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Water Logging and Drainage Solutions

Water logging occurs when an excess of water causes a rise in the water table, flooding the root zone of plants and reducing land productivity. It is primarily caused by inadequate drainage, over-irrigation, destruction of natural drainage paths, and excessive seepage from canals. Effects include inhibited bacterial activity, increased salinity, reduced soil temperature, delayed cultivation, and decreased crop yields. Remedial measures include lining canals, reducing irrigation intensity, optimizing water use, installing interceptor drains along canals, and implementing efficient drainage systems. Leaching is the process of removing excess salts from soil through flooding with adequate water amounts. The leaching requirement determines the percentage of irrigation water needed to meet crop water needs and le

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64 views11 pages

Water Logging and Drainage Solutions

Water logging occurs when an excess of water causes a rise in the water table, flooding the root zone of plants and reducing land productivity. It is primarily caused by inadequate drainage, over-irrigation, destruction of natural drainage paths, and excessive seepage from canals. Effects include inhibited bacterial activity, increased salinity, reduced soil temperature, delayed cultivation, and decreased crop yields. Remedial measures include lining canals, reducing irrigation intensity, optimizing water use, installing interceptor drains along canals, and implementing efficient drainage systems. Leaching is the process of removing excess salts from soil through flooding with adequate water amounts. The leaching requirement determines the percentage of irrigation water needed to meet crop water needs and le

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Water Logging, Quality of Irrigation Water

2.1 Water Logging


• It is a phenomena in which productivity of land gets affected due to rise in water table, thus leading
to the flooding of-root zoA~ of the plants r=-· . . , -~~~-J
• In this proces§, the productiVity of land is affected by rise in water table
f
I . ·"'..l ,
t .
1
· j
2.2 Causes of W~rer Loggi~g . .,,_~ L___=~.J · ···' ... ·
Main factors caus1 ~g water. log. gmg are a.s follows:--,,.,..~---~,~~1.·
(i) Inadequate surface draina1J°'e""-s: (ii) Seepage from canal system
(iii) Over irrigatiort of fields J , (iv) Obstruction of a natural drainagie
(v) Destruction ofla natural drainage ' (vi)'~fnadequate capacityfor-arteria1drainage
r .J r~~-,-,..,. ...1-="'"·· ., • .,,
2.3 Effects of Wa~er Loggfng .. , . · ' 1
(i) Inhibiting acti~ cteria (ii) ~ ~se in available capilla_ry water
1
(iii) Fall in soil temperature (iv) Rise in level of salts in the surface soil
(v) Delay in cultivation op\'Fations-.=s, rc(vib Gro~ wilGI flora Q_eadif1g to,decrease in crop yield)
'0 (! 'i, r, rr l r -,l
(vii) Adverse
II 1· - ~,
G: ~J ~...l _.

= : =--2-~ = : e i . = ll"J~ ~,!"'.i\il~-.,.,..:n·n:~


2.4 Remedial Measures Aclop'tec:I Tor ControlhngWat'er l.:ogging
(i) Lining of canal and water courses
(ii) Reducing the intensity of irrigation
(iii) Optimum use of water
(iv) Provision of intercepting drains along the canal
(v) Provision of an efficient drainage system
(vi) By applying the crop rotation method in the best way
(vii) Depleting ground water storage by pumping

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Water logging, Quality of Irrigation Water I 13

2.S Losses in Canal


• Losses in Canal comprises of evaporation from water surface and seepage through bed and sides
of the drain.
Loss due to evaporation from a canal system depends on climatic condition of the region
• Loss due to evaporation is not preventable
• However, loss due to evaporation is considered insignificant in most of the cases (it is around 1 to 50%)
Loss due to seepage depends upon various factors
Few of the factors are:
(i) Position of sub soil water table
(ii) Extent of absorbing medium
(iii) Design of canal cross section (i.e. depth of water and velocity of water in the canal)
(iv) Conditions of canal system
• Losses in can~·; r; ;;;;; ~[~~ "inflow aJd~;w
{This metho~ hss been exp/a/nee in art{~le 3.9.7.3} •. ' . . . ·. J
• Discharge mepsurement is done at il\e,beginning and enct,of.a.long.reacl:i of canal for several days
i "\..'"'"'-.........-"
continuously ~- . .. · . · •-.·~-•=·- -- . ]


(Outlets should. be ~mpl_~.t~tc~se
. d.. d
. ·u·•·r·i·n.9 ·0·b·s·.erva·tion
~eepage losf om canal occlir~r two ways: :,> .·. . . ·_.
· _ perl_
o__
d._ .) • · _-' ·

(1) Absorptrf" ·•1 '-~__;,~--~ . .·


(ii) Percolatif" , r,m,...,,...~--=;"l,.__
Absorption: When[watertable \Sconsiderably b~low the ground level; seeping water is unable to join the
water table and wets the su._bsoil locally'forming a saturated bulb. Hence, an unsaturation zone lies between this
saturated zone and zone otE,~ill~!Y.I!~isture. L..........,_ ,, , .........

Capillary zone

Zone of Saturation

Percolation: When water table is close to the ground level, the seeping water may establish a direct and
continuous flow between canal section and water. The zone between the water table and the canal bed remains
completely saturated. As there is a continuous flow, so seepage loss will depend upon the head difference
between the full supply level of canal and water table.

2.6 Leaching
Leaching is the process of removal of alkali salts dissolved in irrigation water by flooding the land
with adequate amount of water.
• This is mainly done to remove the alkali salts in the top layer of land for allowing the crops to be
grown on the land.

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14 .:...:....::...::::::..,~.:.:,:
Civil Eng ineering_____ .:.:,___
• Irrigation fflRDE Er:as~
.:,___...:,__________ -----Pubnc~u
Engineering
011,

• In order to rec laim a land , we initially g row some salt resistant crop on the le_a ched land and alter
sometime when salinity has been reduced to permi ssible extent we grow ordinary crops

:I 2.6.1 Leaching Requirement of Soll


. . Depth of Irrigation water drained out per unit area
Leaching Requirement (L R) = Depth of Irrigation water applied per unit area
= Dd
D1
• Leaching Requirement is generally expressed as the percentage of total irrigation water appfied lo
the soil to meet the consumptive use as well as the leaching needs.
• Leaching requirement is meant for maintaining the equilibrium in the salt content of the soil

Dd C; EC(,)
D; = Cd= EC(d) ...(i)

Where, r-·----Cc->... Salt cooteot of irrigation water - -~


f , Cd - "-Salt content pf drainage or leached waterJ
t t · ,
and l E c(,) = Electr.lcal co~ductivity of irrigation wateu
!. E c(d) . Electrical, coQductivity of l~ ehed water
"-=. . . . . ., ,.,. ,. . . ,. ,.,. . ___
-,.~~
: NOTE ] l (i) Salt contentis directly proportional to the electrical conductivity · .. . . . ·

00 !._

L - t~
(ii.) Gen.era.·Ily, EC of dra.ined w
.. a·.ter. o.r lea.ched water [i.e.. Eq,J
E~ valu~ of the.r sa~ ation son e'.'1_ract

The depth of irriga{ion water


!, ·.
o; to be applied consists of
1 · '-rr~~~7
.
. is as
.. s·u . to. b~ the_
.. med
:. ; + .· . . •· "

j
..

(i) Consumptive ,eguirement] De(= C0 ) L ...., ~...:..J


4
.,, .,

(ii) Leaching requirement, Dd

r~·1_· F~_1}_,=4r_ a_, c"..,+.ff?_ d';;;.Bc + lf;irB1:a t'CJ'>1:_f)


fn Li
b hJ1.HkdJ
w ... ""o.=--c-~ "' H::. !u~u < . .
r-:L_]1
-:iJ
·=

2.7
==
Land Drainage
·- =L~
1
Publications
• Land Drainage is primarily meant for allowing water in wet areas to rapidly drain away or to relieve
hydrostatic pressure
• Land Drainage is the disposal of water achieved by a variety of land drains or water courses
• Land Drainage include all rivers, streams, ditches, culverts, dykes, sluices and passages through
which water flows.
• Land drainage refers to mainly two types of drainage
(i) Surface drainage (ii) Subsurface drainage

2.7.1 SurfaceDralnage
• Surface drainage is the removal of excess rain water falling on the fields or the excess irrigation
water applied to the fields by constructing open ditches or drains, field drains and other related

1
structures.

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15
• Land is sloped towards these drain so as to make excess water flow into these drains .

Shallow Surface Drains

Leten,10
---...

[~~ ,,.r ~7
• Surface draind are mainly classified int0 two types:
. l ...-.:_ '""------~-
j'--"'-~~'"'J
(1) Shallow sprface drains .._~~--~--~-~~-,
(ii) Deep surface drains f'.. _ J
!

t '

Shallow surfabe drains ate constructed tci remove the excess irrigation water collected in the
.
depressions
r
or • S -
the fields f s well as thastorm__water- .....="""""-'•--~
1


' surface drains
from the shallow
'
i and seepage
-l
I water •-F--·,
Deep surface !drains are actually the outlet clrains Wt\ict\ carries flood water of the catchment area
- from the undergroundl tile drains.
' '
• I 1 '
t ~ -For design of both shallow as well as deep ~urface
t drainsweuseMannlng'sequation _
~
_
llir-4 N ,. w ~• • '-

~'\ - -• .._,_ , .

fn'l~.......-.,:.---~..-.-._.,A- -~-----

tf~3LYJ ~J
r-:"'.2Z.:I f'""'B Ii !"
2.7.2 Sub Surface Drain&~i ru jpj [.kU
• Sub surface dr~nag~ \;;-used wh~Jst!/:!EL~Q/j if1:l~;~en~f:u~1~yconomical spacing of the
drains. •

• Sub surface drainage system consists of a surface or sub surface main drains and laterals .

• Water is carried into the outlet by main drains, which receive water from the laterals

2.7.2.1 Under Drains or Tile Drains

• The tile drains are located at suitable depths below the ground surface above the impervious soil
(mainly clay). Stratum preventing the natural percolation of water.
• They are preferably placed in a soil of medium or high permeability.
• The tile drains permit deep roots development by lowering the water table (especially during spring
season).
• Tile drain is located at suitable depth below the ground surface and is usually covered with coarse
sand and bajri.

. fflADE EASY
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16 Civil
_ _Engineering
...:,_ _.:__• _Irrigation
_;:.,__ _ .:__ _..:.,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ mADE
Engineering ERs!::I
----PubJica11
on,
• Gravitational water at the head of the tile drain Is under pressure due to head of water above it,
• Tile drains have their outlets in natural as well as artificial channels.

2.7.2.2 Layout of TIie Drain System


Various possible layout of tile drain systems are:
(i) Natural system (Preferred in rolling topography)
(ii) Grid iron layout (Preferred in levelled terrain)
(iii) Herring bone pattern (Preferred when sub-main is laid in depression)
(iv) Double main system (Preferred when bottom of depression is wide)
(v} Intercepting tile drains (Preferred when main source of drainage is from a hilly land)

(c) Herring Bone (d) Double Main (e) Intercepting Drain

Fig.2.2

2.7.3 Design and Maintenance of Open Drain


• Open drains are useful in removing local accumulation of water efficiently.
• Layout of open drains should follow natural drainage lines.
I

J
I
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Water logging, Quality of Irrigation Water I 17

• Slope of ~ to ~ is generally used.


3 3

• The drain is designed for a capacity to carry sub soil water in addition to natural drainage of the
area.
• The design is done as per the design of irrigation canal but critical velocity is not given any
consideration .
• Depth of deep drain varies from 2 to 4 m.
• Full supply level is kept about 0.6 m below the ground level.
• Main problem of maintenance is the removal of aquatic weeds.

2.7.4 Relationship to Predict the Spacing between Tile Drains if Discharge is Unknown

Sl!rface D":inageiwater-Table __ • 7
., l I . ·•
' tI_'-'-~ --~ .:,_ ----+ J_-·
mxx . 11$X\

,
t "
. 1' .
l "-"',
a S .. -"·~:_'7. "f-b-·•_.,•.. ·
·
.. 7
. ·• _ •• ·
.
t l - -·• · ·.
1n)p.,,viaus -~
Slratum Ground Water, in a.arwne~ field
t . f . . ""-~•~-.~=7
I 1 Flg-r-3 . . ' ·. . l

The tile drain should.bakeptl about 0.3 m be/ow..tbe.le.1£el.aLwhich.thawat table be maintained at


predetermined level.
Let,

b ,;..M~l!!JUIJl h£,lg!J!;if the d£ap~fifE~t'r'&iti§1Pervious layer.


x = Any horizontal distance from t~e centre oft~e cl'ra.1n
y = Height of the drained water table above the stratum at a distance x

Assumptions

(i) Hydraulic gradient at a distance x from the drain is :

(ii) Flow lines are parallel and cross-sectional area of flow at a distance xis yx 1
(iii) Flow q towards the drain is inversely proportional to the distance from the drains.
As per Darcy's Law,
Discharge per unit length of the drain passing through the section at y,

q = KiA = K , dy , (y x 1)
dx

fflRDE EASY
Publlcatlon1
·-

18 I Civil Engineering • Irrigation Engineering


mRoe e:~s
----Pubiicar !::I
ion,

s/ 2 b at x= 0 y= a]
Jqdx = Jkydy [ x =s/2 y =b ,.. (i)
0 B

II 0 0 is the design flow per meter length of the drain

1
x= O
20 0
then, q= when,

q =O when, x = s/2
s
Hence, _ q_ = 2-x
0 0 /2 S .. ,(ii)
2
q
From the graph we can obtain equation (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we have

QoS tJ-cl
Bk 2

4k(b2 -a 2 )
s
Oa
Hence, we conclude that:
(i) Spacing of drains is independent of the size of the drain.
(ii) Q0 will depend on the infiltration discharge into the ground which should be removed by the drain.
I 2.7A.1 Drainage Coefficient

• Drainage coefficient is the rate at which water is removed by a drain.

J
I • It is dependent on the rainfall, type of soil, type of crop, degree of surface drainage etc.
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Water Logging, Quality of Irrigation Water I 19
• It is expressed as depth of water in ems or meters to be removed in 24 hours from the drainage area.
• Its recommended value is 1% of the average annual rainfall to be removed per day.

2.8 Standard of Irrigation Water


There should be some limits to the impurities presents In the water so that yield of crop is not hampered.
Various types of impurities are present in water.

(a) Sediment Concentration In water


• Very fine sediment (for e.g.: fine silt) when deposited on sandy soil Increases the fertility of soil.
• Excessive suspended sediment may create trouble in canals and reservoir.
• Sediment derived from eroded areas may reduce the fertility of soil.

(bl Concentration of Soluble Salt


• Salts of Ca2+, Mg 2+, Na+ and K+ may be injurious to crops if it exceeds the permissible limit.
• Excessive quantity of salts reduces the osmotic activities of the plants a~d may prevent adequate
aer~Uon causing injuries to plant g' wth. j

• ' ·----·-
Salinity concentration may be measured electrically or it may be computed by laboratory test.
... .... .
Salinity concentration of the salt solution after consumptive watet.has bee[) extracted from the soil is
given by ~ . l
I '-.._ C,Q I
cs = [ 0- (Gi :-Be)]____~""··-~·-=~- ____ j
Where, Q ! quantity of water applied r·~···- -· ·----,
Cu
' •
= Consumptive use of water i
-7i
Re = effective rainfall (or useful r! infall) ,j
c = Salt concentration in irrigation water'·-•--~-- ~"-•~-~~w~'-
. f

CO = Total salt applied to soil with Q amount of irrigation water.


• Salinity conce~t;~ti;';i ;;;~J;~y"'ekR~ sed i~ ii't~
!fr:-- ~!.~~~.c...,.~
bi-~91(;:_~ tl. .[j
; c:._.,,,.;...-~•~~ 1y,..7,-, •·

( l ..

Salinity concentration in irrigation'¼ater 5· 2000 ppm rs harn-ifutto almost'all crops .


• Salinity concentration oc EaleGtrical GQ~tiactiv/W U C On S b H ;rt;
• Electrical conductivity is expressed in micro-mhos per centimeter.
• EC < 250 micro-mhos/cm at 25°C Low salinity water
250 :s; EC< 750 micro-mhos/cm at 25° C Medium salinity water
750 :s; EC< 2250 micro-mhos/cm at 25° C High salinity water
EC~ 2250 micro-mhos/cm at 25° C Very high salinity water

(c) Proportion of Sodium ions to other Cations

• Proportion of sodium ions present in the soils is generally measured by a factor called Sodium
Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

• It represents the sodium hazards of water, SAR = Mg2+

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I
20 Civil Engineering • Irrigation Engineering
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l
on,
where concentration of the ions is expressed in equivalents per million (epm) or milli equivalent (
o <SAR< 10 Low sodium water (S ) rneq)
1
10 <SAR< 18 Medium sodium water (S )
2
18 <SAR< 26 High sodium water (S )
3
SAR> 26 Very high sodium water (S )
4
(d)
Concentration of Potentially Toxic elements
• Elements like boron, selenium etc. may be toxic to plants
• Boron concentration 'j> 4 ppm
• Selenium even in low concentration is toxic .
(e) Bicarbonate Concentration

. High c~ncentratio~ of bicarbonates may result in precipitation of Ca2+ and Mg 2+ ions, thus increasing the

l_~
relative proportions of Na+ ions.ind hence causes sodium hazards; = - ~

If) :7:::•=~~:::,t:-::,em.
. • . Na•] = 345 mg/I, [Ca2+] = oo-mg/1 ;-'[Mg-2+r,,: 18ll'fg/r1
Find SAR of the Jater samplK - - · · - - ------ . · _ -

Solution: I j 345 mg/I


, ,., , '"* 'M ,J
2
,...____

!•
....
~ ·1_=
' [Ca2+
J 1i =
- ___
00 :1
-20g
=3t~'
- =. , \'vU//
, :·:~.:. :;_:__-]
~ ~.' "·- - ' ,--.. _,- .·
18 mg/I
fiirW~c!J~rr=1
Ll u lH.FU \f=
., t %:TPJ-i rr=~t1
t . --...,-. ;;D -'211
5

Na" 1 1Q
_ _ ;s~A~R~ ,~
- ~'f~
~- ~ -~P~Db~aci ans
v 2 - 2

In a cultivated area, soil has porosity (n) of 45% and F.C of 38%. For a
particular crop, root zone depth is 1.0 m, the PWP is 10% and Cu is 15 mm/day. If the irrigation efficiency
is 60%. What should be the frequency of irrigation such that the moisture content does not fall below
50%ofMAM?

Solution: Given, n = 45%, F.C. = 38%, d = 1 m, PWP = 10%, Cu= 15 mm/day


Moisture content can fall to 50% of MAM,
So moisture content which plant can use is
i.e. (Readily available moisture)

RAM= ~x(0.38-0.10)=0.14
100

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I .-------------------------
Assume that soil is fully saturated
Saturation capacity = Field capacity

:. Degree of saturation, S=1


- - ------------ t
===============
...- -----
I.
Void ratio, e = _n_ = 0.818
1-n

eS = WF.cGs
tv. w.
0.818 X 1 = 0.38 X G5
Gs= 2.153

'Y = Gs"fw =11 .62kN/m3


1 1
d 1+e

Water logging is a phenomena is which productMty of land g


IrSllaunaly}
~i ,..· • table rise, leading to flooding of root zone of plants ..;::. . ....

1::=::::~~ttfj~~~
J affect
saturated and the normal growth_of the plant is adverseiy'
l circuiatton. __ . · .\-·:' ::·(>:/<\.'.f:":\,)·:·::;:t\(;:;)?.~\/ .
r • .·. Free drain~geof_~ il~ aH~~ re~~d'.~ f~~t:~ t,,
f. acoo,mul~tiOn. ·. .. . ::-1,,· · ;,i:;),"'.: \· .·,,-:t:-~::.lt'·' '.-;:
f • ,.Salts of·cal_cium,·magnesium, S?di~:'~d,po~iurrt·(
[,- ·' activity of plants, preventing the absorption of nutfien.t s~
. .. • • . ,.. . : .· . -. .. ~- .·- _..., '. . •, .• '::: •.
f• SAR i~icates r~lative iac~l)'. of sodium i~S i~ ex~ ,
t: _, An i,rigatiory w~r,~rth a, ~ig~ ~A~_will.cau~e th~,,solt to ti

(a) cm of water depth removed from the


Q.1 Alkaline soils are best reclaimed by
drainage area per day
(a) leaching
{b) cum of water removed per second
(b) addition of gypsum to soil
(c) percentage of applied water, which is
(c) providing good drainage
intercepted by this drain
(d) addition of gypsum to soil and leaching
(d) None of the above
Q .2 A tile drain is laid below a cropped land to remove 0.3 The method, which uses dead furrows on
excess irrigation water, The drainage coefficient cropped farms for drainage of excess irrigation
of this drain, is usually expressed as or rain water, is called

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fflADE El:ISt..
22 Civil Engineering • Irrigatio n Engineering
- - - - Publfca110'"'
n,

(a) surface inlet (b) tile drainage (c) high salinity water
(c) bedding (d) trench drain (d) very high salinity water

l Q.4 Value of Sodium adsorption Ratio for high sodium


water lies between
(a) 0 to 10
(c) 18to 26
(b) 10to18
(d) 26to34
Q.7 Assertion (A) : Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR).
used in the classi fication of irrigation waters.
Reason (R) : SAR indicates the relative activity
of th e sodium ions In exchange reactions With
18

Q.5 Irrigation water having concentration of Na+, Ca++ the solid .


and Mg++ as 20, 3 and 1 milliequivalent per litre, (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
respectively will be classified as explanation of A
(a) low sodium (b) Both A and R true but R is not a correct
(b) medium sodium water explanation of A
(c) high sodium water (c) A is true but R is false
(d) very high sodium water (d) A is false but R is true

0.6 If electrical conductivity of water is in between


250 to 750 micro mho's/cm at 25°C~ hen its
At¥swps1,:ff a
classified as 1. (d) 2. (a) 3_ (c) 4. (c) 5. (b)
(a) low salinity water
6. (b) 7. (a)

-
(b) medium salinity water

.......;,
nvE!ntiq
Q .1 What are the causes of waterlogging? How can a waterlogged land be made useful for cultivation?

Q.2 (a) Discuss critically the statement: "intensive irrigation leads to reduced crop yields".
(b) What are "tile drains" and how do they help in preventing waterlogging? How will you decide the depth
and spacing of tile drains?

Q.3 What is meant by "Drainage Coefficient" and-how does iU)elp In determiring the sizes of tile drains to be

Q.4
laid for preventing water logging of irriga?ed farms? •
. I
Discuss in brief the function of irrigation water. What-are the standards o.f irrigation water?

••••

,
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