Aircraft Performance

Lecture 5:
Performance Curves in terms of Thrust and Power

2023
Aircraft Performance
Level, Unaccelerated
Flight
 Thrust Required
• Consider an airplane in steady, level ight at a given altitude
and a given velocity

• For ight at this velocity, the airplane’s power plant (such as a

turbojet engine or reciprocating engine–propeller combination)
must produce a net thrust equal to the drag
T =D
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L=W
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• How much is this required thrust?

fl
fl
Thrust Required
T varies with velocity

1 2
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T = D = ⇢V1 SCD
2 • TR is the thrust required to y at a
given velocity in a level,
1 2
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L = W = ⇢V1 SCL unaccelerated ight

2
• Notice that minimum TR is when
airplane is at maximum L/D

• L/D is an important aero-

T CD performance quantity
=
W CL

W W
TR = =
CL /CD L/D
fl
fl
 Lift to Drag ratio vs. Angle of Attack
• The lift-to-drag ratio L/D is a
measure of the aerodynamic
e ciency of an airplane; it makes
sense that maximum
aerodynamic e ciency should
lead to minimum thrust
required.

• Consequently, the lift-to-drag

ratio is an important aerodynamic
consideration in airplane design.

• For most conventional subsonic

airplanes, L/D reaches a
maximum at some speci c value
of α, usually on the order of 2° to
5°.
ffi
ffi
fi
Thrust Required Curve
• Thrust-required TR for a given airplane at a given altitude varies
with velocity V∞

• General shape of a thrust curve vs. velocity is illustrated here

Calculate Required Thrust
1. Select a ight speed, V1
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2. Calculate the lift coe cient

W
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CL = 1 2
2 ⇢V1 S

3. Calculate the drag coe cient from

the known drag polar for the airplane

CL2
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CD = CD,0 +
⇡eAR
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4. Calculate CL /CD

5. Calculate required thrust TR

W W
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TR = =
CL /CD L/D
fl
ffi
ffi
 Thrust Required vs. Angle of Attack
• Di erent points on TR curve correspond to di erent angles of
attack
ff
ff
Thrust Required vs. Flight Velocity
 Thrust Required vs. Flight Velocity
W2
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TR = q1 SCD,0 +
q1 S⇡eAR
dTR dTR dV1
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=
dq1 dV1 dq1

W2
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dTR
= SCD,0 2
=0
dq1 q1 S⇡eAR

CL2
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CD,0 = = CD,i
⇡eAR

CD,0 = CD,i at minimum TR and maximum L/D

Zero-Lift Drag = Induced Drag at minimum TR and maximum L/D
 Example Problem
Example 6.1
a. A light, single-engine, propeller-driven, private airplane, approximately modeled after the Cessna T-41A shown in Fig.
6.10. For convenience, we will designate our hypothetical airplane as the CP-1, having the following characteristics:
Wingspan = 35.8 ft
Wing area = 174 ft2
Normal gross weight = 2950 lb
Fuel capacity: 65 gal of aviation gasoline
Power plant: one-piston engine of 230 hp at sea level
Speci c fuel consumption = 0.45 lb/(hp)(h)
Parasite drag coef cient CD,0 = 0.025
Oswald ef ciency factor e = 0.8
Propeller ef ciency = 0.8
b. A jet-powered executive aircraft, approximately modeled after the Cessna Citation X, shown in Fig. 6.11. For
convenience, we will designate our hypothetical jet as the CJ-1, having the following characteristics:
Wingspan = 53.3 ft
Wing area = 318 ft2
Normal gross weight = 19,815 lb
Fuel capacity: 1119 gal of kerosene
Power plant: two turbofan engines of 3650 lb thrust each at sea level
Speci c fuel consumption = 0.6 lb of fuel/(lb thrust)(h)
Parasite drag coef cient CD,0 = 0.02
Oswald ef ciency factor e = 0.81
By the end of this chapter, all the examples taken together will represent a basic performance analysis of these two aircraft.
In this example, only the thrust required is considered. Calculate the TR curves at sea level for both the CP-1 and the
CJ-1.
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
How fast can you fly?
• Maximum ight speed occurs when maximum thrust available,
TA, max = TR
• Reduced throttle settings, TR < TA, max
• Cannot physically achieve more thrust than TA, max which engine can
provide

• TR dependent on airframe
• TA dependent on engine
fl
Design: Maximum Velocity
Design: Maximum Velocity
Airplane Power Plants
Thrust vs. Power
Power Available
Power Required
Power Required
• Power required, by de nition:
W
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PR = T R V 1 = V1
CL /CD

• Level, unaccelerated ight:

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s
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1 2 2W
L=W = 2 ⇢V 1 SCL ⇨ V1 =
⇢1 SCL

• Substitute into power required formula:

<latexit sha1_base64="bzlbm89YIyRwS8ocjVYd9ig3WAo=">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</latexit>

s s
2
2W 3 CD
W 2W
PR = =
CL /CD ⇢1 SCL ⇢1 SCL3

1
<latexit sha1_base64="pxXidRQZatUv/BNZGal7BqtWPGo=">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</latexit>

PR / 3/2
CL /CD
fl
fi
Power Required
Power Required
Power Required
Power Available and Maximum Velocity
Power Available and Maximum Velocity
 Altitude Effect
Flight Velocity and Power Required
Sea Level Altitude
<latexit sha1_base64="yRTTilUk1QI5qaJgdDemUcpuFbc=">AAACDXicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEs3g1VwVZJS1I1S6MaFi4r2AU0Ik+mkHTrJxJmJUEJ+wI2/4saFIm7du/NvnLZZaOuBC4dz7uXee/yYUaks69soLC2vrK4V10sbm1vbO+buXlvyRGDSwpxx0fWRJIxGpKWoYqQbC4JCn5GOP2pM/M4DEZLy6E6NY+KGaBDRgGKktOSZR23PghfQkfdCpU4gEE6rnSx1xJBr4xY2vOss88yyVbGmgIvEzkkZ5Gh65pfT5zgJSaQwQ1L2bCtWboqEopiRrOQkksQIj9CA9DSNUEikm06/yeCxVvow4EJXpOBU/T2RolDKcejrzhCpoZz3JuJ/Xi9Rwbmb0ihOFInwbFGQMKg4nEQD+1QQrNhYE4QF1bdCPEQ6EqUDLOkQ7PmXF0m7WrFPK7WbWrl+mcdRBAfgEJwAG5yBOrgCTdACGDyCZ/AK3own48V4Nz5mrQUjn9kHf2B8/gDDX5q+</latexit>

s s <latexit sha1_base64="nkoBqOvrFQU1WxH/wtXSpsmh7Ts=">AAACFHicbVC7SgNBFJ31GeNr1dJmMAiCEHZDUBslkMbCIqJ5QDYss5PZZMjsw5m7Ylj2I2z8FRsLRWwt7PwbJ49CEw9cOJxzL/fe48WCK7Csb2NhcWl5ZTW3ll/f2NzaNnd2GypKJGV1GolItjyimOAhqwMHwVqxZCTwBGt6g+rIb94zqXgU3sIwZp2A9ELuc0pAS6553HAdYA+QEgEZPseOupOQOr4kNC01s9SR/Qjf4Kp7lWWuWbCK1hh4nthTUkBT1Fzzy+lGNAlYCFQQpdq2FUMnJRI4FSzLO4liMaED0mNtTUMSMNVJx09l+FArXexHUlcIeKz+nkhJoNQw8HRnQKCvZr2R+J/XTsA/66Q8jBNgIZ0s8hOBIcKjhHCXS0ZBDDUhVHJ9K6Z9ogMBnWNeh2DPvjxPGqWifVIsX5cLlYtpHDm0jw7QEbLRKaqgS1RDdUTRI3pGr+jNeDJejHfjY9K6YExn9tAfGJ8/wk+enw==</latexit>

2W 2W
V0 = Valt =
⇢0 SCL ⇢SCL
s s
<latexit sha1_base64="QhzT4iRnEwdCLDPN7XZSZSc9YH4=">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</latexit>

2
<latexit sha1_base64="2s/QRi/p92W73xEzsGHp9uOr8Bs=">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</latexit>

2W 3 CD2 2W 3 CD
PR,0 = PR,alt =
⇢0 SCL3 ⇢SCL3

<latexit sha1_base64="9Iv8zGYiXt87Ywyn3rZI/FQgzGM=">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</latexit>

✓ ◆1/2
⇢0
Valt = V0 CL is xed between SL
⇢ and altitude, strictly for
<latexit sha1_base64="e8BL0/F0D6OisOBsh3TWgPmcF9I=">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</latexit>

✓ ◆1/2
⇢0 the purpose of
PR,alt = PR,0 calculation
⇢
fi
Altitude Effect
On Power Required
<latexit sha1_base64="9Iv8zGYiXt87Ywyn3rZI/FQgzGM=">AAACInicbVDLSgNBEJz1bXxFPXoZDEK8xF0RHwcl4MVjBJMI2bjMTnqTwdkHM71iWPZbvPgrXjwo6knwY5zEHDSxoOmiqpuZLj+RQqNtf1pT0zOzc/MLi4Wl5ZXVteL6RkPHqeJQ57GM1bXPNEgRQR0FSrhOFLDQl9D0b88HfvMOlBZxdIX9BNoh60YiEJyhkbziScNzEe4xYxJzekobnk1dCQGW3UAxnrmqF3t2Puy5q0S3h7s3mbO3n3vFkl2xh6CTxBmREhmh5hXf3U7M0xAi5JJp3XLsBNsZUyi4hLzgphoSxm9ZF1qGRiwE3c6GJ+Z0xygdGsTKVIR0qP7eyFiodT/0zWTIsKfHvYH4n9dKMThuZyJKUoSI/zwUpJJiTAd50Y5QwFH2DWFcCfNXynvMRIMm1YIJwRk/eZI09ivOYeXg8qBUPRvFsUC2yDYpE4cckSq5IDVSJ5w8kCfyQl6tR+vZerM+fkanrNHOJvkD6+sbA5Sj9g==</latexit>

✓ ◆1/2
⇢0
Valt = V0
⇢
<latexit sha1_base64="e8BL0/F0D6OisOBsh3TWgPmcF9I=">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</latexit>

✓ ◆1/2
⇢0
PR,alt = PR,0
⇢
Altitude Effect
On Power Available

Propeller-Driven Airplane

The lower air density at

altitude causes a
reduction in power for
both reciprocating and jet
engines.
Altitude Effect
On Power Available

Jet-Propelled Airplane
Example Problems

• Example 6.2 (p. 460): maximum velocity, by thrust available

• Example 6.3 (p.465): plot power required curve
• Example 6.4 (p.468): maximum velocity, by power available
• Example 6.5 (p. 474): compare maximum velocity at sea level
and 22,000 ft
Rate of Climb
• So far, we have studied level, unaccelerated ight.
• Example: Boeing 777, Lift-O Speed ~ 180 MPH
• How fast can it climb to a cruising altitude of 30,000 ft?
ff
fl
 Rate of Climb
Governing Equations
T = D + W sin ✓
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L = W cos ✓
<latexit sha1_base64="otWIHbAT00QABO0x9yh6lmelczw=">AAAB+nicbVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/Uj16WSyCp5JIUS9KwYsHDxXsBzShbLabdukmG3YnSon9KV48KOLVX+LNf+O2zUFbHww83pthZl6QCK7Bcb6twsrq2vpGcbO0tb2zu2eX91tapoqyJpVCqk5ANBM8Zk3gIFgnUYxEgWDtYHQ99dsPTGku43sYJ8yPyCDmIacEjNSzy7f4ErexR6XGHgwZkJ5dcarODHiZuDmpoByNnv3l9SVNIxYDFUTrrusk4GdEAaeCTUpeqllC6IgMWNfQmERM+9ns9Ak+Nkofh1KZigHP1N8TGYm0HkeB6YwIDPWiNxX/87ophBd+xuMkBRbT+aIwFRgknuaA+1wxCmJsCKGKm1sxHRJFKJi0SiYEd/HlZdI6rbpn1dpdrVK/yuMookN0hE6Qi85RHd2gBmoiih7RM3pFb9aT9WK9Wx/z1oKVzxygP7A+fwBhs5LN</latexit>

T V1 = DV1 + W V1 sin ✓
<latexit sha1_base64="v8GRtfYKIwRFmWtpQQVghDcaA8g=">AAACF3icbZDLSsNAFIYnXmu9RV26GSyCIJREirpRCrpwWaE3aEKZTCft0MkkzJwIofQt3Pgqblwo4lZ3vo3TC15afxj4+M85nDl/kAiuwXE+rYXFpeWV1dxafn1jc2vb3tmt6zhVlNVoLGLVDIhmgktWAw6CNRPFSBQI1gj6V6N6444pzWNZhSxhfkS6koecEjBW2y5Wcb3tcRlChi/w9TcfN358T3OJPegxIG274BSdsfA8uFMooKkqbfvD68Q0jZgEKojWLddJwB8QBZwKNsx7qWYJoX3SZS2DkkRM+4PxXUN8aJwODmNlngQ8dn9PDEikdRYFpjMi0NOztZH5X62VQnjuD7hMUmCSThaFqcAQ41FIuMMVoyAyA4Qqbv6KaY8oQsFEmTchuLMnz0P9pOieFku3pUL5chpHDu2jA3SEXHSGyugGVVANUXSPHtEzerEerCfr1XqbtC5Y05k99EfW+xfPLZ58</latexit>

T V1 DV1
<latexit sha1_base64="e7/snGa582NJ0EnaOzJeYk3OWJY=">AAACIHicbZDLSgMxFIYz9VbrbdSlm2AR3FhmpFg3SkEXLiv0Bp1SMmmmDc1khuSMUIY+ihtfxY0LRXSnT2N6EbX1QODj/8/h5Px+LLgGx/mwMkvLK6tr2fXcxubW9o69u1fXUaIoq9FIRKrpE80El6wGHARrxoqR0Bes4Q+uxn7jjinNI1mFYczaIelJHnBKwEgdu+QFitC0iusdj8sAhvgEX3/zKG2M8MWP5WkusQd9BqRj552CMym8CO4M8mhWlY797nUjmoRMAhVE65brxNBOiQJOBRvlvESzmNAB6bGWQUlCptvp5MARPjJKFweRMk8Cnqi/J1ISaj0MfdMZEujreW8s/ue1EgjO2ymXcQJM0umiIBEYIjxOC3e5YhTE0AChipu/YtonJjEwmeZMCO78yYtQPy24Z4XibTFfvpzFkUUH6BAdIxeVUBndoAqqIYru0SN6Ri/Wg/VkvVpv09aMNZvZR3/K+vwCx5GiwA==</latexit>

= V1 sin ✓ <latexit sha1_base64="+wyrrKubI4jqkSuzMqqstWoEh8A=">AAAB/3icbZDLSsNAFIZP6q3WW1Vw42awCG4siRR1JQVduKzQG7QhTKaTduhkEmYmQohd+CpuXCji1tdw59s4vQja+sPAx3/O4Zz5/ZgzpW37y8otLa+sruXXCxubW9s7xd29pooSSWiDRDySbR8rypmgDc00p+1YUhz6nLb84fW43rqnUrFI1HUaUzfEfcECRrA2llc8qKOm12Ui0Ck6RTc/7BVLdtmeCC2CM4MSzFTzip/dXkSSkApNOFaq49ixdjMsNSOcjgrdRNEYkyHu045BgUOq3Gxy/wgdG6eHgkiaJzSauL8nMhwqlYa+6QyxHqj52tj8r9ZJdHDpZkzEiaaCTBcFCUc6QuMwUI9JSjRPDWAimbkVkQGWmGgTWcGE4Mx/eRGaZ2XnvFy5q5SqV7M48nAIR3ACDlxAFW6hBg0g8ABP8AKv1qP1bL1Z79PWnDWb2Yc/sj6+AYZslSc=</latexit>

T V1 DV1 is excess power

W
Power Available
Vertical velocity
Rate of Climb: R/C = V1 sin ✓
<latexit sha1_base64="dA+XvAoP/c9R500utRatf13+uHY=">AAACCnicbVA9SwNBEN3zM8avU0ub1SBYxTsJaqMINpYqJgq5I+xt5pIle3vH7pwYjtQ2/hUbC0Vs/QV2/hs3MYVfDwYe780wMy/KpDDoeR/OxOTU9Mxsaa48v7C4tOyurDZMmmsOdZ7KVF9HzIAUCuooUMJ1poElkYSrqHcy9K9uQBuRqkvsZxAmrKNELDhDK7XcjQDhFouLnZMBPaSNViBUjH0aGKFogF1A1nIrXtUbgf4l/phUyBhnLfc9aKc8T0Ahl8yYpu9lGBZMo+ASBuUgN5Ax3mMdaFqqWAImLEavDOiWVdo0TrUthXSkfp8oWGJMP4lsZ8Kwa357Q/E/r5ljfBAWQmU5guJfi+JcUkzpMBfaFho4yr4ljGthb6W8yzTjaNMr2xD83y//JY3dqr9XrZ3XKsdH4zhKZJ1skm3ik31yTE7JGakTTu7IA3kiz8698+i8OK9frRPOeGaN/IDz9gkdtZnn</latexit>

Power Required,
if is small enough: neglect W
𝜃
Rate of Climb

This is just an approximation, valid for small θ, θ < 20o

Example Problem
Ex. 6.10, p. 485, Anderson’s

Problem: Calculate the rate of climb versus velocity at sea level for (a)
the CP-1 and (b) the CJ-1.

Solution:

excess power PA − PR
R/C = =
W W

CP-1 CJ-1
Example Problem
Ex. 6.10, p. 485, Anderson’s

Problem: Calculate the rate of climb versus velocity at sea level for
(a) the CP-1 and (b) the CJ-1.
 Time to Climb
h2
dh dh
∫h
dt = t=
R/C 1
R/C

• Normally time to climb is considered from sea level, where h1 = 0. Hence

the time to climb to any given altitude h2 is:
h2
dh
∫0 R/C
t=

• The time for an airplane to climb to a given altitude can become an

important design consideration.

a ghter airplane must be able to climb from sea level to the altitude of
advancing enemy aircraft in as short a time as possible

a commercial aircraft must be able to rapidly climb to high altitudes to

minimize the discomfort and risks of inclement weather and to
minimize air tra c problems
fi
ffi
Time to Climb
• To calculate t graphically, rst plot (R/C)−1 versus h

• The area under the curve from h = 0 to h = h2 is the time to

climb to altitude h2
fi
How high can you fly?
• We have examined the e ects of altitude on PR and PA
• Consider a propeller-driven airplane, as altitude increases, the
maximum excess power decreases

• Result: maximum R/C decreases

ff
 Absolute ceiling
• At some altitude high enough, the PA curve becomes tangent to
the PR curve

• The velocity at this point is the only value at which steady, level
ight is possible

• There is zero excess power, and hence zero maximum rate of

climb, at this point ⇨ absolute ceiling of the airplane
fl
 Service Ceiling
• Service ceiling is de ned as the altitude
where maximum R/C = 100 ft/min.

• The service ceiling represents the

practical upper limit of steady, level
ight.

• Steps to determine absolute and

service ceiling:

Calculate values of maximum R/C for

a number of di erent altitudes.

Plot maximum rate of climb versus

altitude

Extrapolate the curve to 100 ft/min

and 0 ft/min to nd the service and
absolute ceilings, respectively
fl
ff
fi
fi
Gliding Flight
Example: High Aspect Ratio Glider
Example
Ex. 6.12, 6.13, 6.14, p. 490, Anderson’s

Problem:

The maximum lift-to-drag ratio for the CP-1 is 13.6. Calculate the
minimum glide angle and the maximum range measured along the
ground covered by the CP-1 in a power-o glide that starts at an
altitude of 10,000 ft.

Repeat for the CJ-1, for which the value of (L/D)max is 16.9.

For the CP-1, calculate the equilibrium glide velocities at altitudes

of 10,000 and 2000 ft, each corresponding to the minimum glide
angle.
ff
Range and Endurance
Range and Endurance
Range and Endurance
Propeller-driven
Range and Endurance
Propeller-driven

mile
Range and Endurance
Propeller-driven quantitative formulation
The di erential change in weight of the fuel due to consumption
over the short time period dt:

dWf = dW = − (SFC)Pdt
ds
dW V∞dW
then dt = − and V∞dt = −
(SFC)P (SFC)P
Endurance: Range:
E W0 R W0
dW V∞dW
∫0 ∫W ∫0 ∫W
E= dt = R= ds =
1
(SFC)P 1
(SFC)P

W: Gross weight of the airplane; Wf: Fuel weight; W1: weight of the airplane without fuel
ff
Range Breguet Formula
Propeller-driven

• For propeller-driven airplane, power available is dependent on

the propeller e ciency:

PA = ηP, where P is the brake power output of the engine

• For level, unaccelerated ight, the pilot will adjust the throttle so
that the power available is just equal to the power required, thus:
DV∞
P=
η
• The range formula becomes:
W0 W0
V∞ηdW η L dW
∫W (SFC)DV∞ ∫W1 SFC D W
R= =
1
ffi
fl
Range Breguet Formula
Propeller-driven

SFC CD ( Wfinal )
η CL Winitial
R= ln

To maximize range for a reciprocating-engine, propeller-driven

airplane:

• The largest possible propeller e ciency η

• The lowest possible SFC.

• The highest ratio of Winitial /Wfinal, which is obtained with the

largest fuel weight Wf

• Most importantly, ight at (L/D)max

fl
ffi
Range Breguet Formula
Propeller-driven
Endurance Breguet Formula
Propeller-driven

• Similar to the range formula, the endurance formula for level,

unaccelerated ight:
W0 W0
ηdW η L dW
∫W (SFC)DV∞ ∫W1 SFC DV∞ W
E= =
1

• For level, unaccelerated ight, we also have:

2W
V∞ =
ρ∞SCL
• The endurance formula becomes:
W0
η CL ρ∞SCL dW
∫W
E=
SFC CD 2W W
1
fl
fl
 Endurance Breguet Formula
Propeller-driven
η CL3/2
(2ρ∞S) (Wfinal − Winitial)
1/2 −1/2 −1/2
E=
SFC CD

To maximize endurance for a reciprocating-engine, propeller-driven airplane:

• The largest possible propeller e ciency η

• The lowest possible SFC.

• The highest fuel weight Wf

• Flight at (CL3/2 /CD)max

• Flight at sea-level, (ρ∞)max

Endurance depends on altitude, whereas range is independent of altitude
ffi
Range and Endurance
Jet-powered
Range and Endurance
Jet-powered

mile
Range and Endurance
Jet-powered quantitative formulation
The di erential change in weight of the fuel due to consumption
over the short time period dt:

dWf = dW = − (TSFC)TAdt
ds
dW V∞dW
then dt = − and V∞dt = −
(TSFC)TA (TSFC)TA
Endurance: Range:
E W0 R W0
dW V∞dW
∫0 ∫W ∫0 ∫W
E= dt = R= ds =
1
(TSFC)TA 1
(TSFC)TA

W: Gross weight of the airplane; Wf: Fuel weight; W1: weight of the airplane without fuel
ff
Range Breguet Formula
Jet-powered

• For level, unaccelerated ight, the pilot will adjust the throttle so that
the thrust available is just equal to the thrust required, thus:
W
TA = TR =
CL /CD
• For level, unaccelerated ight, we also have:
2W
V∞ =
ρ∞SCL
• The range formula becomes:
W0
2W 1 CL dW
∫W
R=
1
ρ∞SCL (TSFC) CD W
fl
fl
Range Breguet Formula
Jet-powered
1/2
2 1 C
ρ∞S TSFC CD ( initial final)
L 1/2 1/2
R=2 W − W

To maximize range for a jet airplane:

• The lowest possible TSFC.

• The largest fuel weight Wf

• Flight at (CL1/2 /CD)max

• Flight at high altitude, that is low ρ∞. Note that at extremely high
altitudes ordinary turbojet performance deteriorates and TSFC begins to
increase.
Typical cruising altitudes for subsonic commercial jet transports are from 30,000 to 40,000
ft; for supersonic transports they are from 50,000 to 60,000 ft.
Endurance Breguet Formula
Jet-powered

• Similar to the range formulation, for level, unaccelerated ight:

W
TA = TR =
CL /CD
• The range formula becomes:
W0
1 CL dW
∫W
E=
TSFC CD W
1

fl
Endurance Breguet Formula
Jet-powered

TSFC CD ( Wfinal )
1 CL Winitial
E= ln

To maximize endurance for a jet airplane:

• The lowest possible SFC.

• The largest fuel weight Wf

• Flight at (L/D)max
• Note that endurance is independent of altitude
Summary
Range and Endurance

maximum