1 INTRODUCTION Context - is always important, and context can be

Research Methods - This course is vital as it social, historical, political, cultural or ethnic. An
provides an opportunity for students to establish example of research in the humanities is:
their basic understanding of research through historical research - which is
critical exploration of research language, ethics, embodied in historical method. Historians
and approaches. use primary sources and other evidence to
systematically investigate a topic, and then
2 THE INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS to write histories in the form of accounts of
the past (Eisner, E. W. 1981).
2.1 Definition of Research 3. Artistic research - also seen as 'practice-based
research, can take form when creative works are
Research considered both the research and the object of
Calmorin - may be defined as a scientific research itself. It is the debatable body of thought
investigation of phenomena which includes which offers an alternative to purely scientific
collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation methods in research in its search for knowledge
of facts that links man's speculation with reality . and truth (Lesage, Dieter 2009)
Shuttleworth - in the broadest sense of the
word, the definition of research includes any 2.3 Characteristics of a Researcher
gathering of data, information and facts for the
advancement of knowledge. 1. Intellectual curiosity - A researcher undertakes
Creswell - states that "research is a reflective thinking and inquiry of the situations and
process of steps used to collect and analyze problems around him, he is eager to get information
information to increase our understanding of a topic on these often due to the novelty and unusualness.
or issue". It consists of three steps: Pose a
question, collect data to answer the question, and 2. Prudence - The researcher is prudent if he
present an answer to the question. conducts his research study at the right time and at
the right place wisely, efficiently and economically.
Research - comprises creative work undertaken on In other words he does the right thing at the right
a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of time.
knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture
and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge 3. Healthy criticism - The investigator always
to devise new applications. doubts the truthfulness of his findings even if the
data are gathered honestly.
2.2 Forms of Research
4. Intellectual Honesty - An intelligent researcher
Scientific research - is a systematic way of is honest in collecting or gathering the data or facts
gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This in order to arrive at an honest result.
research provides scientific information and
theories for the explanation of nature and the 2.4 Qualities of a Good Researcher
properties of the world. It makes practical There are ten qualities of a good researcher whose
applications possible. first letters from the acronym
Research in the humanities - involves Research-oriented
different methods such as for example Efficient
hermeneutics and semiotics, and a different, more Scientific
relativist epistemology. Effective
Active
Humanities scholars usually do not search for the Resourceful
ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead Creative
explore the issues and details that surround it. Honest
Economical knowledge as well as to discover new facts, and
Religious learn more accurately the characteristics of known
without any particular thought as to immediate
2.5 Values of Research to Man practical utility.

1. Research improves the quality of life 2 Applied Research - This type of research
2. Research improves instruction involves seeking new applications of scientific
3. Research improves student's achievement - knowledge to the solution of a problem such as the
4. Research satisfies man's needs development of a new system or procedure, new
5. Research reduces the burden of work device or new method in order to solve the
6. Research has deep-seated psychological problem. In this type of research, the problem is
aspects identified and a new system or new method is
7. Research improves the exportation of food applied in order to solve the problem.
products
3. Action Research - This is decision oriented
2.6 Characteristics of Research research involving the application of the steps of
the scientific method in response to an immediate
1. Empirical Research - is based on direct need to improve existing practices.
experience or observation by the researcher. The
collection of data relies on practical experience 2.8 Classifications of Research
without benefit of scientific knowledge or theory.
1. Library Research - This is done in the library
2 Logical Research - is based on valid procedures where answers to specific questions or problems of
and principles. Scientific investigation is done in an the study are available. The historical method lends
orderly manner so that the researcher has itself to library research because the study is
confidence on the results. focused on the past, and much of the primary and
secondary sources are found in the library.
3. Cyclical Research - is a cyclical process. It
starts with a problem and ends with a problem. 2. Field Research - Research is conducted in a
natural setting. No changes are made in the
4. Analytical Research - utilizes proven analytical environment. Field research is both applicable to
procedures in gathering data, whether historical descriptive survey and experimental methods.
descriptive, experimental or case study.
3. Laboratory Research - The research is
5. Replicability - The research designs and conducted in artificial or controlled conditions by
procedures are replicated to enable the researcher isolating the study in a rigorously specified and
to arrive at valid and conclusive results. operationalized area. The purposes are (1) to test
hypotheses derived from theory (2) to control
6. Critical Research - exhibits careful and precise variance under research conditions, and (3) to
judgment. A higher level of confidence must be discover the relations between the dependent and
established. independent variables.

2.7 Types of Research 2.9 Meaning of Variable

1. Pure Research - This is also called basic A variable is defined as a quantity or

research or fundamental research. It aims to characteristics that have two or more mutually
discover basic truths or principles. It is intended to exclusive values of properties. Numerical values or
add to the body of scientific knowledge by exploring categories represent these quantities or
the unknown to extend the boundaries of characteristics.
2.10 Types of Variable

1. Independent Variable - This is the stimulus

variable which is chosen by the researcher to
determine its relationship to an observed
phenomenon.
2. Dependent Variable - This is the response
variable which is observed and measure to
determine the effect of the independent variable.

3. Moderate Variable - This is a secondary or

special type of independent variable chosen by the
researcher to a certain if it alters or modifies the 3.1 The Research Problem
relationships between the independent and
dependent variable. The research problem should be stated
vividly and explicitly expressed interrogative form
4. Control Variable - This is a variable controlled for questions have the virtue of posing a problem
by the researcher in which the affects can be directly, good research problem should be
neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable. SMARTER that is Specific: Measurable;
Achievable; Realistic; Time-bound; Efficient; and
5. Intervening Variable -. This is a variable which Reliable, whether it is developmental, historical,
interferes with the independent and dependent descriptive, and experimental or case study.
variable, but its affects can either strengthen or
weaken the independent and dependent variable. 3.2 Characteristics of a Research Problem

Component of a Research Processes The characteristics of a good problem

possess the acronym - SMART.
1. Problem/Objective
2. Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework Specific. The problem should be specifically stated
3. Assumption Measurable. It is easy to measure by using
4. Hypotheses research instruments
5. Review of Related literature\ Achievable. The data are achievable using correct
6. Research Design statistical techniques to arrive at precise results.
7. Data Collection Realistic. Real results are not manipulated by Time
8. Data Processing and Statistical Treatment Bound.
9. Analysis and Interpretation Time frame is required in every activity because
10. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation the shorter the completion of the activity the better.

3.3 Sources of Research Problem

There are several sources of research

problems that a researcher can investigate. It is
said that research was born out of man's problem
and man's major demands research.
Existing and past research are rich sources
of research problems even using research
replication utilizing the same instrument but
administered to different groups of subjects and
areas in order to compare the similarities and Types of Hypothesis
differences of the findings. Other sources of ● Null hypothesis is a denial of an existence
research problems are thesis, dissertation, and of an attribute, a relationship or a difference
research journals. of an effect. It is always stated in a negative
The researcher of these materials form
recommends problems for future research workers
to investigate into it. ● Alternative hypothesis is the opposite
extreme of the null hypothesis because this
3.4 Criteria of a Good Research Problem is always stated in a positive form. It is an
affirmation of the existence of the observed
1. Interesting. An interesting research problem phenomenon.
attracts the intention of the investigator to study the
problem further. It also makes him determined to Theoretical Framework shapes the justification of
work on until its completion. the research problem/research objective in order to
provide the legal basis for defining its parameters, it
2. Relevant. to the needs of the people. is desirable for an investigator to identify key
Researchers must keep in mind that they work not concepts that are used in the study for better
for themselves but for the people. understanding of the role of the theory in research.

3. Innovative. A good research problem may not Conceptual framework presents specific and well
necessarily be new. It may be a restatement and a defined concepts which are called constructs. Its
restructuring of an old problem to make it new. function is similar with theoretical framework
because the constructs used are derived from
4. Cost Effective. The 4M's Man, Money, abstract concepts of the theoretical framework.
Materials, and Machinery are needed in conducting
research. A research problem should be Assumptions are presumed to be true statements
economical and effective in solving the problems of of facts related to the research problem. They are
the society; it also augments social, economical clearly stated to give readers of research papers,
and health conditions of the people and many theses and dissertations a foundation to form
others. conclusions resulting from assumptions.

5. Measurable and time bound. A good research Significance of the study in a thesis/ dissertation
problem is measurable by using research or in a research problem is a must. The discussion
instruments, like tests, questionnaires, rating of the significance of the study is presented in
scales, observation schedules or interview and either the inductive or deductive perspective. In an
statistical treatment to arrive at specific and inductive perspective, the researcher moves from
meaningful results. the particular to the general and presents the
importance of the significance of the study from the
target beneficiaries, to the researcher himself, to
Research Objectives is defined as a statement of the people in the community, to the people in the
purpose for which the investigation is to be province, region and nation. Likewise, in a
conducted. deductive perspective, general to particular,
discussion of the importance of the study starts first
Hypothesis is defined as a wise guess that is from national level to the researcher himself and to
formulated and temporarily adopted to explain the the target beneficiaries.
observed facts covered by the study. A hypothesis
guides the investigator in that it describes the Scope and Limitations of the Study is an
procedures to follow in conducting the study. important section of a thesis, dissertation and
research paper. This includes the coverage of the
study area, the subjects, the research instruments, that follows in the research process-study design
the research issues or concerns, the duration of the measurement procedures, sampling strategy, frame
study and the constraints that have direct bearing of analysis and style of writing of your dissertation
on the result of the study. or report- is greatly influenced by the way in which
you formulate your research problem.
3.5 Definition of Terms
It is extremely important to evaluate the
This is the last section of a thesis, dissertation and research problem in the light of the financial
research paper in Chapter 1. Theses and resources at your disposal, the time available, and
dissertations do not include this section of the study you're own and your research supervisors expertise
if there are more than fifteen terms defined and Knowledge in the field of study, it is equally
because this portion is for the glossary. In this important to identify any gaps in your knowledge of
section the key terms are clearly defined. relevant disciplines, such as statistics, required for
analysis. Also, ask yourself whether you have
● Conceptual definition. The definitions of sufficient knowledge about computers and software
terms are based on concepts or if you plan to use them.
hypothetical ones which are usually taken
from the dictionary. 4.1.1 Reviewing the literature

● Operational definition. The definitions of A literature review discusses published

terms are based on observable information in a particular subject area, and
characteristics and how it is used in the sometimes information in a particular subject area
study within a certain time period. A literature review is
the effective evaluation of selected documents on a
4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS research topic: A review may form an essential part
of the research process or may constitute a
Research methodology is taught as a research project in itself. In the context of a
supporting subject in several ways in many research paper or thesis the literature review is a
academic disciplines at various levels by people critical synthesis of previous research. The
committed to a variety of research paradigms. evaluation of the literature leads logically to the
Though paradigms vary in their contents and research question.
substance, their broad approach to inquiry, in the
author's opinion, is similar. Although the basic logic 4.1.2 Reasons for reviewing the literature
of scientific methodology is the same in all fields, its
specific techniques and approaches will vary. One of the essential preliminary tasks when
depending upon the subject matter. It is based you undertake research study is to go through the
upon a practical and step-by-step approach to a existing literature in order to acquaint yourself with
research inquiry and each step provides a set of the available body of knowledge in your area of
methods, models and procedures interest. Reviewing the literature is time-consuming
and, sometimes, daunting and frustrating, but you
4.1 STEP 1: FORMULATING A RESEARCH should not become discouraged because you will
PROBLEM also find it rewarding. A literature review has three
functions. It helps you to:
Formulating a research problem is the first
and most important step in the research process. A 4.1.3 Bring clarity and focus to your research
research problem identifies your destination; it problem
should tell you, your research supervisor and your The literature review involves a paradox. On
readers what you intend to research. The more the one hand, you cannot effectively undertake a
specific and clear you are the better, as everything literature search without some idea of the problem
you wish to investigate. On the other hand,
literature review can play an extremely important 3. Develop a theoretical framework; and
role in shaping your research problem because the 4. Develop a conceptual framework.
process of reviewing the literature helps you to
understand the subject area of your research The skills required for these tasks are
problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to different. Developing theoretical and conceptual
understand the relationship between your research frameworks are more difficult than the other tasks.
problem and the body of knowledge in the area.
4.1.7 Search for existing literature
4.1.4 Improve your methodology
To effectively search for literature, it is
Going through the literature acquaints you imperative that you have in mind at least some
with the methodologies that have been used by ideas of the broad problem you wish to investigate,
others to find answers to research questions similar to set your parameters for your search. Then
to the one you are investigating. A literature review compile a bibliography for this broad area.
tells you if others have used procedures and
methods similar to the ones you are proposing, There are two sources that you can use to
which procedures and methods have worked well prepare a bibliography:
for them, and what problems they have faced with
them. 1. Books

4.1.5 Broaden your knowledge base in your Books, though a central part of any
research area bibliography, have their advantages as well
as disadvantages The main advantages is
The most important function the literature that the material published in books is
review is to ensure you read widely around the usually important and of good quality, and
subject area in which you intend to conduct your findings are 'integrated with other research
research study It is important that you know what to form a coherent body of knowledge-
other researchers have found regard to the same or (Martin 1985: 33). The main disadvantage is
similar questions, what theories have been put that the material is not completely
forward and what gaps exist in the relevant body of up-to-date, as it can take a few years
knowledge between the completion of a work and its
publication in the form of a book.
4.1.6 Procedure for reviewing the literature
2. Journals
If you do not have a specific research
problem, you should review the literature in your Journals provide you with the most
broad area of interest with the aim of gradually up-to-date information, even though there is
narrowing down to what you want to find out about. often a gap of between two and three years
Reviewing the literature is a continuous process. between the completion of a research
Often it begins before a specific research problem project and its publication in a journal. You
has been formulated and continues until the report should select as many journals as you
is finished possibly can, though the number of journal
There are four steps involved in conducting depends upon the field of study- certain
a literature review: fields have more journals than

1. Search for existing literature in your area of 4.1.8 Review the literature selected
study:
2. Review the literature selected:
 As you read further, go on slotting the conceptual framework is the basis of your research
information where it logically belongs under the problem.
headings so far developed. You may need to add
more headings as you go. In doing so, read 4.1.11 Writing up the literature reviewed
critically with particular reference to the following
aspects: The literature review should be written
● note whether the knowledge relevant to around themes that have emerged from reading the
your theoretical framework has been literature. The headings displaying themes should
confirmed beyond doubt; be precise, descriptive of the contents, and should
● note the theories put forward, the criticisms follow a logical progression. Findings from the
of these and their basis, the methodologies literature should be organized under these themes,
adopted and the criticisms of them. providing references, substantiations or
● examine to what extent the findings can be contradictions.
generalized to other situations;
● notice where there are significant 4.2 The research problem
differences of opinion among researchers
and give your opinion about the validity of Broadly speaking, any question that you
these differences; want to answer and any assumption or assertion
● ascertain the areas in which little or nothing that you want to challenge or investigate can
is known- the gaps that exist in the body of become a research problem or a research topic for
knowledge. your study. However, it is important to remember
that not all questions can be transformed to a
4.1.9 Develop a theoretical framework research problem and some may prove to be
extremely difficult to study.
Examining the literature can be a
never-ending task but you have limited time, it is It is essential for the problem you formulate
important to set parameters by reviewing the to be able to withstand scientific scrutiny in terms of
literature in relation to some main themes pertinent the procedures required to be undertaken.
to your research topic. The information obtained
from different books and journals now needs to be 4.2.1 The importance of formulating a research
sorted under the main themes and theories, problem
highlighting agreements and disagreements among The formulation of a research problem is the
the authors and identifying the unanswered first and most important step of the research
questions or gaps. process. The research problem serves as the
foundation of a research study: If it is well
Literature pertinent to your study may deal formulated, you can expect a good follow up. You
with two types of information, Le universal and must have a clear idea with regard to what it is that
specific. you want to find out about and not what you think
you must find.
4.1.10 Develop a conceptual framework
4.2.2 Sources of research problems
The conceptual framework stems from the
theoretical framework and concentrates, usually, on This section is of particular relevance if you
one section of that theoretical framework. The latter have not yet selected your topic and do not know
consists of the theories or issues in which your where to start. If you have already selected your
study is embedded whereas the former describes topic, go to the next section.
the aspects you selected from the theoretical
framework to become the basis of your study. The Most research in the humanities revolves
around four P's.
 ● people
● problems 1. Identify a broad area of interest in your academic
or professional field.
● programs 2. Dissect the broad area into sub-areas.
● phenomena 3. Select a sub-area or areas in which you would
like to conduct your research. Start with a process
The emphasis on a particular 'p may vary of elimination.
from study to study but generally, in practice, most 4. Raise research questions that you would like to
research studies are based upon at least a answer through your study.
combination of two 'P's. You may select a group of 5. Assess these objectives to ascertain the
individuals, either to examine the existence of a feasibility of attaining them in the light time.
certain issue or problems to ascertain the attitudes resources and technical expertise at your disposal.
towards different aspects of their lives, or to 6. Double check that you are sufficiently interested
establish the prevalence of a phenomenon. Your in the study and have and have adequate
focus may be the study of an issue, an association resources for undertaking it.
or a phenomenon.
4.4 The formulation of objectives
4.2.3 Considerations in selecting a research
problem Objectives are the goals you set out to
attain in your study. Since these objectives inform a
● Interest reader of what you want to achieve through the
● Magnitude study, it is extremely important to word them clearly
● Measurement of concepts and specifically.
● Level of expertise
● Relevance Objectives should be listed under two
● Availability of data headings
● Ethical issues
● The main objective is an overall statement
4.3 Steps in the formulation of a research of the thrust of your study. It is also a
problem statement of the main association and
relationships that you seek to discover or
Though the formulation of a research establish.
problem is the most important aspect of a research
study, there are few manuals detailing the specific ● Sub-objectives- the specific aspects of the
guiding principles, the process of formulating a topic that you want to investigate within the
research problem consists of a number of steps. in main framework of your study. They should
choosing a research problem, the two crucial be numerically numbered and should be
determinants to keep in mind are: worded clearly and unambiguously.

● Your interest in the subject area; and 4.5 Establishing operational definitions
● Manageability of the study within your own
constraints. As mentioned earlier, in every study there
are two components, the subject area and the
The following steps, based upon the study population. The main aim of formulating a
principle of narrowing the problem or zeroing in on research problem is to clearly and precisely define
the problem', can be of help to you in formulating a the research problem. In defining the problem, you
research problem If you have already identified a may use certain words or items that are difficult to
sub-area, you do not have to go through steps 1 measure and or the understanding of which may
and 2. These steps are: vary from respondent to respondent In a research
study it is important to develop, define or establish ● variables that affects the link between cause
a set of rules. and effect variables; and
In many cases you need to develop ● connecting or linking variables, which in
operational definitions for the variable you are certain situations are necessary to complete
studying and for toe population that becomes the the relationship between cause and effect
sources of the information to your study variables.
Operational definitions may differ from
dictionary definitions as well as from day-- to-day In research terminology, change variables
meanings These meanings may not be helpful in are called independent variables, outcome or effect
either identifying your study population or the variables are called dependent variables, the
concepts you are studying unmeasured variables affecting the cause and
Operational definitions give an operational effect relationship are called extraneous variables
meaning to the study population and the concept and the variables that link at cause and effect
used It only through making your procedures relationship are called intervening variables.
explicit that you can validly explain, verify and test It ● Independent variable- the cause supposed
is important to remember that there are no rules tor to be responsible for bringing about change
deciding if an operational definition it valid Your in a phenomenon or situation.
arguments must convince others about the
appropriateness of your definitions. ● Dependent variable- the outcome of the
change brought about by changes in an
4.6 Identifying variables independent variable.

An image, perception or concept that is ● Extraneous variable- several other factors

capable of measurement- hence capable of taking operating in real-life situations may affect
on different values- is called a variable In other changes attributed to independent
words, a concept that can be measured is called a variables. These factors, not measured in
variable the study, may increase or decrease the
magnitude or strength of the relationship
The difference between a concept and a between independent and dependent
variable variables.

Concepts are the menial images or ● Intervening variable-links the independent

perceptions and therefore their meanings vary and dependent variables,
markedly from individual to individual, whereas are
measurable, of course, with varying degrees of 4.6.2 From the viewpoint of the study
accuracy Measurability is the main difference
between a concept and a variable A study that examines association or
causation may be a controlled or contrived
4.6.1 Types of variable experiment, a quasi-experiment, or an ex post facto
study. In controlled experiments the independent
From the viewpoint of causation variable may be introduced or manipulated either
In studies that attempt to investigate a by the researcher or by someone else who is
causal relationship, four sets of variables may providing the service.
operate:
In these situations there are two sets of
● change variables, which are responsible for variables:
bringing about change in a phenomenon: ● Active variables-those variables that can be
● outcome variables, which are the effects of manipulated, changed, or controlled
a change variable,
 ● Attribute variables- those that cannot be 4.7.1 The functions of a hypothesis
manipulated, changed or controlled, and
reflect the characteristics of the study While some researchers believe that to
population. conduct a study requires a hypothesis, as already
mentioned, having a hypothesis is not essential.
4.6.3 From the viewpoint of the unit of However, a hypothesis is important in terms of
measurement bringing clarity to the research problem.
Specifically, it serves the following functions.
There are two ways of categorizing variables:
● Whether the unit of measurement is ● The formulation of a hypothesis provides a
categorical or continuous in nature, and study with focus.
● Whether it is qualitative or quantitative in ● A hypothesis tells you what not to collect
nature. thereby providing focus to the study.
● As it provides a focus, the construction of a
Categorical variables are measured on hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study.
nominal or ordinal measurement scales whereas ● A hypothesis may enable you to add to the
for continuous variables the measurements are formulation of theory
made either on an interval or a ratio scale.
Categorical variables can be of three types: 4.7.2 The characteristics of a hypothesis

1. Constant: There are a number of considerations to

2. Dichotomous; and keep in mind, as they are important for valid
3. Polytomous verification, when conducting hypotheses.

When a variable can have only one value or ● A hypothesis should be simple, specific and
category, it is known as a constant When a variable conceptually clear
can have only two categories, it is known as a ● A hypothesis should be capable of
dichotomous variable. When a variable can be verification
divided into more than two categories, it is called a ● A hypothesis should be related to the body
polytomous variable. of knowledge
● A hypothesis should be operationalized
4.7 Constructing hypothesis
5 THE RESEARCH DESIGN
The second important consideration in the
formulation of a research problem is the 5.1 STEP II: CONCEPTUALIZING A RESEARCH
construction of hypotheses. Hypotheses bring DESIGN
clarity, specificity, and focus to a research problem,
but are not essential for a study. Hypotheses 5.1.1 The research design
primarily arise from a set of
A research design is a procedural plan that
"hunches' that are tested through a study and one is adopted by the researcher to answer the
can conduct a perfectly valid study without these questions validly, objectively, accurately and
hunches or speculations. economically
The importance of hypotheses lies in their
ability to bring direction, specificity and focus top a A research design is a plan, structure and
research study. They tell a researcher what specific strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain
information to collect, and thereby provide a greater answers to research questions or problems The
focus. plan is the complete scheme or program of the
research It includes an outline of what the
investigator will do from writing the hypothesis and method of data collection is used; make sure that
their operational implications to the final analysis of respondents clearly understand the purpose and
the data relevance of the study. This is particularly important
when you use a questionnaire to collect data
A traditional research design is a blueprint because in an interview situation you can answer a
or detailed plan for how a research study is to be respondent's questions but in a questionnaire you
completed- operationalizing variables so they can will not have this opportunity,
be measured, selecting a sample interest to study,
collecting data to be used as a basis for testing Observation - is one way to collect primary data.
hypotheses, and analyzing the result. Observation is a purposeful, systematic and
selective way of watching and listening to an
5.1.2 The function of a research design interaction or phenomenon as it takes place. It is
also appropriate in situations where full and/ or
The above definitions suggest that a research accurate information cannot be elicited by
design has two main functions. The first relates to questioning, because respondents either are not
the identification and or development of procedures cooperative or are unaware of the answers
and logical arrangements required to undertake a because it is difficult for them to detach themselves
study, and the second emphasizes the importance from the interaction.
of quality in these procedures to ensure their
validity, objectivity and accuracy. Hence, through a Types of Observation
research design you: Participant observation - it when a researcher
participate in the activities of the group being
- conceptualize an operational plan to observed in the same manner at its members with
undertake the venous procedures an tasks or without the knowing that they are being observed
required to complete the study, and
- ensure that the procedures are adequate to Non-participant observation - on the other hand,
obtain valid, objective and accurate answers is when the researcher does not get involved m the
to the research questions. activities of the group but remains a passive
observer watching and listening to its activities and
5.2 STEP III: CONSTRUCTING AND drawing conclusions from this.
INSTRUMENT FOR A DATA COLLECTION
Problem with using observation as a method of
Selecting of a Data Collection data collection
- When individuals or groups become aware
that they are being observed, they may
change their behavior
- There is always the possibility of observer
bias
- The interpretations drawn from observations
may vary from observer to observer
- There is the possibility of incomplete
observation and/or recording.

Situations in which observations can be made

Observations can be made under two conditions
5.2.1 Collecting Data using Primary sources
Natural and
Controlled
Another important determinant of the quality of your
Observing a group in its natural operation rather
data is the way the purpose of the study is
than intervening in its activities is classified as
explained to potential respondents. Whatever
observation under natural conditions. Introducing a
stimulus to the group for it to react and observing 5.4 The Interview
the reactions is called controlled observation.
Unstructured Interviews - In an
5.3 The recording of observation unstructured interview, also known as an
in-depth interview, the interviewer develops
Narrative - in this form of recording the a framework, called an interview guide,
researcher records a description of the interaction within which to conduct the interview Within
in his or her own words. Usually, s/he makes brief this structure.
notes while observing the interaction and soon after Structured interviews - in a
the observation makes detailed notes in narrative structured interview the investigator asks a
form. pre-determined set of questions using the
Scales - at times some observers may same wording and order of questions as
prefer to develop a scale in order to rate various specified m the interview schedule
aspects of the interaction or phenomenon. The
recording is done on a scale developed by the 5.5 The Questionnaire
observer/researcher. A scale may be one-, or two-
or three-directional, depending upon the purpose of A questionnaire is a written list of questions the
the observation. answers to which are recorded by respondents in a
questionnaire respondents read the recorded
One of the problems with using a scale to record questions interpret what is expected and then write
observations is that it does not provide in depth down the answers
information about the interaction. In addition, it may Choosing between end interview schedule and
suffer from any of the following problems: a questionnaire
- Unless the observer is extremely confident
of his/her ability to assess an interaction, The nature of the investigation - if the study is
s/he may tend to avoid the extreme about issues that respondents may feel reluctant to
positions on the scale, using mostly the discuss with an investigator, a questionnaire may
central part The error this tendency creates be the better choice as it ensures anonymity
is called the error of central tendency
- Some observers may prefer certain sections The geographical distribution of the study
of the scale in the same way that some population - If potential respondents are scattered
teachers are strict markers and others are over a wide geographical area, you have no choice
not When observers have a tendency to sue but to use a questionnaire, as Interviewing in these
a particular part of the scale in recording an circumstances would be extremely expensive.
Interaction, this phenomenon is known as
the elevation effect The type of study population - if the study
- Another type of error that may be introduced population is illiterate, very young or very old. or
is when the way an observer rates an handicapped, there may be no option but to
individual on one aspect of the interaction interview respondents.c
influences the way s/he rates that individual
on another aspect of the interaction The different ways of administering a
questionnaire
Categorical recording - sometimes an observer - The mailed questionnaire
may decide to record her/his observation using - Collective administration
categories - Administration in a public place
Recording on mechanical devices - observation
can also be recorded on a video tape and then The disadvantage of a questionnaire
analyzed. - It is less expensive
 - It offers greater anonymity - In a questionnaire, open-ended questions
provide respondents with the opportunity to
The advantages of a questionnaire express themselves freely, resulting in a
- Limited application greater variety of information.
- A low response rate - As open ended questions allow respondents
- Self-selecting bias to express themselves freely, they
- Lack of opportunity to clarify issues
- Spontaneous responses are not allowed for virtually eliminate the possibility of investigator bias.
- The response to a question may be
influenced by the response to the other The advantages and disadvantages of
questions closed-ended questions
- It is possible to consult others - One of the main disadvantages of
- A cannot be supplemented with other closed-ended questions is that the
information information obtained through them lacks
depth and variety.
The advantages of interview - There is a greater possibility of investigator
- The interview is more appropriate for bias because the researcher may list only
complex situations the response patterns that he/she is
- It is useful for collecting in-depth information interested in or those that come to mind.
- Information can be supplemented - In a questionnaire, the given response
- Questions can be explained pattern for a question could condition the
- Interviewing has a wider application thinking of respondents, so the answers
provided may not truly reflect respondent's
The Disadvantages of the Interview opinions.
- The ease of answering a ready-made list of
- Interviewing is time consuming and responses may create a tendency among
expensive some respondents and interviewers to tick a
- The quality of data depends upon the category or categories without thinking
quality of the interaction through the issue
- The quality of data depends upon the - Closed-ended questions, as they provide
quality of the interviewer "ready-made" categories within which
- The quality of data may vary when many respondents reply to the questions asked by
interviewers are used the researcher, help to ensure that
- The researcher may introduce his/her bias - the information needed by the researcher is
- The interviewer may be biased obtained
5.6 Forms of question - Because the possible responses are
already categorized, they are easy to
The form and wording of questions - is analyze
extremely important in research as they have an
effect on the type and quality of information Considerations in formulating questions
obtained. In an interview schedule or a
questionnaire, questions may be formulated as - Always use simple and everyday language
open-ended or dose-ended. - Do not use ambiguous questions
- Do not ask double-barreled questions
The advantages and disadvantages of - Do not ask leading questions
open-ended questions - Do not ask questions
- Open-ended questions provide in-depth
information if used in an interview by an 5.7 The construction of research instrument
experienced interviewer.
The construction of a research instrument or a Collecting data using secondary sources
tool - is the most important aspect of a research
project because anything you say by way of - Government or semi-government
findings or condition is based upon the type of publications - there are many government
information you collect and the data you collected is and semi-government organizations that
entirely dependent upon your research Instrument. collect data on a regular basis in a variety of
areas and publish it for use by members of
Step 1: If you have not already done so, dearly the public groups
define and individually list all the specific objectives, - Earlier research - for some topics, an
research questions or hypotheses to be tested enormous number of research studies that
Step 2: For each objective, research question or have already been done by others can
hypothesis list all the associated questions that you provide you with the required information.
went to answer through your study - Personal records - some people write
Step 3: Take each question identified in step 2 and historical and personal records that may
list the information required to answer it. provide the information you need.
Step 4: Formulate question(s) to obtain this - Mass media - reports published in
information. newspapers, magazines etc. may be
another good source of data.
Asking personal and sensitive questions
Problems with using data from secondary
- By showing or drawings or cartoons; sources
- By asking a respondent to complete a
sentence; When using data from secondary sources
- By using random devices. To describe these you need to be careful as there may be certain
methods is beyond the scope of this book. problems with the availability, format and quality of
data.
The Order of Questions
Validity and reliability - the validity of information
The order of questions - in a questionnaire or in may vary markedly from source to source.
an interview schedule is important as it affects the
quality of information, the interest and even Personal bias - the use of information from
willingness of a respondent to participate in a study. personal diaries, newspapers and magazines may
have the problem of personal bias as these writers
5.8 Prerequisites for data collection are likely to exhibit less rigorousness and objectivity
than one would expect in research reports.
Motivation to share the required information - it
is essential for respondents to be willing to share Availability of data - it is common for beginning
information with you researchers to assume that the required data will
be available, but you cannot and should not make
Clear understanding of the questions - this assumption.
respondents must understand what is expected of
them in the questions. Format - before deciding to use data from
secondary sources it is equally important to
Possession of the required information - the ascertain that the data are available in the required
third prerequisite is that respondents must have the format.
information sought.