MODULE- 3: STATEMENTS, LOGIC AND SETS

 Statements, Statements with quantifiers, Compound statements,

Implications, Proofs in Mathematics.
 Basic terminologies of sets, Operations on sets, Family of sets, Power
sets, Cartesian product of sets.
1. Statements:

In mathematics, a statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or

false but not both. A statement is sometimes called a proposition. The key
is that there must be no ambiguity. To be a statement, a sentence must be
true or false, and it cannot be both.

A question such as "Is it raining?" is not a statement because it is a question

and is not declaring or asserting that something is true. It is conventional to
use lower case letters such as p, q, r, s to represent logic statements.

The truth or falsity of a proposition is defined as its truth value. The truth
value of a proposition is denoted by T, if it is a true proposition, and the
truth value of a proposition denoted by F, if it is a false proposition.
Examples : (i) Agra is in India (T)
(ii) Agra is in Andhra Pradesh (F)

Types of Statements

There are three main types of statements:

 Simple Statements

 Compound Statements

 If-Then Statements

Simple Statements

Simple statements are those which are direct and do not include any
modifier. These statements are more comfortable to solve and does not
require much reasoning. An example of a simple statement is:

a: The Sun rises in the east. In this statement, there is no modifier and thus
it can be simply concluded as true.
Compound Statement

With the help of certain connectives, we can club different statements. Such
statements made up of two or more statements are known as compound
statements. These connectives can be “and”, “or”, etc.

With the help of such statements, the concept of mathematical deduction

can be implemented very easily. For a better understanding, consider the
following example:

Statement 1: Even numbers are divisible by 2

Statement 2: 2 is also an even number

These two statements can be clubbed together as:

Compound Statement: Even numbers are divisible by 2 and 2 is also an

even number

Let us now find the statements out of the given compound statement:

Compound Statement: A triangle has three sides and the sum of interior
angles of a triangle is 180°

The Statements for this statement is:

Statement 1: A triangle has three sides.

Statement 2: The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.

These both statements related to triangles are mathematically true. These

two statements are connected using “and.”

If-Then Statements

According to mathematics, if we encounter an if-then statement i.e. ‘if a then

b’, then by proving that a is true, b can be proved to be true or if we prove
that b is false, then a is also false.
If we encounter a statement which says ‘a if and only if b’, then we can give
reason for such a statement by showing that if a is true, then b is also true
and if b is true, then a is also true.

Example:

a: 8 is multiple of 64

b: 8 is a factor of 64

Since one of the given statements i.e. a is true, therefore, a or b is true.

Negation of a Statement:

In Mathematics, the negation of a statement is the opposite of the given

mathematical statement. If “P” is a statement, then the negation of
statement P is represented by ~P. The symbols used to represent the
negation of a statement are “~” or “¬”.

For example, the given sentence is “Arjun’s dog has a black tail”. Then, the
negation of the given statement is “Arjun’s dog does not have a black tail”.
Thus, if the given statement is true, then the negation of the given statement
is false.

Write the negation for the following sentences:

1. Line a is parallel to line b.

2. Some prime numbers are odd.

3. 3+3 = 6.

4. All irrational numbers are real numbers.

5. No student is lazy.
2. Statements with quantifiers
The words "all" "some" and "none" are examples of quantifiers. A statement
containing one or more of these words is a quantified statement. Note: the
word "some" means "at least one."
EXAMPLE: According to your everyday experience, decide whether each
statement is true or false:
1. All dogs are poodles.
2. Some books have hard covers.
3. No U.S. presidents were residents of Georgia.
4. Some cats are mammals. 5. Some cats aren't mammals.

3. Compound statements
A compound statement consists of simpler statements, which are linked
together by the use of the linking words - and, or, not, and if-else.

For example,

 15 is a multiple of 3 and 5.
 21 is a multiple of 3 or 6.
 45 is not a multiple of 9.

Now, let of have a quick look at the linking words.

 And
 Also known as conjunction.
 The truth value of the compound statement is true if and only if
both of the consisting statements are true.
 It is represented by the symbol Λ

 OR
 Also known as disjunction.
 The truth value of the compound statement is true if and only if
at least either one of the consisting simple statements is true.
  It is represented by the symbol V.

 Not
 Also known as negation.
 It inverses the truth value of the statement that consists the
compound statement.
 It is represented by the symbol ~ (tilde).

 If-then
 Also known as implication.
 If the preceding statement is true, then it implies that the
following statement must also be true.
 It is represented by the symbol →.

Let's revisit our examples of compound statements.

Example 1.
15 is a multiple of 3 and 5.
This statement can be rewritten as -
1. 15 is a multiple of 3 - (True). Let's call this statement, p.
2. 15 is a multiple of 5 - (True) Let's call this statement, q.

p q pΛq
true true true
true false false
false true false
false false false

The table shows us how to find the truth value of the compound statement,
which in this case is true.
 Example 2.
15 is a multiple of 3 or 6.
This statement can be rewritten as -
1. 15 is a multiple of 3 - (True). Let's call this statement, p.
2. 15 is a multiple of 6 - (False) Let's call this statement, q.

p q pVq
true true true
true false true
false true true
false false false

The table shows us how to find the truth value of the compound statement,
which in this case is true.

Example 3.
45 is not a multiple of 9.
This simple statement that consists this compound statement is-
1. 45 is a multiple of 9 - (True). Let's call this statement, p.

p ~p
true false
false true

The table shows us how to find the truth value of the compound statement,
which in this case is false.
4. Implications
Conditional statements are also called implications. An implication is the

compound statement of the form “if p, then q.” It is denoted p⇒q, which is

read as “p implies q.” It is false only when p is true and q is false, and is true

in all other situations.

In the conditional statement p → q, p is called the hypothesis and q is called

the conclusion.

Example1 : If P denotes “I am at home” and Q denotes “It is raining.” then

P → Q denotes “If I am at home then it is raining.”

Example2 :

P: There is flood

Q: crop will be destroyed

p⇒q: If there is flood then the crop will be destroyed.

p q
true true true
true false false
false true true
false false true
5. Proofs in Mathematics.

Mathematical proof is an argument we give logically to validate a

mathematical statement. In order to validate a statement, we consider two
things: A statement and Logical operators.

A statement is either true or false but not both. Logical operators are AND,
OR, NOT, If then, and If and only if. Coupled with quantifiers like for all
and there exists. We apply operators on the statement to check the
correctness of it.

Types of mathematical proofs:

(i) Proof by cases – In this method, we evaluate every case of the
statement to conclude its truthiness.
Example: For every integer x, the integer x(x + 1) is even
Proof: If x is even, hence, x = 2k for some number k. now the statement
becomes: 2k(2k + 1)
which is divisible by 2, hence it is even.

If x is odd, hence x = 2k + 1 for some number k, now the statement

becomes:

(2k+1)(2k+1+1) = (2k + 1) 2(k + 1)

which is again divisible by 2 and hence in both cases we proved that x(x+1)
is even.

(ii) Proof by contradiction – We assume the negation of the given

statement and then proceed to conclude the proof.
Example: Prove that sqrt(2) is irrational

(iii) Direct Proof –

when we want to prove a conditional statement p implies q, we assume
that p is true, and follow implications to get to show that q is then true.
It is Mostly an application of hypothetical syllogism, [(p → r) ∧ (r → q)] → (p
→ q)]
We just have to find the propositions that lead us to q.
(iv) Theorem: If m is even and n is odd, then their sum is odd
Proof:
Since m is even, there is an integer j such that m = 2j.
Since n is odd, there is an integer k such that n = 2k+1. Then,
m+n = (2j)+(2k+1) = 2(j+k)+1
Since j+k is an integer, we see that m+n is odd.