor designs;
• DC servo motors, based on DC motor designs; and
• DC or AC brush-less servo motors.

Closed-loop servo system.

1.3 Solenoids
 An electromechanical solenoid is a device that uses electrical energy to
magnetically cause mechanical control action.
 A solenoid consists of a coil, frame, and plunger (or armature)
 When the coil is energized, it produces a magnetic field that attracts the
plunger, pulling it into the frame and thus creating mechanical motion.
 When the coil is de-energized the plunger returns to its normal position
through gravity or assistance from spring assemblies within the solenoid.
 The solenoids can be linear or rotary, on/off or variable positioning and
operated by DC or AC.
Cont..
 Solenoid valves are another example of such devices, being used to control
fluid flow in hydraulic or pneumatic systems.
 When a current passes through a coil, a soft iron plunger form of armature is
pulled into the coil and, in doing so, can open or close ports to allow the flow
of a fluid.
 The force exerted by the solenoid on the armature is a function of the current
in the coil and the length of the armature within the coil.
 1.4. Switching devices
1. Relays: are electrically operated switches in which
changing a current in one electric circuit switches a
current on or off in another circuit.
 Consists of a coil, wound on an iron core, to form an
electromagnet.
 When the coil is energized by a control signal, the core
becomes magnetized and sets up a magnetic field that
attracts the iron arm of the armature to it. As a result,
the contacts on the armature close.
 When the current to the coil is switched off, the
armature is spring-returned to its normal de-energized
position and the contacts on the armature open.
Cont..
2. Solid state switches
 There are a number of solid-state devices which can be used electronically to
switch circuits. These include:
1. Diodes
2. Transistors
This portion was covered in chapter three.
2.2 Mechanical actuation system
Devices which can be considered to be motion converters in that they
transform motion from one form to some other required form.
 Ex:Transform linear motion into rotational motion and vice versa.
Mechanical elements can include the use of linkages, cams, gears, rack-and-
pinion, chains, belt drives, etc.
 Ex: rack-and-pinion can be used to convert rotational motion to linear
motion.
Application of mechanism in mechatronics:
Force amplification – given by levers.
Change of speed – given by gears.
Transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about another – timing belt.
Types of motion
 Kinematic Chains
 A sequence of joints and links is known as Fixed frame
kinematic chain.
 For a kinematic chain to transmit motion,
one link must be fixed. Movement of one link Slider

will then produce predictable relative

Connecting
movements of the others. rod
 It is possible to obtain from one kinematic
chain a number of different mechanisms by
having a different link as the fixed one.
 The design of many mechanisms are based on Crankshaft
two basic forms of kinematic chains, the four- The reciprocating motion of a piston is
bar chain and the slider-crank chain. transformed into rotational motion of a
crankshaft on bearings mounted in a
fixed frame.
 Types Kinematic Chains
The Four-bar Chain
 Consists of 4 links connected to give 4 joints about which turning can
occur.
 By changing the fixed link the following types four bar mechanism can be
formed

Double-lever mechanism Lever-crank mechanism Double-crank mechanism

2. Single Slider Crank Mechanism
This mechanism also consists of a combination of four links, with
one being designated as the frame.
 Is connected by three pin joints and one sliding joint.
This type of mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating
motion and vice versa.
L = 4, J1 = (3 pins + 1 sliding) , J2 = 0
M=1
 Cams
 Cam is a body which rotates or oscillates and in doing so imparts a reciprocating
motion to a second body called follower, with which it is in contact.
 The length of times spent for the rotation is depending on the shape of the cam.
Gear Trains
 A gear train is a combination of several gears arranged in a chain fashion to
transmit power from one shaft to another.
 Some are drivers and others are followers.
 Are widely used in many kinds of mechanisms whenever a change in speed or
torque of rotating members is required.
 Depending upon the arrangement of wheels gear trains can be classified in to:
1.Simple gear train,
2. Compound gear train,
3. Re-verted gear train, and
4.Epicyclic gear train.
Simple Gear Train
• When there is only one gear on each shaft.

(a) When the distance between the two shafts is small, the two gears 1 and 2 are
made to mesh with each other
(b) and (c) when the distance between the two gears is large motion is
transmitted by providing one or more intermediate gears.
 Compound Gear Train
• When there are more than one gear on a
shaft
• In a compound train of gears, the gear 1 is
the driving gear mounted on shaft A,
• Gears 2 and 3 are compound gears which
are mounted on shaft B.
• The gears 4 and 5 are also compound gears
which are mounted on shaft C and
• The gear 6 is the driven gear mounted on
shaft D The speed ratio of compound gear
• speed ratios of gears that are mesh together train is obtained by multiplying
are given as: the equations
 Reverted Gear Train
• When the axes of the first gear (i.e. first driver) and
the last gear (i.e. last driven or follower) are co-axial
• Gear 1 (i.e. first driver) drives the gear 2 (i.e. first
driven or follower) in the opposite direction.
• Gears 2 and 3 are mounted on the same shaft,
therefore they form a compound gear and the gear 3
will rotate in the same direction as that of gear 2.
• Gear 3 (which is now the second driver) drives the
gear 4 (i.e. the last driven or follower) in the same
direction as that of gear 1.
Epicyclic (planetary) Gear Train
 The axes of the shafts, over which the gears are mounted,
may move relative to a fixed axis.
 The gear B meshes with gear A and has its axis on the arm
at O2 about which the gear B can rotate.
 If the arm is fixed, the gear train is simple and gear A can
drive gear B or vice- versa, but if gear A is fixed and the
arm is rotated about the axis of gear A(i.e. O1), then the
gear B is forced to rotate upon and around gear A.
 Such a motion is called epicyclic and the gear trains
arranged in such a manner that one or more of their
members move upon and around another member are
known as epicyclic gear trains
Belt and Chain Drives
As a method of transmitting power between two shafts, belt drives have the
advantage that the length of the belt can easily be adjusted to suit a wide range of
shaft to shaft distance and the system is automatically protected against overload
because slipping occurs if the loading exceeds the maximum tension that can be
sustained by frictional forces.

If the distance between shafts is large, a belt drive is more suitable than gears, but
over small distances gears are to be preferred.

Different size pulleys can be used to give a gearing effect. However, the gear ratio is
limited to about 3 because of the need to maintain an adequate arc of contact
between the belt and pulleys.
 Belt and Chain Drives
Figure below shows two types of reversing drives.
With both forms of drive, both side of the belt comes into contact with the wheels and
soV-belts or timing belts cannot be used.

Cross belt
Open belt
Bearings
 Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in contact with another, either by
rotating or sliding, the resulting frictional forces generate heat which wastes energy
and results in wear.
 The function of bearing is to guide with minimum friction and maximum accuracy
the movement of one part relative to another.
 Give suitable support to rotating shaft.
 The term thrust bearing is used for bearings that are designed to withstand forces
along the axis of a shaft when the relative motion is primarily rotation.
2.3 Pneumatic and hydraulic actuation systems
 An actuator wherein hydraulic energy is used to impart motion is called an
hydraulic actuator and wherein pneumatic energy is used is called pneumatic
actuator
 They are a device used to convert the fluid/air power into mechanical power
to do useful work.
 The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., cylinder) or rotary type(e.g.,
motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.
 Hydraulic systems
 Pressurized oil is provided by a pump driven
by an electric motor.
 The pump pumps oil from a sump through a
non-return valve and an accumulator to the
system, from which it returns to the sump.
 A pressure-relief valve is included, to release
the pressure if it rises above a safe level,
 The non-return valve is to prevent the oil
being back driven to the pump and
 The accumulator is to smooth out any short-
term fluctuations in the output oil pressure.
Structure of a Hydraulic System
 Pneumatic systems
 An electric motor drives an air compressor.
 The air inlet to the compressor is likely to be
filtered and via a silencer to reduce the noise
level.
 A pressure-relief valve provides protection
against the pressure in the system rising above a
safe level.
 Since the air compressor increases the
temperature of the air, there is likely to be a
cooling system and to remove contamination and
water from the air a filter with a water trap.
 An air receiver increases the volume of air in the
system and smooth out any short-term pressure
fluctuations.
Comparison Hydraulic & Pneumatic Systems
Valves
 Valves are used with hydraulic and pneumatic systems to direct and regulate
the fluid flow.
 There are basically just two forms of valve, the finite position and the infinite
position valves.
Finite position valve: are ones where the action is just to allow or block fluid
flow and so can be used to switch actuators on or off.
They can be used for directional control to switch the flow from one path
to another and so from one actuator to another.
Infinite position valves: are able to control flow anywhere between fully on
and fully off and so are used to control varying actuator forces or the rate of
fluid flow for a process control situation
Directional control valves
They are not intended to vary the rate of flow of fluid but are either completely
open or completely closed, i.e. on/off devices.
Such on/off valves are widely used to develop sequenced control systems.
They might be activated to switch the fluid flow direction by means of
mechanical, electrical or fluid pressure signals.
A common type of directional control valve is the spool valve.
 In (a) the air supply is connected to port 1
and port 3 is closed. Thus the device
connected to port 2 can be pressurized.
 When the spool is moved to the left (b) the
air supply is cut off and port 2 is connected
to port 3. Port 3 is a vent to the atmosphere
and so the air pressure in the system attached
to port 2 is vented.
Valve symbols
 The symbol used for a control valve consists of a square for each of its switching
positions.
 Arrow-headed lines are used to indicate the directions of flow in each of the
positions
 Blocked-off lines indicating closed flow lines
 Ports are labelled by a number or a letter according to their function.
For pressure supply 1 (or P)
For output ports 2 or 5 (or B or A)
For hydraulic return port 3 (or T)
For pneumatic exhaust ports 3 or 5 (or R or S)
 Three-port, two-position valve would be described as a 3/2 valve, the
first number indicating the number of ports and the second number the
number of positions.
Cont..
Linear hydraulic/pneumatic actuator
Provides motion in straight line.
Linear displacement depends on stroke length.
Usually referred to as cylinders, rams (single acting cylinders) or jacks.

Rams
Cylinders
Cylinders
 The principles and form are the same for both hydraulic and pneumatic
versions,
 The differences is purely a matter of size as a consequence of the higher
pressures used with hydraulics.
 The function of a cylinder is to convert the hydraulic/pneumatic power into
linear mechanical force or motion
 Cylinder extend and retract a piston rod to provide a pull or push force to
drive the external load along a straight path
Types of Hydraulic Cylinders

Cylinder are of following types:

Single-acting cylinders
Double-acting cylinders
Telescopic cylinders
 Single Acting Cylinder
It consist of piston inside a cylindrical housing called as barrel
On one end is attached a rod, which can reciprocate at the opposite end, there is a
port for the entrance and exit of the oil/air
They produce force only in one direction by hydraulic/pneumatic pressure acting
on the piston
The return of the spring is not done hydraulically, it is either done by gravity or
spring.
 How single acting cylinder operate

Fig: Control of a single-acting cylinder with (a) no current through solenoid, (b) a current
through the solenoid.
 When a current passes through the solenoid, the valve switches position and
pressure is applied to move the piston along the cylinder.
 When the current through the solenoid ceases, the valve reverts to its initial
position and the air is vented from the cylinder.
 As a consequence the spring returns the piston back along the cylinder.
Double Acting Cylinder
• There are two types of double acting cylinder:
• Double acting cylinders with piston rod on one side
• Double acting cylinders with piston rod on both side
Cont..
Double Acting Cylinder With Piston Rod On One Side
• To extend the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the blank-end port.
• The fluid from the rod end port returns to the reservoir
• Now to retract the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the rod end port and the
fluid from the blank end port returns to the tank as shown in another fig.
Cont..
Double Acting Cylinder With A Piston Rod On Both Sides

 Is a cylinder with a rod extending from both the ends

 The application involves in a process where work can be done by both the
ends of the cylinder, thereby making the cylinder more productive
 Double rod cylinder can withstand higher side loads because they have an
extra bearing on each rod to withstand the loading.
How double acting cylinder operate

Figure: Control of a double-acting cylinder with solenoid, (a) not activated, (b) activated.

 Current through one solenoid causes the piston to move in one direction with
current through the other solenoid reversing the direction of motion.
Telescopic Cylinder
A telescopic cylinder is needed when a
long stroke length and a short retracted
length are needed.
The telescopic cylinder extends in stages,
each stage consisting of a sleeve that fits
inside the previous stage
One application for this type of cylinder is
raising a dumping truck bed.
Telescopic cylinders are available both in
single acting and double acting models.
Cont..
Construction:
They generally consist a nest of tubes and operate on the displacement
principle
The tubes are supported by bearing rings, the innermost set of which have
grooves or channels to allow the fluid flow
The front bearing assembly on each section includes seals and wiper rings
Stop rings limit the movement of each section, thus preventing the separation
For a given input flow rate, the speed of operation increases in steps as each
successive section reaches the end of its stroke. Similarly, for a specific
pressure, the load shifting capacity decreases for each of the successive section
 Quiz
• Sketch control of single acting cylinder
Quiz
Give the designation for the following valve by
their ports and position