WEEK 1 Learning about one's self, culture, and society

STARTING POINTS FOR THE entails knowledge about various identities and how
UNDERSTANDING OF CULTURE, SOCIETY, these shape peoples' views and behavior.
AND POLITICS Reflecting on this enables a person to appreciate
Welcome to the study of culture, society, and what makes him or her similar to and different from
politics. As you move forward in the discussions, other people.
you will begin to understand that your daily
experiences are connected with the realities and One of the food taboos among Muslims, for
phenomena that define our society. The events instance, is the eating of pork. A keen sense of
that have defined your lives up to the present are a other people or group's identities enables a person
product of the processes and interactions within to understand this aspect of Muslim culture, and
our society. Social, cultural, and political issues go not regard Muslims as “weird" for observing this
beyond the news and classroom discussions. As practice. Another case in point is neighborhood
you learn the concepts, theories, and views that “istambays”. They are usually regarded as unruly
shaped and defined how we view and examine the and are often suspected of theft and other
various aspects of Philippine culture, society, and misdemeanors.
politics, you will realize that these topics have been
closely intertwined with our experiences. However, many of them are people who have
Do you see the possibility of your identities difficulty in finding jobs because of inadequate
changing in the future? employment opportunities in the Philippines. If
If you were to ask your classmates to describe you, there are enough factories or offices to hire them,
do you think they would write the same things as they would not want to be “istambays” forever. A
those in your personal list? How about your closest holistic knowledge and understanding of the
friends or barkada? If you were to ask your family characteristics and overall identities of one's self,
members to list down the traits which they think of other people, and of different groups in society
best describe you, would they come up with the can lead to a better world. One concrete way of
same list of traits as you did? achieving this is through constant dialogue and
interaction with each other.
WHAT IS IDENTITY?
Identity is the distinctive characteristic that defines Culture, which is loosely defined as a society's way
an individual or is shared by those belonging to a of life, provides the basis for forging identities. It
particular group. People may have multiple allows people to understand themselves in relation
identities depending on the groups to which they to others and provides them a lens through which
belong. In a family, for instance, one's can be that they base what is considered the "right way" of
of a daughter, son, brother, or sister. In school, a doing things. There are material and nonmaterial
person may be a member of the student council, a aspects associated with culture. Clothes, music,
club, or an organization. He or she may also be and food are examples of material things that
known as a football player, music enthusiast, and comprise one's culture for example. Interpretations
performance artist. Identity can also be influenced of other's behavior, especially the bases of what
by other factors such as sexual orientation and we regard as "right" or "wrong", are examples of
gender (male, female, transgender, transsexuals, nonmaterial dimensions of culture.
intersex, gender queers) and nationality (Filipino,
Japanese, French, etc.) Aside from what is generally regarded as Filipino
culture, there are other subcultures that exist in the
NOTE: Festivals and gatherings are ways of Philippines, depending on geographical origin,
expressing collective and individual identities. religion and class, among others. All societies
have some form of subcultures. The term "society"
Identity can also change over the course of a refers to a group of people living in a community.
person's lifetime. It is continuously shaped and According to Maclver and Page, "it is a web of
reshaped through the passage of time as well as social relationship, which is always changing."
the overall context of one's life cycle, including his
or her activities within the society and interaction Social, Cultural, and Political Change
with other people. The concept of identity is related to social, cultural,
and political change. People's individual and
Young people, for example, identify themselves as collective identities have oftentimes transformed
sons or daughters but would eventually become social order and paved the way for lasting change.
fathers and mothers when they start their own For instance, when Filipinos first held elections in
families. Likewise, when an individual graduates the 1900s, only Filipino males could vote and
from school, his or her identity changes from being participate in politics. However, when Filipino
a student into that of a professional—a doctor, women became more educated either in the
teacher, or police officer. One can also be a Philippines or abroad, they were enlightened about
member of the Roman Catholic faith but may their rights, particularly suffrage or the right to vote.
convert to a non-Catholic Christian group
or another religious group in the future. Consequently, the campaign for women's suffrage
gained ground in the 1930s. The framers of the
TAKE NOTE: Identities are important because they 1935 Constitution allowed women to vote by virtue
shape individual and group behavior as well as of a law that was passed by the National
people's views about other people and society. Assembly. The law mandated a plebiscite on the
question Of Filipino women's suffrage, which Archaeology, meanwhile, deals with prehistoric
required at least 300,000 votes to grant women the societies by studying their tools and environment.
right to vote. The results of the plebiscite, held in
1937, yielded more than 400,000 votes in favor of WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?
women's suffrage. The outcome forever changed Sociology is defined by Anthony Giddens as "the
the way women are regarded in society. Before study of human social life, groups, and society." It
attaining the right to vote, women were merely is an academic discipline that attempts to provide a
perceived as nurturers of their families with limited deeper assessment of individual and group
role in the public sphere. behavior, as well as social phenomena, by
examining the interplay between economic,
The suffragist movement is said to be the political, and social factors. The discipline has
precursor of current rights that Filipino women been largely shaped by the works of August
enjoy. It is also a good example of how political Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile
and social changes have transformed Filipino Durkheim, and Max Weber. By incorporating
women's identities. Rapidly-advancing technology other methods and knowledge from other
also has profound implications for sociocultural academic disciplines, sociologists examine and
and political change. Because people know more present new insights and perspectives on the
about what is happening elsewhere in the world, different elements and aspects of society such as
trends in clothing, hair style, fashion style and food culture, gender, race and ethnicity, social
choices, among others have also been movements, class and other forms of social
transformed. Now, people across the world are stratification, crime, and other organizations and
becoming more similar in tastes than they were institutions.
fifty years ago.
Political Science is the systematic study of
Anthropology, Sociology, and Political Science politics, which Andrew Heywood describes as "the
The disciplines under which identity, culture, activity through which people make, preserve, and
society, and politics are studied are collectively amend the general rules under which they live."
called the social sciences. The social sciences are Political science focuses on the fundamental
comprised of a wide array of academic disciplines values of equality, freedom, and justice and its
that study the overall functions of society as well processes are linked to the dynamics of conflict,
as the interactions among its individual members resolution, and cooperation.
and institutions. Some of the most prominent
academic disciplines in the social sciences are WEEK 2
anthropology, sociology, and political science. OBSERVATIONS ON SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND
Within these fields, there are contending views and CULTURAL BEHAVIOR
specific ideas regarding the study of culture,
politics, and society. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND CULTURAL
BEHAVIOR
WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY? Individuals group themselves because of
Anthropology is the systematic study of the similarities and interest. Certain bases such as a
biological, cultural, and social aspects of man. It is common ancestral relationship, physical proximity,
derived from two Greek words, anthropos, which body characteristics, common interest, etc., usually
means "man," and logos, which means "study" group themselves. When an individual becomes a
or "inquiry." It is a significant branch of member of a group, his social behavior, political
knowledge because it integrates elements from the interests, and cultural behavior are affected by the
biological sciences and humanities to fully group. Through group pressure, the individual's
comprehend the complex human species, opinions and beliefs are subjected to the people's
including their past practices and social patterns, beliefs and he must conform to it as a member of
across diverse cultures. Examples of renowned the group.
anthropologists are Edward Burnett Taylor,
Franz Boas, Alfred Kroeber, Bronislaw SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Malinowski, Clifford Geertz, and Margaret • Social behavior is a term to describe the general
Mead. Anthropologists have diverse fields of study conduct exhibited by individuals within a society. It
and areas of interests. Social anthropology studies is essentially in response to what is deemed
how social patterns and practices and cultural acceptable by a person's peer group or involves
variations develop across different societies. avoiding behavior that is characterized as
unacceptable.
Cultural anthropology studies cultural variation • This type of human behavior primarily determines
across different societies and examines the need how individuals interact with one another within a
to understand each culture in its own context. group or society.
Linguistic anthropology studies language and • While social conduct is often modelled to create a
discourse and how they reflect and shape different comfortable social environment, anti-social
aspects of human society and culture; and behavior, such as aggression, scapegoating and
biological or physical anthropology studies the group bullying, may also be defined as negative
origins of humans as well as the interplay between social behavior, particularly in instances where
social factors and the processes of human other individuals within a peer group all behave
evolution, adaptation, and variation over time. accordingly.
• Just as positive interactions among individuals in a consider eating anything that could be a domestic
society help create a pleasant environment for animal. The things we consider taboos can vary
citizens, activities defined by peer groups to be due to our melting pot roots, but around the world
acceptable, even if harmful to select individuals or there are some rules that apply to etiquette and
subgroups within a society, are also part of social actual food consumption as a nation.
behavior. Studies Of massive human rights
violations have helped illustrate the extent by Taboos are technically defined as a practice
which harmful, but socially acceptable, behaviors "proscribed by society, as improper or
have persisted in some societies. Examples of unacceptable, social behavior," but what makes
widespread acceptance of negative behavior within something taboo isn't as concrete Whether social,
a peer group include historical incidents of mass religious or cultural, culinary customs are
genocide and human enslavement. commonly associated with a multitude of nationally
POLITICAL BEHAVIOR accepted "rules."
• Politics is a special form of human authority. It
cannot be independent of social behavior. The Food taboos are known from virtually all human
focus of political behavior is the individual's societies. Most religions declare certain food items
engagement in political life such as elections, fit and others unfit for human consumption. Dietary
political partisan, political dynasties, public opinion, rules and regulations may govern particular
political parties, etc. phases of the human life cycle and may be
• Man's political behavior is only one aspect of his associated with special events such as menstrual
total behavior as a social being. The other aspects period, pregnancy, childbirth, lactation, and - in
are his social and cultural behaviors. Political traditional societies — preparation for the hunt,
behavior is not only concerned with the individual's battle, wedding, funeral, etc. On the other hand,
action as such. It more often seeks to discuss and food taboos have a long history and one ought to
explain the political behavior of a group but such expect a sound explanation for the existence and
do not exist apart from the conduct of the individual (persistence) of certain dietary customs in a given
members. The political behavior of individual culture. Yet, this is a highly debated view and no
members or groups includes their behavior single theory may explain why people employ
towards elections, political dynasty, political special food taboos.
economy, political parties, and voter’s behavior,
among others. Whatever it is that makes something taboo, it is
important to know the local customs, if you happen
POLITICAL PHENOMENON to be friendly from one region to another or to other
In the Philippines, President Joseph "Erap" countries.
Estrada, is considered a political phenomenon.
Erap was born as Jose Marcelo Ejercito in April 19, ISTAMBAY
1937, a Filipino politician who was the 13th "Istambay" is a tagalong term of the English
President of the Philippines from 1998 to 2001. He version "stand-by." It is a social behavior which
has been Mayor of the City of Manila, the country's carries a negative connotation. People who love to
capital since 2013. hang around or loiter in an area are called
istambay Old folks call istambay as indolent or lazy
Estrada gained popularity as a film actor playing people because instead of looking for a job or help
the lead role in over a hundred films in an acting the family in household chores, these people just
career spanning some three decades. He used his hang around in corner streets, in downtown areas,
popularity as an actor to make gains in politics, telling stories or "do-nothing." This is one reason
serving as mayor of San Juan for 16 years, as why the istambays are called CPAs (counting post
senator for one-term, then as vice president under around) or are working in the PAL (palamunin).
President Ramos. Despite having been sentenced
for plunder but later on granted pardon by POLITICAL DYNASTIES
President Arroyo, he was popular to the masa as Political dynasty or political family is a kind of
"Erap para sa mahihirap". political behavior in Philippine political society.
There has been a lot of debate regarding the effect
The election of Barack Obama in 2008 is also a of these dynasties on the socio-political and
political phenomenon in U.S. He came out of economical aspects of society. Although political
nowhere and got the highest percentage of votes I dynasties are typically associated with higher
by a presidential candidate in over 100 years. levels of poverty and corruption, there are no laws
People were literally taking their close off for him that restrict the presence of political dynasties in
(Obama Girl). Over 2 million saw his inaugural the Philippines.
address more than any president in history, The
Democratic Party picked up more seats since A political family or political dynasty is a family in
1932. He was so popular that his opponents called which several members are involved in politics,
him a "celebrity" particularly electoral politics. Members may be
related by blood or marriage; often several
FOOD TABOO generations or multiple siblings maybe involved.
We all hail from a variety of ethnic backgrounds There are two (2) types of political dynasty: the thin
and all have personal limitations on what we do dynasty (inter-generational succession) and fat
and don't eat We generally believe in stringent dynasty (simultaneous monopoly of seats).
table manners at a formal dinner, and wouldn't
• THIN DYNASTY is a political clan that only has
two members – like father and son- swapping Unlike in the olden days, the present Philippine
certain positions, as when a mayor-father, at the election is generally a dirty game with dirty tricks.
end of his maximum three terms , lets his son , Generally, it is money that counts, entertainment
who may also have reached his 3 year term either that runs and popularity that wins. It is no longer
as Vice mayor , councilor and others, running for "pera sa bulsa at boto sa balota" but more on "pera
each other’s position. sa balota at boto sa bulsa" slogan. In short, the
• FAT DYNASTY monopolizing power is an COMELEC's motto of a "peaceful, honest, clean,
undesirable situation, as checks and balances credible and orderly election" has been relegated
among elected officials in a certain local to the background. What can you say?
government are difficult if they are all from one
family. In Maguindanao, the “fat” Ampatuan G E N E R A L I Z A T I O N:
dynasty held eight out of the 37 mayoralty posts in The results of the 2013 Philippine mid-term
the province’s 37 municipalities. elections highlighted the dominance of political
dynasties in the country. With all 80 provinces
PHILIPPINE ELECTIONS littered with political families, 74 percent of the
Election is a political behavior in Philippine society. elected members of the House of Representatives
The elections in the Philippines have several came from such dynastic groups. Despite
types. overwhelming recognition that political dynasties
breed patronage politics and corruption, no
The President, Vice President and the Senators substantial steps have been undertaken to address
are elected for a six-years term, while the this issue.
members of the House of Representatives,
Governors, Vice-Governors, members of the The reasons for their continuing existence and
Sangguniang Panlalawigan (provincial board their adverse impact on the country. This problem
members), Mayors, Vice-Mayors, members of the emanates basically from three factors: (1) the
Sangguniang Panlungsod/members of the political and socio-economic foundations upon
Sangguniang Bayan (city/municipal councilors), which political dynasties are built; 2) the inability to
Barangay Officials, and the members of the effectively implement Philippine constitutional
Sangguniang Kabataan (youth councilors) are provisions by enacting an enabling law; and 3) the
elected to serve for a three-year term. weakness of potential countervailing forces that
would challenge political dynasties.
The Congress or Kongreso has two chambers.
The House of Representatives or Kapulungan ng WEEK 3
mga Kinatawan has 292 seats as of 2013, of which OBSERVATIONS ON SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND
80% are contested In single seat electoral district CULTURAL CHANGE
and 20% are allotted to party-lists according to a The Nature, Origin and Dynamics of Culture
modified Hare quota with remainders disregarded and Society
and a three- seat cap, which are only accessible to Society is universal among human beings. For
marginalized and under-represented groups and ages, it has performed major adaptive functions
parties, local parties, and sectoral wings of major that have increased the chances for man to
parties that represent the marginalized. The survive.
Constitution of the Philippines allows the House of
Representatives to have more than 250 members • Society is dynamic because of culture.
by statute without a need for a constitutional • The members in a society share their culture.
amendment. The Senate or Senado has 24 Culture is a powerful force that affects the lives of
members which are elected on a nationwide at- the people.
large basis; they do not represent any • Culture shapes and guides people’s perceptions of
geographical district. Half of the Senate is renewed reality.
every three years. • It provides fundamental avenues to the meaning of
existence, rules of proper conduct, among others.
The Philippines has a multi-party system, with • The presence of a government plays a vital role in
numerous parties in which no one party often has ensuring and protecting the rights of every
a chance of gaining power alone, and parties must individual in the society in enjoying, practicing, and
work with each other to form a coalition preserving their respective culture.
government. The Commission on Elections
(COMELEC) is responsible for running the Culture changes as society changes too. The
elections. changes in society affects the social, political and
cultural behavior of the people.
Under the Constitution, elections for the members
of Congress and local positions (except barangay What brings changes in the society and its
officials) occur every second Monday Of May every culture?
third year after May 1992, and presidential and The changes may be brought by liberalism,
vice presidential elections occur every second modernization and development of people’s lives,
Monday of May every sixth year after May 1992. culture may be modified or altered because of
All elected officials, except those at the barangay these changes.
level, start (and end)their terms of office on June
30 of the election year.
• Among these changes are population growth, training, safety and security of the barangay
migration, illegal activities, ethnic and political people (brigada-eskwela, tree-planting and
conflicts, texting, transnational families, dating, beautification of a certain barangay).
bayanihan, local public services and youth
volunteerism. Let us tackle some of them. E. Youth Volunteerism
People have devised various ways of dealing with This is a new trend in socio-cultural change in our
social, political, and cultural change through present society. Why Youth Service? When young
involvement and collective action. These collective people have the chance to serve their
actions are influenced and defined by political, communities, everyone benefits.
social, and cultural forces. In turn, social actions • Young people gain skills necessary to succeed in
and movements have themselves become sources school, in the work place, and in life.
of change in their respective societies. • The community develops strong, diverse groups of
inspired, civically engaged young people.
A. Texting/Chatting
Texting is one of the socio-cultural changes that The Benefits of Youth Service
take place in our society. Generally, Filipinos are • Increases young people’s feelings of
lovers of texting. community connectedness and reduce
• Almost all the youngsters are holding their mobile engagement in risky behavior.
phones while travelling or conversing in groups. • Contributes to higher reported levels of
• The device is used for information and academic success, graduation rates, positive civic
communication purposes, but sometimes it is used behavior, and self-esteem.
for illegal means to commit a crime. • Volunteering at any age is associated with
• Texting is the act of composing and sending brief, increased likelihood of finding employment.
electronic messages between 2 or more mobile
phones, or fixed or portable devices over a phone G E N E R A L I Z A T I O N:
network Indeed, the society is universal among human
• The term texting originally referred to messages beings. Society is dynamic because of culture.
being sent using the SMS (short message service)
• It has grown to include messages containing The members in a society share their culture.
image, video, and sound content (MMS) Culture is a powerful force that affects the lives of
• Text messages can be used to interact with the people. Culture shapes and guides people’s
automated systems for example, to order products perceptions of reality. It provides fundamental
or services, or to participate in contests. avenues to the meaning of existence, rules of
proper conduct, among others.
B. Selfie/Groufie
Related to the newest trend in photography, the We also learned that culture changes as society
Selfie, shortcut for self-photograph. changes too. The changes in society affects the
• A self-portrait photograph, typically taken with a social, political and cultural behavior of the people.
digital camera or camera phone held in the hand or The changes may be brought by liberalism,
supported by camera stick. modernization and development of people’s lives,
• Selfies are often shared on social networking culture may be modified or altered because of
services. these changes. Among these changes are
Although a selfie has benefits to people and the population growth, migration, illegal activities,
camera industry, there are also harmful effects ethnic and political conflicts, texting, transnational
such as being too narcissistic, accidents as well as families
death.
WEEK 4
C. Transnational Families (family across ANTHROPOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY AND
members) POLITICAL SCIENCE
This is another form of socio-cultural change in our The disciplines under which identity, culture,
society. society, and politics are studied are collectively
• Contemporary transnational arrangements are called the social sciences. The social sciences are
present in the world, with one or more family comprised of a wide array of academic disciplines
members located in different countries. that study the overall functions of society as well
• Transnational families exist because of migration, as the interactions among its individual members
working abroad to support the needs of the family, and institutions. Some of the most prominent
or fleeing violent conflict or persecution. academic disciplines in the social sciences are
anthropology, sociology, and political science.
D. Local Public Services Within these fields, there are contending views and
This is a form of service provided by local specific ideas regarding the study of culture,
government agencies, private companies or by the politics, and society.
barangay people for community development.
• Government and private sectors have social Anthropology is the systematic study of the
responsibilities to undertake as part of their core biological, cultural, and social aspects of man. It is
values. derived from two Greek words, anthropos, which
• Private associations and barangay leaders means "man," and logos, which means "study" or
undertake local community work to enhance peace "inquiry." It is a significant branch of knowledge
and order, beautification, sanitation, literacy because it integrates elements from the biological
 sciences and humanities to fully comprehend the distribution and how it shapes the way society is
complex human species, including their past organized.
practices and social patterns, across diverse • They also analyze a wide array of topics including
cultures. systems of governance, political theories, the
lawmaking process, political behavior and ethics,
Examples of renowned anthropologists are policies and their implications, political
Edward Burnett Taylor, Franz Boas, Alfred organization, and the electoral process.
Kroeber, Bronislaw Malinowski, Clifford Geertz, • Political science is further divided into various
and Margaret Mead. Anthropologists have diverse areas of interest. Some political scientists
fields of study and areas of interests. specialize in public administration which examines
how the government functions and how decisions
• Social anthropology studies how social patterns and policies are made.
and practices and cultural variations develop • Some specialize in political economy which
across different societies. evaluates the interplay between economics,
• Cultural anthropology studies cultural variation politics, and law and its implications to the various
across different societies and examines the need institutions within society;
to understand each culture in its own context. • others focus on comparative politics which
• Linguistic anthropology studies language and compares domestic politics and governance
discourse and how they reflect and shape different systems across different sovereign states.
aspects of human society and culture; and • Others analyze the fundamental concepts,
• Biological or physical anthropology studies the theories, and doctrines related to politics such as
origins of humans as well as the interplay between power and authority, law, and justice. Several
social factors and the processes of human political scientists engage in international or global
evolution, adaptation, and variation over time. politics whereby relations among states and
• Archaeology, meanwhile, deals with prehistoric transnational actors are examined.
societies by studying their tools and environment.
GENERALIZATION
Sociology is defined by Anthony Giddens as "the The discussion on social, cultural, and political
study of human social life, groups, and society." It changes highlights the importance of learning
is an academic discipline that attempts to provide a about our society and its processes. In many ways,
deeper assessment of individual and group the disciplines mentioned above help people
behavior, as well as social phenomena, by understand their social roles and how they can
examining the interplay between economic, participate in the changes they wish to make in
political, and social factors. their respective societies.

The discipline has been largely shaped by the Though each of the social sciences focuses on a
works of August Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl particular subject and adheres to specific
Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber. By perspectives, their views often overlap and
incorporating other methods and knowledge from complement one another. In this sense, continuous
other academic disciplines, sociologists examine discourse and exchange of knowledge among the
and present new insights and perspectives on the three disciplines are instrumental in deepening the
different elements and aspects of society such as discussion of culture, society, and politics toward a
culture, gender, race and ethnicity, social better understanding of the world around us.
movements, class and other forms of social
stratification, crime, and other organizations and WEEK 5
institutions. It also seeks to explain the bases of DEFINING CULTURE AND SOCIETY FROM THE
social order and social change. Improvements in PERSPECTIVES OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND
social policy and welfare rely on research SOCIOLOGY
performed by sociologists. The focal point in the study of society is man's
social behavior since his/her behavior is greatly
Political Science is the systematic study of shaped by the society and culture where he/she
politics, which Andrew Heywood describes as "the belongs. Society is a group of people living
activity through which people make, preserve, and together in a definite territory, having a sense of
amend the general rules under which they live." belongingness, mutually interdependent of each
Political science focuses on the fundamental other, and follows a certain way of life. It is a group
values of equality, freedom, and justice and its of people sharing a common culture People live
processes are linked to the dynamics of conflict, together either in a large-scale grouping such as
resolution, and cooperation. The works of Greek community, state which is international in nature,
philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle as well as or in a small number of people like the family, clan,
later European thinkers such as Niccolo tribe and neighborhood. Each social group exhibits
Machiavelli, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Baron de shared common traits, beliefs, values and ways of
Montesquieu, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and life which we call culture.
Karl Marx are influential in the field of political
science. Culture is a dynamic medium through which
societies create a collective way of life reflected in
• Political scientists help us understand the nature such things as beliefs, values, music, literature, art,
and characteristics of authority and power dance, science, religion, ritual, technology and
others. Culture is that "complex whole which
 encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, fertility and rebirth is closely connected with death
laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and rites. Based on his monumental collection of
everything that a-person learns and shares as a ethnographic data from several cultures, Frazer in
member of society "(Edward B. Taylor, 18th the early twentieth century and again in the 1930’s
century English Anthropologist). intended to prove that the fear of the corpse and
the belief in the soul and life after death is a
According to Allan G, Johnson, culture is the sum universal phenomenon.
of symbols, ideas, forms of expressions and French Sociology School
material-products system. Robert Redfield likewise • The perspective of the authors of the French
states that culture is an organized body of sociology differed considerably from the
conventional understanding manifested in art and psychology-oriented, individual-focused views of
artifacts, which persisting through tradition. this evolutionist-intellectual anthropologist.
• Emile Durkheim and his followers (including Robert
Thus, culture is a very powerful force that affects Herb and Marcell Mauss) studied human behavior
the lives of the members of society. It shapes and in a “sociological framework,” and focused their
guides. attention primarily on the question of societal
solidarity, on the study of the social impact rites,
Anthropological Perspectives on Culture and and on the various ties connecting individuals to
Society society. In other word they investigated the
There are three (3) anthropological perspectives of mechanisms by which societies sustain and
culture and society: reproduce themselves. In his monumental
• Evolutionist — Intellectual Perspective work The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life
• According to Edward Burnett Tylor, Johann Jakob (1915)/ Durkheim argues that the most important
Bachofen and James G. , “Death and the belief in function of death rites and religion in general is to
the soul and the spirits play important roles in this reaffirm societal bonds and the social structure
perspective”. itself. In his view, a society needs religion.
• In 1871 Tylor assumed that in the background of The British Functionalist School
the appearance of the soul beliefs, there may be • While the evolutionist—intellectual anthropologists
such extraordinary and incomprehensible were interested in finding the reason of the origin
experience as dreams and vision encounters in of religion and the followers of the French
various states of altered consciousness, and the sociology school concentrated on the social
salient differences between the features of living determination of attitudes concerning death.
and dead bodies. In his view, "the ancient savage Members of the British functionalist school were
philosophers" were only able to explain these concerned with the relation of deaths rites and the
strange, worrying experiences by considering accompanying. They focused their attention on the
humans to be dual unity consisting of not only a question of the social loss caused by death such
body but of an entity that is able to separate from as the redistribution of status and rights.
the body and continue its existence after death. • The two most significant authors of his school had
Tylor argues that this concept of spirit was later opposing views on the relationship between
extended to animals, plants, and objects, and it religion/rites and the fear of death.
developed into "the belief in spiritual beings" that
possess supernatural power(polytheism). Sociological Perspectives on Culture and
Eventually it led to monotheism. Tylor, who Society
considered "the belief in spiritual beings," which he Sociologists today employ three primary theoretical
called animism, the closest definition and starting perspectives: the symbolic interactionist
point of the concept of religion, argues that notion perspective, the functionalist perspective, and the
of death was brought into being by human worries conflict perspective. These perspectives offer
concerning death. sociologists theoretical paradigms for explaining
• Tylor’s theory was attacked primarily because he how society influences people, and vice versa.
did not attribute the origin of religion to the Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society,
interference of supernatural powers but rather to social forces, and human behavior.
the activity of human logic. He was also criticized Philosopher George H. Mead (1863 — 1931)
to the grounds that a part of his concept was highly introduced this perspective to American sociology
speculative and unhistorical: He basically intended in the 1920's. There are three (3) sociological
to reconstruct the evolution of religion from perspectives of culture and society.
contemporary ethnographic data and through the
deduction of his own hypotheses. Although most of SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
these critiques were correct. Tylor can only partly • according to this perspective, people attach
be grouped among the "armchair anthropologists" meanings to symbols, and then they act according
of his time. to their subjective interpretation of these symbols.
• Two other individuals Johann Jakob Bachofen and Verbal conversations, in which spoken words
James G. Frazer — are also acknowledge as serve as the predominant symbols, make this
pioneers during this early period of subjective interpretation especially evident. The
anthropology. Bachofen prepared a valuable words have a certain meaning for the "sender,"
analysis of the few motives of wall paintings of a and, during effective communication, they
Roman columbarium in 1859 such as black and — hopefully have the same meaning for the
white painted mystery eggs, He was among the "receiver." In other terms, words are not static
first authors to point out that the symbolism of "things"; they require intention and interpretation.
 Conversation is an Interaction of symbols between revealed. A sociological approach in functionalism
individuals who constantly interpret the world is the consideration of the relationship between the
around them. Of course, anything can serve as a functions of smaller parts and the functions of the
symbol as long as it refers to something beyond whole. Functionalism has received criticism for
itself. Written music serves as an example. The neglecting the negative functions of an event such
black dots and lines become more than mere as divorce. Critics also claim that the perspective
marks on the page; they refer to notes organized justifies the status quo and complacency on the
what meanings individuals assign to their own part of society's members.
actions and symbols, as well as to those of others.
THE CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
THE FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE • originated primarily out to Karl Marx's writing on
• also known as functionalism. Each aspect of the class struggles, presents society in a different light
society is interdependent and contributes to than do the functionalist and symbolic interactionist
society's functioning as a whole. The government, perspectives. It focuses on the negative, conflicted,
or state, provides education the family, which in and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike
return pays taxes on which the state depends to functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid
keep itself running. That is, the family is dependent social change, and believe people cooperate to
upon the school to help children to grow up, to effect social order, conflict theorists challenge the
have good jobs so they can raise and support their status quo, encourage social change (even when
own families. In the process, the children become this means social revolution), and believe rich and
law—abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn powerful people force social order on the poor and
support the government. If all goes well, the parts the weak. Conflict theorists, for example, may
of society produce order, stability, and productivity. interpret an "elite" board of regents raising tuition
If all does not go well, the parts of society then to pay for esoteric new programs that raise the
must adapt to recapture a new order, stability, and prestige of a local college as self-serving rather
productivity. For example, during a financial than as beneficial for students.
recession with its high rates of unemployment and • Whereas American sociologists in the 1940s and
inflation, social programs are trimmed or cut. 1950s generally ignored the conflict perspective in
Schools offer fewer programs. Families tighten favor of the functionalist. They also expanded
their budgets. And a new social order, stability, and Marx's idea that the key conflict in society was
productivity occur. strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find
• Functionalists believe that society is held together social conflict between any groups in which the
by social consensus, or cohesion, in which potential for inequality exist: racial, gender,
members of the society agree upon, and work religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict
together to achieve, what is best for society as a theories note that unequal groups usually have
whole. Emile Durkheim suggested that social conflicting values and agenda, causing them to
consensus takes one of two forms: compete against one another. This constant
• MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY is a form of social competition between groups forms the basis for
cohesion that arises when people in a society the ever - changing nature of society. Critics of the
maintain similar values and beliefs and engages in conflict perspective point to its overly negative view
most commonly occurs in societies such as those of society. The theory ultimately attributes
in which everyone herds cattle or farms. Amish humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil
society exemplifies mechanical solidarity. rights, and other positive aspects of society to
• ORGANIC SOLIDARITY is a form of social capitalistic designs to control the masses not to
cohesion that arises when the people in a society inherent interests in preserving society and social
values and beliefs and engage in varying types of order.
work. Organic solidarity most commonly occurs in
industrialized, complex societies such as those in Society and Culture as a Complex Whole
large cities. Society is a complex whole because it is a social
• The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest system. As a complex whole, it is made up of
popularity among sociologists in the 1940's and individuals and groups that interact in a relatively
1950's. While European functionalists originally stable and patterned manner. As a system, it
focused on explaining the inner workings of social consists of sub—parts. A change in one segment
order, American functionalists focused on will affect all the other parts of the system. Society
discovering the functions of human behavior. is regarded as the largest and most inclusive social
Among these American functionalist sociologists is unit that exists. As a complex whole, it integrates
Robert Merton who divides human functions into all the smaller social groups and units of which it is
two types: Manifest functions are intentional and composed - the family, neighborhood,
obvious, while latent functions are unintentional communities, nations and the world. On the either
and not obvious. hand, culture is a complex whole as it includes
• The manifest function is attending a church or knowledge, belief, art, morals and law, etc. by man
synagogue, for instance, is to worship as part of a as a member of society. It likewise includes values,
religious community, but its latent function may be music, literature, art, dance, science, religion,
to help members learn to discern personal from ritual, technology, among others.
institutional values. With common sense, manifest
functions become easily apparent. Yet this is not GENERALIZATION
necessarily the case for latent functions which Culture encompasses human elements beyond
often demand a sociological approach to be biology: for example, our norms and values, the
 stories we tell, learned or acquired behaviors, CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
religious beliefs, art and fashion, and so on. Since culture is a design, a recipe or a roadmap for
Culture is what differentiates one group or society living that guides the behavior of members in a
from the next. society, it has the following characteristics:
Different societies have different cultures, however • Culture is learned and acquired. Culture is not
it is important not to confuse the idea instinctive nor a part of biological equipment of
of culture with society. A culture represents the man. It is acquired through the senses and
beliefs and practices of a group, while society experiences — from the neighbors, family,
represents the people who share those beliefs and playmates, through the schools, senses churches
practices. Neither society nor culture could exist and other agents of socialization. The means of
without the other. acquisition are imitation, conditioning, suggestion,
formal or informal instruction and mass media.
The relation of culture and society can be • Culture is shared and transmitted. To
perceived by looking into the Anthropological and continuously preserve culture, it is best to share to
sociological perspectives. Anthropological other people or to transmit it to the next
perspective defined culture as the shared set of generation, or else it will die a natural death.
(implicit and explicit) values, ideas, concepts, and Culture is transmitted through language (oral,
rules of behavior that allow a social group to written or symbolic).
function and perpetuate itself while Sociological • Culture is adaptive or dynamic. Culture is always
perspective focuses on the biological explanations changing, new ideas, procedures and techniques
of behavior, in part because these explanations are added, modified or discarded. People must be
implicitly support the status quo and may be used prepared and ready to conform to these changes.
to justify claims of biological inferiority. The changes going on today is very rapid than in
the primitive times due to fast advancement of
WEEK 6 science and technology.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIETY • Culture is cumulative. Certain features of culture
A group of people living together is considered to have been retained today and they are modified
be a society if it has the following characteristics. and innovated to make them new and updated.
These are: Thus, man's modification and innovation are
• Society is a complex whole. As a complex whole, learned from already existing culture in the past.
it is a social system consisting of individuals • Culture is ideational. Culture is an ideal pattern of
socially interacting with each other. A change in behavior which the members are expected to
one group of individuals will affect the stability of follow. Thus, the members of society are society
the other parts of the whole system. from the standpoint of culture.
• Society is relatively large. Being a complex • Culture gratifies human needs. Culture
whole, the people must be socially integrated to be continues to exist if it satisfies human needs
considered relatively large than if the people are biologically and psychologically. An individual is
individually scattered. Thus, the people in a family, likely to follow and observe cultural techniques that
clan, tribe, neighborhood, community are socially satisfy his needs.
integrated to be relatively large in scope. • Culture is social. Culture is a group product
• Society socializes its members and from those developed by many individuals Interacting in a
from without. Since most of society's members group. The habits and knowledge of the members
are born to it, they are taught the basic norms and in a group are shared by other members out of the
expectations. Those who come from other society sharing of ideas, culture sprouts.
before being accepted as functioning members, • Culture is integrated. By integration, it means that
are socialized and taught the basic norms and there is a tendency for individuals to fully
expectations of such society. appreciate those elements in culture that are best
• Society endures, produces and restrains its for them and these are very often integrated in
members for generations. For society to survive, their personality and become a part of behavior.
it must have the ability to produce, endure and Most often, these bundles of traits or e elements
sustain its new members for at least several during which are already rooted in their behavior are very
generations. their extreme. For instance, in a difficult to remove as they were a ready ingrained
society cannot assist its members during their or were already integrated over the years.
extreme conditions of hunger and poverty, that • Culture is not usually known by people. The
society will not survive long. way people interact and do things. In their
• Society holds its members through a common everyday Iives seems "natural" to people. People
culture. The individuals in a society are held are unaware of their culture because they are so
together because that society has symbols, norms, close to it and know it well. For most people, it is
values, and patterns of interactions, vision and as if their learned behavior was biologically
missions that are commonly shared by the inherited. It is usually known only when they come
members of such society. into contact with people from another culture that
• Society has clearly-defined geographical they become aware that their patterns of behavior
habitat territory. The and members in a society are not universal.
must live in certain specific habitat or place and • No one knows everything about his/her culture.
have a common belongingness and sense of In all societies, there are bodies of specialized
purpose. cultural knowledge that are gender specific, they
• are known to men but not to women or vice versa.
'In many societies there are also bodies of religious
 groups, or other special purpose associations. • is the belief of superiority in one's personal ethnic
Gender—based skills, knowledge and perception group, but it can also develop from racial or
largely stem from the fact that boys and girls to religious differences.
some extent are treated differently from each other • Ethnocentric individuals believe that they are better
in all societies. than other individuals for reasons based solely on
• Culture gives people a range of permissibly their heritage. Clearly, this practice is related to
behavior patterns. Culture commonly allows a problems of both racism and prejudice. While
range of ways in which men can be men and many people may recognize the problems, they
women can be women. Culture also tells people may not realize that ethnocentrism occurs
how different activities should be conducted such everywhere and every day at both the local and
as how one should act as a husband, wife, parent, political levels.
child, etc. Then rules of permissible behavior are
usually flexible to a degree there are some Cultural Relativism Mitigates Ethnocentrism
alternatives rather than hard rules. • Sociologists use generalizations to explain
• Culture is learned through enculturation. tendencies, shed light on values and compare
Enculturation is the process through which we cultures.
learn about the culture we live in. Through Cultural relativism based on moral relativism
enculturation, we learn what behavior, values, (which says there is no right and wrong) argues
language and morals are acceptable in our society. that all cultures are valuable and none is better
We learn by observing other members of our than another.
society, including our parents, friends, teachers An example of cultural relativism might include
and mentors. Enculturation provides a means for slang words from specific languages (and even
us to become functional members of our society. from particular dialects within a language). For
instance, the word "tranquilo" in Spanish translates
GENERALIZATION directly to "calm" in English. However it can be
Humans acquire culture through learning used in many more ways than just as an adjective
processes of enculturation and socialization, (e.g., the seas are calm). Tranquilo can be a
people living in different places or different command or suggestion encouraging another to
circumstances develop different culture. Through calm down. It can also be used to ease tensions in
culture, people can adapt to their environment in an argument (e.g., everyone relax) to indicate a
non – genetic ways so people living in different degree of self - composure (e.g., I'm calm). There
environment will often have different cultures. We is not a clear English translation of the word, and in
must always respect one another regardless of our order to fully comprehend its many possible uses,
culture and ethnicity. Therefore, culture makes an a culture relativist would argue that it would be
individual different from one another. necessary to fully immerse oneself in culture where
the word is used.
WEEK 7 Cultural heritage is the legacy of physical artifacts
CULTURE RELATIVISM VS. ETHNOCENTRISM and intangible attributes of a group or society that
Culture Relativism are inherited from past generalization, maintained
• This concept was first formulated by William in the present and bestowed for the benefit of
Graham Summer in his book folkways. He said future generations:
that there are no universal—moral standards of • Tangible Heritage includes buildings and historic
right and wrong, good and bad for evaluating places, monuments, artifacts, etc. which are
cultural phenomena. This means that what is right considered worthy of preservation for the future.
in one place may be wrong in another place or vice These include objects significant to the archeology,
versa. Standards are relative to the culture in architecture, science or technology of a specific
which they appear. Customs can only be judged by culture. Objects are important to the study of
how well or how poorly they fit in with the human history because they provide a concrete
standards of a certain society. For example, having basis for ideas, and can validate them. Their
several wives (polygyny) functions in a society preservation demonstrates recognition of the
where women are needed to work in the fields. necessity of the past and of the things that tell its
story. Preserved objects also validate memories;
Ethnocentrism and the actuality of the object, as opposed to a
• Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by reproduction or surrogate, draws people in and
the values and standards of one's own—culture. gives them a literal way of touching the past. This
Ethnocentric individuals judge other groups relative unfortunately poses a danger as places and things
to their own ethnic group or culture, especially with are damaged by the hands of tourists, the light
concern for language, behavior, customs and required to display them, and other risks of making
these ethnic distinctions and subdivisions serve to an object known and available. The reality of this
define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity. risk reinforces the fact that all artifacts are in a
Ethnocentrism may be overt or subtle, and while it constant state of chemical transformation so that
is considered a natural proclivity of human what is considered to be preserved is actually
psychology, it has developed a generally negative changing — it is never as it once was. Similarly
connotation. Ethnocentrism is a major reason for changing is the value each generation may place
divisions amongst members of different ethnicities, on the past and on the artifacts that link it to the
races, and religious groups in society. past.
Ethnocentrism • Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) is promoted by
UNESCO as a counterpart to the World Heritage
 focusing mainly on tangible aspects of culture. In they swing too far to the other end of the
2001, UNESCO made a survey among States and spectrum. Xenocentrism is the opposite of
NGOs to try to agree on a definition and the ethnocentrism, and refers to the belief that another
Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible 95 culture is superior to one’s own. (The Greek root
Cultural Heritage was drafted in 2003 for its word xeno, pronounced “ZEE-no,” means
protection and promotion. UNESCO has called on “stranger” or “foreign guest.”) An exchange student
the media, communities and the government of who goes home after a semester abroad or a
Zimbabwe to help in safeguarding local culture so sociologist who returns from the field may find it
that the country does not continue to lose its difficult to associate with the values of their own
valuable intangible cultural products. Speaking in culture after having experienced what they deem a
Kadoma at a media workshop director and more upright or nobler way of living.
representative Of UNESCO Harare, Professor Luc
Rukingama said UNESCO's work was about the Perhaps the greatest challenge for sociologists
protection and conservation of tangible heritage, in studying different cultures is the matter of keeping
particular monuments, objects and cultural sites. a perspective. It is impossible for anyone to keep
Intangible cultural heritage includes oral tradition, all cultural biases at bay; the best we can do is
performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive strive to be aware of them. Pride in one’s own
events, knowledge and practices concerning culture doesn’t have to lead to imposing its values
nature and the universe, and skills involved in on others. And an appreciation for another culture
producing traditional crafts. shouldn’t preclude individuals from studying it with
"Intangible heritage has become an exciting and a critical eye.
important component of cultural heritage with
communities and cultural groups taking center WEEK 8
stage in its protection," said Rukingama. BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION
Sociobiology started as the study of the biological
Threats to Tangible and Intangible Cultural evolution of social behavior. Human behavior,
Heritage however, is the result of the interaction of both
Cultural Heritage is exposed to numerous biological and cultural factors. Therefore, a theory
disasters resulting from natural hazards, such as of human sociobiology should be focused on the
earthquakes, floods, and cyclones and increasingly interaction of biological and cultural evolution.
from human - induced hazards, like arson, armed
conflict and civil unrest. The great East Japan Biological Evolution
Tohuko Earthquakes and Tsunami (2011); • Biological evolution is the change in inherited traits
Thailand Floods (2011); Haiti, Chile and over successive generations in populations of
Christchurch earthquakes (2010); and recent civil organisms. Adaptation is a key evolutionary
unrests in Afghanistan, Libya, Egypt, Yemen, and process in which variation in the fitness of traits
Syria have caused serious damage to tangible and and species are adjusted by natural selection to
intangible attributes of cultural heritage sites become better suited for survival in specific
ranging from historic buildings, museums, historic ecological habitats. The environment acts to
settlements, as well as cultural landscapes. promote evolution through changes in
Undoubtedly, the frequency and intensity of some development. Therefore, determining how
disasters have increased recently due to the developmental changes are mediated is critical for
impact of Global Climate Change, as well as understanding the mechanisms of evolution.
social, economic and political changes. • Biological processes are often studied in model
Considering these challenges, the ICOMOS organisms. A model organism is a species that is
Advisory Committee symposium in Beijing on studied extensively in the laboratory with
"Reducing Risks to Cultural Heritage from Nature anticipation that the results can be applied to
and Human - Caused Disasters" aimed to assess biological phenomena in general. Cave animals
this risk and formulate policies, strategies and can serve as excellent models to study the
techniques for reducing risks to disasters, relationships between the environment, evolution,
responding to emergencies and recovering from adaptation, and development.
disasters. A brief was prepared from the one-day • Troglomorphic (cave-related) traits, including
symposium soliciting position papers and case elongated appendages, lowered metabolism,
studies on the following five sub-themes: specialized sensory systems, and loss of eyes and
• Techniques and strategies for motivating risks to pigmentation have evolved as a response to the
cultural heritage from human-caused disasters. effects of perpetual darkness. In this article, we
• Methodology and tools for undertaking risk- describe the characid fish Astyanax mexicanus, as
assessment of cultural heritage. a vertebrate model system for studying the
• Protecting cultural heritage in times of conflict and developmental basis of evolution and adaptation to
other emergencies. the cave environment.
• Planning for post disaster recovery of cultural • Evolution is the great unifying principle of Biology,
heritage. we need it to understand the distinctive properties
• Awareness-raising and capacity building for of organisms, their adaptations; as well as the
managing disaster risks to cultural heritage. relationships of greater or lesser proximity that
exist between the different species.
GENERALIZATION
When people attempt to rectify feelings of
ethnocentrism and to practice cultural relativism,
 Cultural Evolution according to a paper published in Science
• Cultural evolution is an evolutionary Advances in February 2020. This marks the
theory of social change. It follows from the earliest known instance of human groups mating
definition of culture as "information capable of with each other—something we know happened a
affecting individuals' behavior that they acquire lot more later on.
from other members of their species through • After the superarchaic humans came the archaic
teaching, imitation and other forms of social ones: Neanderthals, Denisovans and other human
transmission. Cultural evolution is the change of groups that no longer exist.
this information over time. • Archaeologists have known about Neanderthals,
• Cultural evolution, historically also known or Homo neanderthalensis, since the 19th century,
as sociocultural evolution, was originally developed but only discovered Denisovans in 2008 (the group
in the 19th century by anthropologists stemming is so new it doesn’t have a scientific name yet).
from Charles Darwin's research on evolution. Since then, researchers have discovered
Today, cultural evolution has become the basis for Neanderthals and Denisovans not only mated with
a growing field of scientific research in the social each other, they also mated with modern humans.
sciences, including anthropology, economics, • “When the Max Plank Institute [for Evolutionary
psychology and organizational studies. Previously, Anthropology] began getting nuclear DNA
it was believed that social change resulted from sequenced data from Neanderthals, then it
biological adaptations, but anthropologists now became very clear very quickly that modern
commonly accept that social changes arise in humans carried some Neanderthal DNA,”
consequence of a combination of social, says Alan R. Rogers, a professor of anthropology
evolutionary and biological influences. and biology at the University of Utah and lead
• There have been a number of different approaches author of the Science Advances paper. “That was
to the study of cultural revolution, including dual a real turning point… It became widely accepted
inheritancetheory, socioculturalevolution, memetics very quickly after that.”
, cultural evolutionism and other variants • As a more recently-discovered group, we have far
on cultural selection theory. The approaches differ less information on Denisovans than Neanderthals.
not just in the history of their development and But archaeologists have found evidence that they
discipline of origin but in how they conceptualize lived and mated with Neanderthals in a Siberian
the process of cultural evolution and the love shack for around 100,000 years. The most
assumptions, theories and methods that they apply direct evidence of this is the recent discovery of
to its study. In recent years, there has been a a 13-year-old who lived in that cave about 90,000
convergence of the cluster of related theories years ago. DNA analysis revealed that her mother
towards seeing cultural evolution as a unified was a Neanderthal and her father was a
discipline in its own right. Denisovan.

Human Evolution GENERALIZATION

• The first humans emerged in Africa around two Biological and cultural evolution have certain
million years ago, long before the modern humans similarities but also many dissimilarities. Both are
known as Homo sapiens appeared on the same based on variation, heredity and selection, but how
continent. these appear and work differ. Biological evolution
• There’s a lot anthropologist still don’t know about is unconscious, opportunistic and not goal-
how different groups of humans interacted and directed, while cultural evolution is conscious, at
mated with each other over this long stretch of best planned, and can have a goal. In the
prehistory. Thanks to new archaeological and biological world the sources of variation are
genealogical research, they’re starting to fill in mutations and genetic recombination. Heredity is
some of the blanks. connected with reproduction, and is mediated to
• First things first: A “human” is anyone who belongs subsequent generations via the genetic material.
to the genus Homo (Latin for “man”). Scientists still Selection operates in two ways, natural selection
don’t know exactly when or how the first humans and sexual selection.
evolved, but they’ve identified a few of the oldest
ones. Natural selection is a force that selects which
• One of the earliest known humans is Homo habilis, variants will survive and get offspring capable for
or “handy man,” who lived about 2.4 million to 1.4 reproduction. Sexual selection means that by
million years ago in Eastern and Southern Africa. selecting their sexual partners organisms in fact
Others include Homo rudolfensis, who lived in select for genes which the offspring receive from
Eastern Africa about 1.9 million to 1.8 million years the partner. Thus, the two forms of selection
ago (its name comes from its discovery in East operating in the biological world determine how the
Rudolph, Kenya); and Homo erectus, the “upright relative frequencies of different gene forms and
man” who ranged from Southern Africa all the way gene combinations evolve in a given population,
to modern-day China and Indonesia from about and this process is the very essence of the
1.89 million to 110,000 years ago. biological evolution. By this way the mean fitness
• In addition to these early humans, researchers of the population increases as long as there exists
have found evidence of an unknown genetic variation in fitness in the population. In
“superarchaic” group that separated from other other words, the adaptation of the population for
humans in Africa around two million years ago. the environmental circumstances continuously
• These superarchaic humans mated with the increases.
ancestors of Neanderthals and Denisovans,