Lecture 2: Knowledge

Representation – Part 2 (Logic)

KT24202 Artificial Intelligence

Faculty of Computing & Informatics,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah

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 Content
• Logical Knowledge Representation
• Propositional Logic
• First Order Predicate Logic

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Logical Knowledge Representation
Oldest form of KR
in computer

Concerned with
truthfulness

Propositional Predicate Calculus /

2 kinds of logic:
Logic FOPL

Manipulate
BICONDITIO
Boolean AND OR NOT IMPLIES
NAL
operators

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Logical Knowledge Representation
• Using propositional Logic & First Order Logic.
• Logic make statements about the world which
are true or false.
• Logic is defined by:
o Syntax (possible configurations of sentences)
o Semantics (interpretation)
o Proof theory (entailment to derive new fact)

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 Propositional Logic (PL)
• PL (or propositional calculus) - is a branch of
mathematical logic that studies the logical
relationships between propositions, or
statements that are either true or false.
• PL - uses symbols to represent propositions
and logical connectives to link propositions
together to form compound propositions.

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 Propositional Logic (PL)
• Compound proposition is made up of
operators and >1 elementary
propositions
• Boolean operators
– AND (ꓥ), OR (ꓦ), NOT(¬), BICONDITIONAL (),
IMPLIES(→)

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 Intro to Propositional Logic
it_is_raining
elementary (P)
proposition

E.g.

kitty_gets_wet kitty_is_outside
(Q) (R)

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 Propositional logic
• Logical constants: true, false
• Propositional symbols: P, Q, S, ...
• Wrapping parentheses: ( … )
• Sentences are combined by connectives:
 ...and
 ...or
...implies
..is equivalent
 ...not

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 Propositional logic (PL)
• A simple language useful for showing key
ideas and definitions
• User defines a set of propositional
symbols, like P and Q.
• User defines the semantics of each of
these symbols, e.g.:
– P means "It is hot"
– Q means "It is humid"
– R means "It is raining"
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 Operator and Symbol for PL


General Name Formal Name Symbol
Not Negation
And Conjunction

Or Disjunction

If…
Then/Implies
Conditional

If and only if Biconditional 
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 Examples of PL sentences
• (P ^ Q) => R : “If it is hot and humid,
then it is raining”
• Q => P : “If it is humid, then it is hot”
• Q : “It is humid.”

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 Operator and Symbol
• The use of bracket “(…)” will affect the
meaning of the whole PL representation
• Example:
(A ^ B) v C
A ^ (B v C)
• Shows the boundary of each operator

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 Operators and PL
• The most important operator will be
selected as the principal operator.
(A ^ B)  (C v D)

• The principal operator is used to break a

compound proposition into smaller units.

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 Example
Word Representation
Today is hot h
I feel dehydrate d
I need to drink water w

i) Today is hot and I feel dehydrated then I need to

drink water. [ hd  w]
ii) Today is not hot and I don’t feel dehydrated then I
do not need to drink water. [ h  d w]
iii) Today is not hot but I feel dehydrated then I need
to drink water. [ h  d w ]
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 More examples
• Normal: The sky is blue and windy. It is really great
for picnic
– PL: sky_blue  windy  great_for_picnic
• Normal: If the weather is cloudy, then it will be
raining. If it is raining, people will stay at home.
– PL: (weather_cloudy  raining)  (raining 
people_stay_home).
• Normal: I will rather stay if and only if it is raining.
– PL: i_will_stay  raining

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Propositional Logic and Truth Table
• PL truth can be determined with a truth table using the
following:
• Tautology (Valid)
– Sentence that is True under all interpretations
– E.g. (P(PQ))Q
• Contingent (Satisfiable)
– Sentence is sometimes T sometimes F
– E.g. (AB)C
• Inconsistent (Unsatisfiable)
– Formula is always F
– E.g. P(P)

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 Truth table – proving PL
• Example: the truth value of a statement
written in PL.
P Q P PQ PQ PQ PQ
T T F T T T T
T F F F T F F

F T T F T T F

F F T F F T T

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 Limitation of PL
• Consider the following statement:
– “If Comel is meowing, then Comel is a cat. Comel is
meowing, therefore Comel is a cat”
– PL: ((comel_meowing → comel_isa_cat) Ʌ
comel_meowing) → comel_isa_cat
• How about this: is any_meowing or any_isa_cat refer
to “comel”?
– “Any that meowing is a cat”
– PL: ((any_meowing → any_isa_cat) Ʌ comel_meowing) →
comel_isa_cat

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Propositional Logic Limitation
1. Cannot express universality of objects

• E.g.
• “all computers have processor”
• “all birds flly”

E.g. “all birds fly”

• parrot_flies  canary_flies 
backyard_bird_flies  ………..
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Propositional Logic Limitation
2. Cannot express existence / inexistence / partial
quantity of objects
• E.g.
• “some UMS students are international
students”
• “none of us is immortal”

E.g. “some UMS students are international

students”
• jaafaru_international_student 
afiq_international student  ……
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Propositional Logic Limitation

Solution

Use predicate calculus / First –Order

Predicate Logic (FOPL)
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 Predicate Calculus

First Order Predicate Logic (FOPL).

Overcomes PL limitations through quantifiers

and variables
Universal quantifier,  Existential quantifier, 
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 Predicate
Notation / logic statement that consists
of:
Argument
• predicate name
• describe / relates the • variable (A, Y, Man etc)
arguments • constant (a, y, man etc)

Functor

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 Structure of Predicate

• functor(argument1, argument2,
…, argumentN)

Structure

Describing:
name of relation / adjective / verb / possession
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Relationship becomes functor

“she likes chocolate”

Objects becomes arguments

likes(she,chocolate)
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 Variations of predicates
• likes(she, chocolate)
• teaches(X, Y)
• likes(X, chocolate)
• likes(she, What)
• teaches(bob, Course)
• teaches(Who, comp1013)
• teaches(bob, _)
• teaches(X, comp1013, monday)
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 Quantifier


Expression true
for ALL values of X X (bird(X) 
‘for all’
designated likes(X,icecream) flies(X))
variables

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 Quantifier


X
‘there Expression true
X (bird(X) 
exist’. for SOME
values of likes(X,icecream) flies(X))
designated
variables

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 More examples
• E.g. 1:
– Normal: If it doesn’t rain today, Ahmad will go to the
beach
– FOPL: “rain(today) go(ahmad, beach)”
• E.g. 2:
– Normal: All volleyball players are tall
– FOPL: “X (volleyball_player (X)  tall (X))”
• E.g. 3:
– Normal: Some people like durian.
– FOPL: “X (person(X)  likes(X, durian))”
• E.g. 4:
– Normal: Nobody likes war
– FOPL: “ X  likes (X, war)” OR “X likes(X,war)” 29
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Practice converting English to first-
order logic
• “John has an umbrella”
–  y (Has(John, y)  IsUmbrella(y))
• “Anything that has an umbrella is not wet”
–  x  y Has(x, y)  IsUmbrella(y) => IsWet(x)
• “Any person who has an umbrella is not wet”
–  x IsPerson(x) => ( y Has(x, y)  IsUmbrella(y) =>
IsWet(x))

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Practice converting English to first-
order logic
• “John has at least two umbrellas”
–  x, y Has(John, x)  IsUmbrella(x) 
Has(John, y)  IsUmbrella(y)  (x=y)

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 Proving FOPL
• Truth table can be used only for short
sentence and impractical for complex
sentence.
• FOPL proving – using deduction or
resolution
• (Next chapter…)

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 Summary
• Propositional logic and FOPL are two popular knowledge
representation techniques used in artificial intelligence.
• PL is suitable for representing simple and static knowledge,
while FOPL is suitable for representing complex and dynamic
knowledge.
• FOPL provides more expressive power than propositional
logic and allows for the representation of variables,
quantifiers, and functions.
• Both propositional logic and FOPL allow for the use of
inference rules to derive new knowledge from existing
knowledge.

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