DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 3.

Muscularis
- Circular smooth muscle – inner layer
Functions: - Longitudinal Smooth Muscle – outer layer
1. Ingestion
- Consumption of solid or liquid food Nerve plexuses of the submucosa and muscularis
2. Digestion compose the ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM.
- Breakdown of large molecules into smaller
molecules 4. Serosa or Adventitia
3. Absorption - Serosa – consist of peritoneum
- Movement of molecules out of the digestive - Adventitia – not covered by peritoneum
system to the blood or lymphatic system
4. Elimination Peritoneum
- Removal of undigested materials out of the - Serous membrane of the walls of the
body as feces abdominal cavity and abdominal organs
Organs – visceral peritoneum
Digestive system Lines the cavity – parietal peritoneum
- Composed of digestive tract or
gastrointestinal tract plus specific associated Mesenteries – connective tissue that connects the
organs organs of the abdominal cavity
1. Oral Cavity - Provide a route for blood vessels and nerves
2. Pharynx from the abdominal wall to the organs
3. Esophagus - Two layers of serous membrane with a thin
4. Stomach layer of loose connective tissue
5. Small and large intestines
6. Anus Mesentery proper – small intestines
Lesser Omentum – mesentery connecting the
Associated organs lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver and
1. Liver diaphragm
2. Pancreas Greater omentum – mesentery connecting the
3. Salivary glands greater curvature of the stomach to the transverse
colon and posterior body
Oral Cavity and Esophagus
- Stratified epithelium Retroperitoneal: abdominal organs that have no
- Protection mesenteries
Stomach and Intestines - Duodenum, pancreas, ascending colon,
- Columnar epithelium descending colon, rectum, kidneys, adrenal
- Absorption and secretion glands and urinary bladder

Four Major tunics or Layers Oral Cavity

1. Mucosa - First part of the digestive tract
- Innermost tunic - Bounded by lips and cheeks and contais teeth
3 layers and tongue.
 Mucous Epithelium - Lips: orbicularis oris muscle
 Lamina propria - Keratinized stratified epithelium
 Muscularis mucosae - Internal margin: moist stratified
2. Submucosa squamous epithelium
- Thick layer of connective tissue containing - Cheeks: buccinators muscles
nerves, blood vessels, and small glands
- Plexus
 - Mastication: process of mechanical digestion Tonsils
which breaks down large food particles into - Lateral posterior walls of the oral cavity, in the
smaller ones. nasopharynx and in the posterior surface of
Tongue: large muscular organ that occupies most the tongue.
of the oral cavity.
- Frenulum Salivary Glands
- Anterior two thirds covered by papillae- 1. Parotid Glands
contains taste buds - Largest
- Major sensory organ for taste; major organ of - Serous glands located just anterior to each ear
speech - MUMPS
2. Submandibular glands
Teeth - Produce more serous than mucous secretions.
- 32 – mandible and maxillae - Inferior border of the mandible
- Quadrants: right upper, left upper, right 3. Sublingual glands
lower, left lower - Smallest
1. Insicor(2) – central and lateral - Produces primarily mucous secretions
2. Canine (1) - Has 10-12 small ducts opening onto the floor
3. Premolars (2) of the oral cavity
4. Molars (3) – (wisdom teeth 3rd) Produces SALIVA: a mixture of serous mucous fluids
and has multiple roles.
3 regions - Composed of alveolar glands
1. Crown
2. Neck Saliva
3. Root - Versatile fluid
Pulp Cavity- center of the tooth - Keeps the oral cavity moist and contains
- Blood vessels, nerves, and pulp enzymes that begin the process of digestion.
- 1 liter per day
Peridontal Ligaments – secure the teeth in the - Salivary amylase – digestive enzyme; breaks
alveoli by embedding into the cementum the covalent bonds between glucose moleculs
in starch and other polysaccharides.
Dental caries – tooth decay; result of the (disaccharides: maltose and isomaltose)
breakdown of enamel by acids produced by - Protective functions; prevents bacterial
bacteria on the tooth surface. infections by washing the oral cavity with a
mildly antibacterial enzyme called LYSOZYME.
Peridontal Disease- inflammation and degeneration - Neutralizes the pH in the mouth
of the periodontal ligaments. Gingiva, and alveolar - Lack of salivary gland secretion – increases the
bone. chance of ulceration and infection of oral
- tooth loss in adults mucosa and caries formation in the teeth.
- The mucous secretion of the submandibular
Palate and sublingual glands contain large amount of
- Roof of the oral cavity MUCIN (a proteoglycan that gives a lubricating
- Separates the oral cavity and nasal cavity quality to the secretions of the salivary glands.
- Prevents food from passing into the nasal - Regulated by the AUTONOMIC NERVOUSE
cavity during chewing and swallowing, SYSMTER – PARASYMPATHETIC STIMULATION
Hard Palate - anterior part - Sympathetic stimulation increases the mucous
Soft Palate- posterior portion; consist of skeletal content of saliva.
muscles and connective tissue
Uvula – posterior extension of the soft palate. Mastication
- Incisors and Canine – cut and tear the food
 - Premolars and Molar- crush and grind 3. Body
- Increases the efficiency of digestion. - It turns to the right, forming a greater
curvature and a lesser curvature.
Pharynx 4. Pyloric Opening (Pyloric Region)
- Connects the mouth to the esophagus - Opening to the small intestine.
1. Nasopharynx - Pyloric sphincter (thick ring of smooth muscle)
2. Oropharynx
3. Laryngopharynx - Its muscularis layer is consist of three layers:
- Oropharynx and laryngopharynx carry food to Outer longitudinal layer, middle circular layer,
the esophagus. – posterior walls – inner oblique layer. – produces a churning
PHARYNGEAL CONSTRICTOR MUSCLES action
-the submucosa and mucosa are thrown into large
Esophagus folds called RUGAE when the stomach is empty.
- Is a muscular tube, lined with STRATIFIED
SQUAMOS EPITHELIUM, that extends from - stomach: SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
the pharynx to the stomach
- 25 cm long 4 epithelial cells
- Upper two-thirds: skeletal muscles 1. Surface Mucous cells
- Lower one-third: smooth muscles - Inner surface of the stomach and lining the
- Esophageal Sphincters: regulate the gastric pits, which produces mucus.
movement of food into and out of the 2. Mucous neck cells
esophagus - Produces mucus
- Cardiac Sphincter: lower esophageal sphincter 3. Parietal cells
- Produces hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor
Swallowing (degluitition) 4. Endocrine Cells
1. Voluntary Phase - Produces regulatory chemicals
- A bolus or mass of food is formed in the 5. Chief Cells
mouth - Produces pepsinogen
- Tongue pushes the bolus to against the hard
palate. Into the oropharynx Secretions of the Stomach
2. Pharyngeal Phase - Chyme: semifluid mixture when a food is
- Controlled by reflex mixed with stomach secretions
- Three PHARYNGEAL CONSTRICTOR MUSCLES: 1. Hydrochloric Acid
force the food through the pharynx. - Produces a pH of about 2.0 in the stomach.
3. Esophageal Phase - Kills microorganisms
- Moving food from the pharynx to the stomach - Activates enzyme, pepsin.
- Muscular contraction of the esophagus occur 2. Pepsin
in PERISTALTIC WAVES - Pepsinogen: inactive form
- Peristaltic contractions cause relaxation of the - Breaks covalent bonds of proteins to form
lower esophageal sphincter in the esophagus smaller peptide chains.
as the peristaltic waves approach the - Exhibits optimum enzymatic activity at a pH of
stomach. about 2.0
3. Mucus
Stomach - Lubricates the epithelial cells of the stomach
- Primarily houses food for mixing with wall
hydrochloric acid and other secretions. - Protects them from the damaging effect of
the acidic chyme and pepsin.
1. Gastroesophageal opening (cardiac region) - Stimulated by irritation of the stomach
2. Fundus 4. Intrinsic Factor
 - Binds with vitamin B12 and makes it more - Food in the stomach is mixed with gastric
readily absorbed in the small intestine. secretions

Heartburn (gastritis) Intestinal Phase

- Painful or burning sensation in the chest - Inhibits gastric secretions
usually associated with an increase in gastric - Controlled by the entrance of acidic chyme
acid secretion and/or backflush of acidic into the duodenum
chyme into the esophagus. - When the pH of the chyme entering the
- Overeating, eating fatty foods, lying down duodenum drops to 2.0 or below, the
immediately after a meal, consuming too inhibitory influence of intestinal phase is
much alcohol or caffeine, smoking, and greatest.
wearing tight clotting
- Medications: blocking gastric acid secretion Secretin: inhibits gastric secretions, release from
the duodenum in response to low pH
Regulation of Stomach Secretions
- 2 L of gastric secretions - Fatty acids and peptides in the duodenum
- regulated by nervous (CNS – medulla initiate the release of the hormone
oblongata) and hormonal mechanisms CHOLECYTOKININ (inhibits gastric secretions)

3 PHASES: Movement of the Stomach

1. CEPHALIC PHASE 2 kinds of movement:
2. GASTRIC PHASE 1. Mixing waves
3. INTESTINAL PHASE 2. Peristaltic waves

Cephalic Phase Mixing Waves

- Sensations of taste, the smell of food, - Result of relatively weak contractions
stimulation of tactile receptors during the - Mix ingested food with stomach secretions to
process of chewing and swallowing and form chyme.
pleasant thoughts of food stimulate centers
within the medulla oblongata that influence Peristaltic Waves
gastric secretions - Result of stronger contraction
- Parasympathetic axons – VAGUS NERVE - Force the chyme toward and through the
- Postganglionic neurons – stimulate secretory pyloric sphincter
activity in the cells of the stomach mucosa, - Sufficiently strong to cause partial relaxation
causing the release of hydrochloric acid, of the pyloric sphincter and to pump a few
pepsin, mucus, and intrinsic factor. milliliters of chyme through the pyloric
- Neurons also releases gastrin and histamine opening and into the duodenum
- Also occurs when the stomach is empty
Gastrin : hormone that enters the blood and is - Increased by low blood glucose levels and
carried back to the stomach where it stimulates cause Hunger pangs
additional secretory activity. - If the stomach empties too fast, the efficiency
of digestion and absorption in the small
Histamine – most potent stimulator of hydrochloric intestine is reduced.
acid secretion - Stomach emptying is slower after a fatty meal
due to the release of cholecytoskinin.
Gastric Phase - Vomiting: a protective mechanism against the
- Great gastric secretion occurs ingestion of toxic or harmful subtances.
- Activated by the presence of food in stomach
Small intestines
- 6 m long Secretion of the Small Intestine
3 parts - Mucus, ions, water
1. Duodenum - Lubricates and protect intestinal walls from
- 25 cm the acidic chyme and the action of digestive
2. Jejunum enzyme.
- 2.5 m - Peptidase: digest proteins; they break peptide
3. Ileum bonds in proteins to form amino acids
- 3.5 - Disaccharidase: digest small sugars –
disaccharides to monosaccharides (maltose –
- Common bile duct (liver) and Pancreatic duct glucose)
(pancreas) both join and empty into the - Mucus – duodenal gland and goblet cells
duodenum - Hormones released from the intestinal
-major site of digestion and absorption of food mucosa stimulate liver and pancreatic
because of the large surface area secretions.
3 modifications that increase its surface area about - Vagus nerve, secretin release and chemical or
600-fold tactile irritation of the duodenal mucosa all
1. Circular folds (mucosa and submucosa) stimulate secretion by duodenal glands
2. Villi (fingerlike projections of the mucosa)
3. Microvilli (cytoplasmic extensions in the Movement in the Small Intestine
surface of the villi) - Mixing and propulsion of chyme- mechanical
- Simple columnar epithelium events (small intestine)
- Peristaltic contraction: cause the chyme to
4 major cell types move along the small intestine
1. Absorptive cells - Segmental contraction: only for short
- Digestive enzymes and absorb digested food distances and mix intestinal contents
2. Goblet cells - Ileocecal valve: prevents movement from the
- Protective mucus large intestine back to the ileum.
3. Granular cells
- Protect the intestinal epithelium from bacteria Absorption in the Small Intestine
4. Endocrine cells - Major function: absorption of nutrients
- Produce hormones - Occurs Duodenum and jejunum

- Epithelial cells located in the intestinal glands Liver

(crypts of lieberkuhn) - Processes nutrients and detoxifies harmful
substances from the blood
- Submucosa contains Duodenal glands - Produces BILE
(mucous glands) which opens into the base of - Largest internal organ
the intestinal glands - 1.36 kg (3 pounds)
- located in the right upper quadrant in the
- Peter patches: numerous in the ileum abdomen
2 major lobes:
- Ileocal Junction- site where the ileum 1. Right lobe
connects to the large intestine 2. Left lobe
- Separated by falciform ligament
- Ileocecal sphincter and ileocecal valve: which 2 smaller lobes
allow the intestinal contents to move from the 1. Caudate lobe
ileum to the large intestine, but not in the 2. Quadrate lobe
opposite direction
 Porta: gate through which blood vessels, ducts Common Hepatic Duct joins by the Cystic duct from
and nerves enter or exit the liver. the gallbladder to form the Common Bile Duct

Receives blood from 2 sources: Common bile duct joins the pancreatic duct: both
1. Hepatic Artery open to the duodenum at the Duodenal Papilla.
- Carries oxygenated blood
2. Hepatic Portal vein Functions of the Liver
- Carries nutrient-rich blood from the digestive - Digestion and secretion,
tract to the liver. - storage and processing of nutrients,
Blood exits the liver through Hepatic Vein - detoxification of harmful chemicals,
- synthesis of new molecules
Portal Triads contain 2 structures - secretion of bile (600-1000 mL)
1. Hepatic Artery
2. Hepatic Portal Vein Bile- is important for digestion because it dilutes
3. Hepatic Duct and neutralizes stomach acid.
- Increase the efficiency of fat digestion and
Hepatic Cords – formed by platelike groups of liver absorption.
cells called Hepatocytes - Also contains excretory products (cholesterol,
- Located between the center and the margins fats and bile pigments)
of each lobule. - Regulated by neural and hormonal stimuli.
- Separated from one another by Hepatic - Parasympathetic stimulation through vagus
Sinusoids nerves
- Sinusoid epithelium- contain phagocytic cells - Stimulated by secretin from the duodenum
that help remove foreign particles from the - Cholecystokinin- stimulates the gall bladder to
blood. contract and release bile into the duodenum

Liver – contains a system of ducts to deliver bile Bile salts- emulsify fats, breaking the fat globules
and other secretions to the duodenum into smaller droplets
Bile canaliculus – cleftlike lumen between cells of
each hepatic cord Bilirubin – bile pigment that results from the
- It is where the blood flows to the hepatic breakdown of hemoglobin
ducts in the portal triads
- The right and left hepatic ducts unite to form Gallstones- form when cholesterol secreted by the
a single Common hepatic duct. liver becomes excessive and is not able to dissolve
- Can remove sugar from the blood and store it by the bile salts.
in the form of glycogen. (lipids, vitamins,
copper and iron) Pancreas
- Can also transforms nutrients into more - Located retroperitoneal, posterior to the
readily usable subtances stomach in the inferior part of the left upper
- An important line of defense against many of quadrant
those harmful substances. - Head- near midline of the body
- Also removes other substances from the - Tail – extends to the left, where it touches the
blood and excretes them into the bile. spleen.
- Produce unique new compounds (albumins, - Endocrine and exocrine tissues
fibrinogen, globulins, clotting factors)
Pancreatic Islet – endocrine part
Gallbladder: small sac on the inferior surface of the - Insulin and glucagon
liver that stores concentrated bile. - Controls blood levels of glucose and amino
acids
 - Proximal end of the large intestine where it
Acinar Gland joins with the small intestine at the ileocecal
- Exocrine part junction.
Acini – produces digestive enzyme - Right lower quadrant
- Cluster of acini  small ducts  larger ducts - Sac that extends inferiorly about 6 cm past
 Pancreatic Duct  Common Bile duct  the ileocecal junction.
empties to the duodenum - Appendix
- Appendicitis – inflammation of the appendix,
Function caused by obstruction. Symptoms: abdominal
- Exocrine secretions – bicarbonate ions and pain in the McBurney Point.
digestive enzyme called pancreatic enzymes. - Peritonitis – spreading of appendicitis to
(neural and hormonal mechanisms) peritoneal cavity.
Bicarbonate ions- neutralize the acidic chyme that
enters the small intestine from the stomach Colon
Without pancreatic enzymes, lipids, proteins and - 1.5 – 1.8 cm lonh
carbohydrates cannot be digested. 1. Ascending Colon
2. Transverse Colon
Major protein- digesting enzyme 3. Descending Colon
1. Trypsin 4. Sigmoid Colon
2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase Ascending Colon
Pancreatic Amylase- continues the polysaccharide - Cecum  right colic flexure
digestion that began in the oral cavity. Transverse Colon
- Right colic flexure  left colic flexure
Pancreatic enzyme: Lipase and Nucleases (degrade Descending colon
DNA and RNA to their component nucleotides) - Left colic flexure  pelvis
Sigmoid Colon
- Acidic chyme in the duodenu stimulates - S-shaped tube
secretin release  stimulate the pancrease to
release HCO3- into the duodenum. Mucosal lining of the colon – tubular glands called
- Fatty Acids and Amino Acids – stimulate Crypts – contain goblet cells.
Cholecystokinin release  stimulate the
pancreas to release an enzyme-rich solution. Teniae Coli – three bands in the smooth muscle
layer of the colon.
Parasympathetic stimulation  stimulates
secretion of pancreatic juice reach pancreatic Rectum
enzyme - Straight, muscular tube that begins at the
Sympathetic Action Potentials inhibit pancreatic termination of the sigmoid colon and ends at
secretions. the anal canal.

Large Intestine Anal Canal

1. Cecum - 2-3 cm
2. Colon - rectum  anus
3. Rectum - Internal Anal Sphincter
4. Anal - External Anal Sphincter- skeletal muscles
Hemorrhoids: enlarges, inflamed rectal, or
Cecum hemorrhoidal, veins that supply the anal canal.
- Causes pain, itching, bleeding around the
anus.
 Functions - Occur in duodenum and jejunum
- 18- 24 hours – material to pass through
- 3- 5 hours – chyme to move through the small Transport
intestine - Requires carrier molecules and includes
- Chyme  feces in the colon facilitated diffusion, cotransport and active
- Feces formation – due to the absorption of transport.
water and salts, secretion of mucus, and
extensive action of microorganisms Carbohydrates
- Defecation – process of elimination of feces - Consist of starches, cellulose, sucrose (table
- Bacteria- Vitamin K and other vitamins. sugar), fructose (fruit sugar) and lactose (milk
- 8 – 12 hours- large parts of the colon undergo sugar)
several strong contractions called Mass - Starch – energy storage molecule in plants
Movements (propel the colon contents - Glycogen – energy storage molecule in
towards the anus) animals
Defecation Reflex – occurs when feces distend the Salivary Amylase – begins the digestion of
rectal wall. carbohydrates in the mouth.
- Consist of local and parasympathetic reflexes - Carbohydrates  stomach, where digestion
- Local reflex: cause weak contractions of the continues until food is well mixed with acid,
distal colon and rectum which inactivates salivary amylase.
- Parasympathetic reflex: strong contraction;
responsible for defafcation flex. Pancreatic Amylase
- External anal sphincter – prevents feces from - Enters the duodenum and continues the
moving out of the rectum and through the digestion of carbohydrates, so that absorption
anal opening. If it is relaxed, feces are can begin.
expelled.
Salivary and Pancreatic Amylase break down
Defecation – can be initiated by voluntary actions polysaccharides into smaller disaccharides.
that stimulate a defecation reflex.
- Large inspiration of air. Disaccharidase – disaccharides 
monosaccharides. (Lactase  lactose)
16.8 Digestion, Absorption and Transport In the absence of lactase, ingestion of dairy
products causes intestinal cramping, bloating and
Digestion – breakdown of food molecules that are diarrhea.
small enough to the absorbed into the blood.
2 types Monosaccharides – glucose, galactose and fructose
1. Mechanical digestion are absorbed by intestinal epithelial cells.
- Large molecules  smaller molecules - Absorption occurs through cotransport.
2. Chemical Digestion - Fructose absorbed through facilitated
- Uses enzyme to break the covalent bonds in diffusion
organic molecules. - Glucose enters the cells by facilitated
diffusions – influenced by insulin
Carbohydrates  monosaccharides - Without insulin, glucose enters most cells very
Lipids  fatty acids and monoglycerides slowly.
Proteins  amino acis.
Lipids
Absorption- begins in the stomach, where some - Molecules are insoluble or only slightly
small, lipid-soluble molecules, such as alcohol and soluble in water
aspirin, can diffuse through the stomach epithelium - Includes triglycerides, phospholipids, sterois,
into the blood. and fat- soluble vitamins.
 Triglycerides - In small intestine, the enzymes TRYPSIN,
- Consist of three fatty acids bound to glycerol CHYOTRYPSIN, CARBOXYPEPTIDASE continue
Fats protein digestion.
- Saturated if their fatty acids have only single
bonds between carbons (meat, dairy Peptidases – further break down small peptides ito
products, eggs, nuts, coconut oil, palm oil) tripeptides (3 amino acids), dipeptides (two amino
- Unsaturated if their fatty acids have double acids) or single amino acis.
bonds between carbons ( fish , plant –based - Microvilli of the Small intestine.
oils) - Absorption occurs through the intestinal
- Monounsaturated fats- have one double bond epithelial cells by various cotransport
- Polyunsaturated – have more than one double mechanisms.
bond between carbons in the fatty acids.
Water and Minerals
Lipase – secreted by the pancreas; digest lipid - 9 L of water enter the digestive tract each day
molecules. - 2 L in food and drink
Emulsification – key step in lipid digestion - 7 L from digestive secretions.
- Bile salts transform large lipid droplets into - 92% water absorbed in small intestine
much smaller lipid droplets. - 7& water absorbed in large intestine
- Increases the surface area of the lipid droplets - 1% leaved the body in feces.
exposed to the digestive enzymes. - Move in either direction by osmosis across the
- Once the lipids are digested in the intestines, wall of the digestive tract.
bile salts aggregate around the small droplets - When the chyme is dilute, water moves out of
of digested lipids to form micelles. the intestine into the blood
- The packaged lipid- protein complexes or - If the chyme is concentrated, water moves
lipoproteins are called chylomicrons. out of the blood into the small intestine.
- Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium and
Phosphate Ions are actively transported from
the small intestine.

Effects of Aging
- Blood supply of the digestive tract decreases
- Digestive tract becomes less and less
protected from the outside influences
- Mucosa heal more slowly
- More susceptible to infections
- Likely to develop ulcerations and cancers of
digestive tract
- Gastroesophageal Reflux Disorder (GERD)
increases with advancing age.

Proteins
- Chains of amino acids
Pepsin – protein digesting enzyme secreted by
the stomach.
- Breaks down large proteins into smaller,
individual polypeptides.