Module 1

Course Faculty: Dr. Vrunda Kusanur

 Why Networking?
 Two or more devices connected
 To share resources
 To share information
 To share functions of server
 Load Sharing
 Tandem Working: If one Computer fails
other one has to take care.
 A company with networking can do more
with less.

2
3
 Definition: A network is a set of devices (often referred to
as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be
a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
 A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which
can transport a signal carrying information.

4
 internet: Connection of two or more networks.
 Internet: Connection of more than hundreds of
thousands of interconnected networks.
More than 100 countries use Internet.
ARPANET: Advanced Research Projects Agency
NETwork with 4 nodes is the first Internet developed
to find a way to connect computers.

5
 It is a standard method used in earlier Internet to
Provide services like reliability, flow-control,
bidirectional communication among different host
computers.
 In the year 1983 TCP/IP protocol replaced NCP.

6
7
 Like a Human N/W, Computer N/W also needs
network plan.
 Planning is needed even before connecting a first
computer together.
 N/W plan shows all the network components, planned
connections between them, what type of information
are stored where, and who is allowed to use each type.

8
 The term telecommunication means communication at a distance.
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form
is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
 Data communications are the exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable.
 The effectiveness of Data communication system depends on 4
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and
jitter.

9
 Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct
destination and only by the intended device or user.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver the data without any
alteration.
 Timeliness: The system must deliver the data
in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In case of audio and video data must be delivered as they are
produced without a delay.
 Jitter: Variation in the packet arrival time.

10
11
Components of a data communications system:
MESSAGE: Message is the information to be communicated.
SENDER: A device that sends the data.
Ex: Computer, Camera, Telephone Handset etc.
RECEIVER: A device that receives the message.
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM: A physical path.
Ex: Twisted-pair Wire, Coaxial cable, Fiber-optic cable, Radio
Waves.
PROTOCOL: Set of rules. An agreement between the communicating
devices. The role of protocol in networking is
Addressing and routing of messages, error detection and recovery,
sequence and flow controls etc.
12
Information might be text, numbers, images, audio and
video.
Text: In data communication, today UNICODE is used
to represent text. It’s a 32-bit code. ASCII is a subset
of Unicode.
Numbers: The number is directly converted to a binary
number.
Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns.
An image is composed of a matrix of pixels.
Audio
Video

13
Communication between two devices could be simplex, half-
duplex, full-duplex.
Simplex:
• Simplex is one direction
• Example are:
Always Keyboard sends characters to the CPU, but not vice versa.
Always computer sends characters to printers, but not vice versa.

• Simplex requires only one lane (in the case of serial).

14
• Both devices can transmit and receive but not at the same
time.
• Either transmission or reception at a time.
• Half-Duplex is like a "one lane" road.
• Only one direction will be allowed through at a time.
• Example: Walkie-talkie
• Half-Duplex would have the single lane and is cheaper than
the double lane.

15
• Full-Duplex is like the ordinary two-lane highway.
• In communications, this is most common with
networking.
• Both devices can transmit and receive simultaneously.
• Examples: Telephone Networks, Mobile Networks
• The capacity of the channel is divided between two
directions.

16
17
 Network is a interconnection of a set of devices capable of
communication.
 A device can be a host( end system) such as desktop, laptop,
cellular phone, a large computer.
 A device can also be a connecting device such as hub, switch,
router.
 These devices in a network are connected using wired or
wireless transmission medium.
 Hub: Hub is used to connect segments of a LAN (Local
Area Network). A hub contains multiple ports.. Hub acts
as a common connection point for devices in a network.
 A hub works on layer-1 of OSI model.

18
19
20
21
22
 Router: It connects one network to the other network. A
router routes packets to other networks until that packet
reaches its destination.
 It transmits and receives data between computer networks.
 A router is typically connected to at least two networks,
commonly two Local Area Networks (LANs) or Wide Area
Networks (WAN) or a LAN and its ISP's network -for
example, connection between PC and service provider.
 A router works on layer-3 of OSI model.

23
 The network must meet some important criteria such as
performance, reliability and security.
Performance:
Performance is evaluated by two metrics:
Throughput- It is the amount of data moved successfully from
one place to another in a given time period. It is measured in
bits per second (bps), Mbps or Gbps.
Delay- The delay of a network specifies how long network takes
for a bit of data to travel across the network from one node or
endpoint to another. It is typically measured in multiples or
fractions of seconds.
These two criteria are often contradictory.

24
Reliability:
Reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from a failure .
Security:
Protecting data from unauthorized access.
Physical Structure:
Two devices in a network must be connected to the same
link at the same time. There are two methods to connect two
or more devices in a link.

25
Point-to-point:
• Provides a dedicated link between two devices.
• The channel's entire capacity is reserved for the two
connected devices.
• There is a single transmitter and a single receiver.
• The point-to-point connection is a unicast connection.
• Ex: Establishing a connection between Infrared
Remote Control and TV .
Link between computer and a printer.

26
Multipoint(Multidrop):
• More than two specific devices share a single link.
• The channel's capacity is shared temporarily or spatially
between multiple devices.
• If multiple devices use the link simultaneously, then it is
a spatially shared connection.
• If multiple devices use the link turn by turn, then it is a
timeshared connection.
• In multipoint connection, there is a single transmitter,
and there can be multiple receivers.
• The point-to-point connection is a broadcast connection.

27
 Geometric representation of relationship of all the links and
linking devices(Nodes).
 Categories of topology:

28
 Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device.
 The number of physical links in fully connected mesh
topology with ‘n’ nodes is n(n-1).
 If each device is assumed to be of full duplex type then we
need n(n-1)/2 duplex-mode links.
 Each device on the network must have (n-1) I/O ports to
accommodate that many links in mesh topology.

29
30
Advantages:
 No traffic problem since there is a dedicated link
between two devices.
 Robust
 Secured
 Fault identification is easy
Disadvantages:
 Expensive related to amount of cabling and the
number of I/O ports required.
 Difficulty in installation and reconnection.
 H/W requirement for each link is expensive.
Ex: Connection between all telephone regional offices.

31
 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub.
 A star topology doesn’t allow direct traffic between devices.

Advantages:
 Less expensive than mesh.

 Each device needs one link and I/O port.

 Easy to install and configure.

 Robustness- Only the failed link would be affected.

 Fault identification is easy.

Disadvantages:
 Dependency of whole topology on one single point, the hub.

 More cabling than ring and bus topologies.

 Ex: Star is used in LANs.

32
33
 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point with only two
devices on either side of i.e. exactly two neighbours for each
device.
 It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each
computer is connected to another computer, with the last one
connected to the first.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction.
 Each device in a ring incorporates a repeater to prevent data
loss in the network.

34
35
Advantages:
• Easy to install and reconfigure
• Fault identification is easy- If one device doesn’t receive a
signal within specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm
alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.
Disadvantages:
• A break in a ring can disable the entire network.
Ex: Token Ring

36
 In Bus topology, every computer and network device
is connected to single cable.
 Nodes are connected to the cable by drop lines and
taps.
 A drop line is a connection running between the
device and main cable.
 There is a limit on the number of taps and distance
between the taps.

37
38
 Easy to install.
 A bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
 It is cost effective.
 Used in small networks.

Disadvantages:
 Cables fails then whole network fails.
 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the
performance of the network decreases.

Ex: Traditional Ethernet LANs

39
Categories of Networks

 Local Area Networks (LANs)

◦ Short distances
◦ Designed to provide local interconnectivity
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
◦ Long distances
◦ Provide connectivity over large areas
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
◦ Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus

1.40
Local Area Network(LAN):
 Privately owned
 Connects some hosts in a single office, building or
campus
 Each host in a LAN is identified by a unique
address
 The packet carries both host and destination
address
 There is no fixed minimum or maximum number of
hosts in a LAN

41
1.42
WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

A point-to-point WAN:

A switched WAN

1.43
An internetwork made of two LANs and one point-
to-point WAN:

A heterogeneous network made of WANs and LANs:

1.44
 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

1.45
Hierarchical organization of the Internet

1.46
Layers in TCP/IP protocol suite:

1.47
Communication through an internet:

1.48
 Switching in a computer network helps in deciding the
best route for data transmission if there are multiple
paths in a larger network
 One-to-one connection

49
 4 telephones at each end

50
 Between 2 devices, a dedicated connection, called a
circuit is always available.
 The switch either activates or de-activates
 It was very common in the past telephone networks
 A switch connects devices at one side to devices at
other side.
 For real time data communication such audio, video
 Also called as connection-oriented networks
 No storing capability for switches, only forwarding
capability.
 It is efficient when it works with full capacity

51
• In this network, the message is divided into packets
before they are sent.
• Each Packet is transmitted individually.
• All the packets are recompiled at the receiver.
• Packet Switching is efficient for transmission of
e-mail messages, web pages.
• Here, Switch is capable of both storing and
forwarding the packets.

52
 4 computers in each site
 A router has a Queue to store packets

53
Why Protocol Layering?
 Technique to simplify networking designs
 The basic reason for using a layered networking
approach is that a layered model takes a task, such
as data communications, and breaks it into a series
of tasks, activities, or components, each of which is
defined and developed independently.
 Any changes in one layer creates a less impact on
other layers.
 Makes a design simple
 Assign Protocols to perform each layer's task

54
 A protocol defines the rules that both the
sender and receiver and all intermediate
devices need to follow to be able to
communicate effectively.
 When communication is simple, we may need
only one simple protocol; when the
communication is complex, we may need to
divide the task between different layers, in
which case we need a protocol at each layer, or
protocol layering.
 Protocol layering enables us to divide a
complex task into several smaller and simpler
tasks.

55
 First Principle: To form bidirectional
communication, we need to make each layer
to perform two opposite tasks, one in each
direction.
 Second Principle: The two objects under each
layer at both sites should be identical.
For example, the object under layer 3 at both
sites should be a plaintext letter

56
 It’s imaginary connection at each layer through
which they can send the object created from
that layer

57
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) is a protocol suite (a set of protocols
organized in different layers) used in the Internet
today. It’s a five layer model
 It’s a hierarchical protocol

58
Layered Architecture:
Ex: Consider the small internet with three LANs(links) each with link layer
switch

• Assume that computer A communicates with computer B

• There are five communicating devices in this communication

1.59
Communication through an internet:
• Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of
the device in the internet.

1.60
Logical connections between layers
of TCP/IP protocol suite:

1.61
• The duty of the application, transport, and network layers is end-to-end
• The duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop
• The data unit created from each layer. In the top three layers, the data
unit (packets) should not be changed by any router or link-layer switch

62
 Description of Each Layer
Physical Layer:

• Carries individual bits in a frame across the link

• Two devices are connected by a transmission medium
• The transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or
optical signals
• The logical unit between two physical layers in two devices is a bit
• There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal: Bluetooth,
Passive Optical Network(PON), Optical Transport Network (OTN) , Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL), IEEE 802.11
Data-link Layer:

• There are several links (LANs and WANs) connected by routers.

• The data-link layer is responsible for taking the datagram and moving
it across the link
• The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless LAN,
a wired WAN, or a wireless WAN
• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the data-link layer.
It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
• The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet
called a frame.

63
Network Layer:
• Responsible for creating a connection between the source computer and
the destination computer
• The communication at the network layer is host-to-host.
• The network layer protocols are: Internet Protocol(IP): IP is a connectionless
protocol that provides no flow control, no error control, and no congestion
control services.
• The network layer also includes unicast (one-to-one) and multicast
(one-to-many) routing protocols. A routing protocol does not take part
in routing (it is the responsibility of IP), but it creates forwarding tables
for routers to help them in the routing process.
• The network layer also has some auxiliary protocols that help IP in its delivery
and routing tasks.
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) helps IP to
report some problems when routing a packet.
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is another protocol that
helps IP in multitasking.
• The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) helps IP to get the
network-layer address for a host.
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol that helps IP to find
the link-layer address of a host or a router when its network-layer address
is given.
64
Transport Layer
• The transport layer at the source host gets the message from the application
layer, encapsulates it in a transportlayer packet (called a segment or a
user datagram in different protocols) and sends it, through the logical
(imaginary) connection, to the transport layer at the destination host.
• The main protocol, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), is a connection-
oriented protocol that first establishes a logical connection between transport
layers at two hosts before transferring data.
• TCP provides flow control (matching the sending data rate of the source
host with the receiving data rate of the destination host to prevent
overwhelming the destination), error control (to guarantee that the
segments arrive at the destination without error and resending the
corrupted ones), and congestion control to reduce the loss of segments
due to congestion in the network.
• The other common protocol, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), is a
connectionless protocol that transmits user datagrams without first creating
a logical connection.
• UDP is a simple protocol that does not provide flow, error, or congestion
control.

65
Application Layer
• The logical connection between the two application layers is endto-end
• Communication at the application layer is between two processes (two
programs running at this layer).
• To communicate, a process sends a request to the other process and
receives a response.
• Process-to-process communication is the duty of the
application layer.
• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for accessing the
World Wide Web (WWW).
• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main protocol used in
electronic mail (e-mail) service.
• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring files from one
host to another
• The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are used for
accessing a site remotely
• The Domain Name System (DNS) is used by other protocols to find the
network-layer address of a computer
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to collect
membership in a group.

66
Encapsulation/Decapsulation:

1.67
Encapsulation:
•Definition: Encapsulation is the process of adding protocol-specific
headers and/or trailers to data as it passes down through the layers of a
networking stack.
•Purpose: The purpose of encapsulation is to prepare data for transmission
over a network. Each layer adds its own header or trailer information to the
data, creating a data unit known as a protocol data unit (PDU).
•Example: In the context of TCP/IP (which is often used to explain these
concepts), when data is passed from the Application layer to the Transport
layer, the Transport layer adds a header that includes source and
destination port numbers. This new package (original data + transport layer
header) is then passed to the Network layer.

68
Decapsulation:
Definition: Decapsulation is the process of stripping away the headers
and trailers that were added during the encapsulation process as data
moves up the layers.
Purpose: The purpose of decapsulation is to extract the original data from
the PDU received. This allows the data to be processed at each layer in the
protocol stack.
Example: When data is received at the receiver's end, it first goes through
the Network layer. The Network layer checks the destination IP address
and, if it's meant for this device, it will strip off the Network layer header.
The resulting package is then passed up to the Transport layer, where the
Transport layer header is removed, leaving just the original data for the
higher layers.

69
• For the link-layer switches because no encapsulation/ decapsulation
occurs in this device.
• The transport-layer packet, which is called the segment (in TCP) and the
user datagram (in UDP). The transport layer then passes the packet to the
network layer.
• The network-layer packet is called as a datagram. The network layer then
passes the packet to the data-link layer.
• The data-link-layer packet is called as a frame.

70
1.71
 A protocol needs to have a field in its header to
identify to which protocol the encapsulated
packets belongs to.
 Multiplexing means a protocol at a layer can
encapsulate a packet from several next-higher
layer protocols (one at a time)
 Demultiplexing means a protocol can
decapsulate and deliver a packet to several
next-higher layer protocols (one at a time).
 For example: At the transport layer, either UDP
or TCP can accept a message from several
application-layer protocols.

72
Addressing in TCP/IP protocol suite:

1.73
 Port 80 allows HTTP protocol means the
information remains in plain text between the
browser and the server
 Port 443 allows HTTPS protocol means all the
information travels between the server and
the browser remains encrypted
 Port 20 and 21 are file transfer protocols
 Port 53 is a Domain Name System (DNS)

74
75
 Also called as IP Address
 IP addresses are used to identify the devices on
an network
 It can change over time
 Service Provider assigns this
 Device connected to different networks ave
different IP address

76
 It’s called as Physical address or MAC address
 Used to communicate between any two devices
in the same network
 Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte)
physical address written as 12 hexadecimal
digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon

77
78
 ISO is the organization.
 OSI is the model.
 Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network communications
is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was
first introduced in the late 1970s.
 OSI network architecture is
Flexible,
Robust,
Interoperable.

79
 The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model is
a seven-layer model used in networking.
 The model specifies layer by layer
-> How information from an application on a network
device (e.g., computer, router, etc.) moves to the
destination using a physical medium
-> How it interacts with the software application on that
specific network device.
-> The OSI model defines the network functions
required for sending data and divides them into seven
categories.
 The upper three layers are concerned with application
issues, such as user interfacing and data formatting. The
lower four layers relate to transport issues, such as data
transmission and the physical characteristics of the network.

80
Figure: TCP/IP and OSI model

81