Manichaeism

Manichaeism (/ˌmænɪˈkiːɪzəm/;[4] in New Persian ‫آییِن مانی‬

Āyīn-e Mānī; Chinese:
[5]
摩尼教; pinyin: Móníjiào) is a formerly
Manichaeism
‫آییِن مانی‬ 摩尼教
major world religion, founded in the 3rd century CE by the
Parthian[6] prophet Mani (216–274 CE), in the Sasanian
Empire.[7]

Manichaeism teaches an elaborate dualistic cosmology describing

the struggle between a good, spiritual world of light, and an evil,
material world of darkness.[8] Through an ongoing process that
takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the
world of matter and returned to the world of light, whence it came.
Mani's teaching was intended to "combine",[9] succeed, and
surpass the teachings of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism,
Marcionism,[9] Hellenistic and Rabbinic Judaism, Gnostic
movements, Ancient Greek religion, Babylonian and other
Mesopotamian religions,[10] and mystery cults.[11][12] It reveres Sealstone of Mani, rock crystal,
Mani as the final prophet after Zoroaster, the Gautama Buddha and possibly 3rd century CE, Iraq.
Jesus Christ. Cabinet des Médailles, Paris.[1][2]
The seal reads "Mani, messenger
Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far through of the messiah", and may have
Aramaic-speaking regions.[13] It thrived between the third and been used by Mani himself to sign
seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread his epistles.[3][1]
religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed
as far east as the Han Dynasty and as far west as the Roman Type Universal religion
Empire.[14] It was briefly the main rival to early Christianity in the Classification Iranian religion
competition to replace classical polytheism before the spread of
Scripture Manichaean
Islam. Under the Roman Dominate, Manichaeism was persecuted
scripture
by the Roman state and was eventually stamped out in the Roman
Empire.[5] Theology Dualistic
Region Historical:
Manichaeism has survived longer in the east than it did in the west.
Europe, East
Although it was thought to have finally faded away after the 14th
Asia, Central
century in South China,[15] contemporary to the decline of the
Asia, West Asia,
Church of the East in Ming China, there is a growing corpus of
evidence that shows Manichaeism persists in some areas of China, North Africa,
especially in Fujian,[16][17] where numerous Manichaean relics Siberia Current:
have been discovered over time. The currently known sects are Fujian, Zhejiang
notably secretive and protective of their belief system, which has Language Middle Persian,
aided in them going relatively undetected. This stems from fears Classical Syriac,
relating to persecution and suppression during various periods of Parthian,
Chinese history.
Classical Latin,
While most of Manichaeism's original writings have been lost, Classical
numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.[18] Chinese, Old
Uyghur language,
An adherent of Manichaeism is called a Manichaean, Manichean, Tocharian B,
or Manichee, the last especially in older sources.[19][20] Sogdian
language, Greek
History Founder Mani
Origin 3rd century AD
Parthian,
Life of Mani Sasanian Empire

Mani was an Iranian,[21][22][a] born in 216 in or near Seleucia- Separated from Jewish Christian
Ctesiphon (now al-Mada'in, Iraq) in the Parthian Empire. Elcesaite sect,
According to the Cologne Mani-Codex,[23] Mani's parents were and the teachings
members of the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect known as the of Jesus,
Elcesaites.[24] Buddha, and
Zoroaster
Mani composed seven works, six of which were written in the
Syriac language, a late variety of Aramaic. The seventh, the Separations Manichaean
Shabuhragan,[25] was written by Mani in Middle Persian and schisms
presented by him to the Sasanian emperor, Shapur I. Although Chinese
there is no proof Shapur I was a Manichaean, he tolerated the Manichaeism
spread of Manichaeism and refrained from persecuting it
within his empire's boundaries.[26]

According to one tradition, Mani invented the unique version

of the Syriac script known as the Manichaean alphabet,[27]
which was used in all of the Manichaean works written within
the Sasanian Empire, whether they were in Syriac or Middle
Persian, and also for most of the works written within the
Uyghur Khaganate. The primary language of Babylon (and the
administrative and cultural language of the Sassanid Empire) at
that time was Eastern Middle Aramaic, which included three
main dialects: Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (the language of the A portrait of a Persian Manichaean. Line
Babylonian Talmud), Mandaean (the language of Mandaeism), drawing copy of two frescoes from cave
and Syriac, which was the language of Mani, as well as of the 38B at Bezeklik Grottoes.
Syriac Christians.[28]

While Manichaeism was spreading, existing religions such as

Zoroastrianism were still popular and Christianity was gaining
social and political influence. Although having fewer
adherents, Manichaeism won the support of many high-
ranking political figures. With the assistance of the Sasanian
Empire, Mani began missionary expeditions. After failing to
win the favour of the next generation of Persian royalty, and
incurring the disapproval of the Zoroastrian clergy, Mani is
reported to have died in prison awaiting execution by the
Persian Emperor Bahram I. The date of his death is estimated
An image of a Manichaean temple with
at 276–277. stars and seven firmaments. Line drawing
copy of two frescoes from cave 38B at
Bezeklik Grottoes.
Influences
Mani believed that the teachings of Buddha, Zoroaster,[29] and
Jesus were incomplete, and that his revelations were for the entire
world, calling his teachings the "Religion of Light". Manichaean
writings indicate that Mani received revelations when he was
twelve and again when he was 24, and over this period he grew
dissatisfied with the Elcesaites, a Jewish Christian Gnostic sect he
was born into.[30]

Mani wore colorful clothing abnormal for the time that reminded
some Romans of a stereotypical Persian magus or warlord, earning
him ire from the Greco-Roman world because of it.[31]

Mani taught how the soul of the righteous returns to Paradise

whereas "the soul of the person who persisted in things of the flesh
– fornication, procreation, possessions, cultivation, harvesting,
eating of meat, drinking of wine – is condemned to rebirth in a
succession of bodies."[32]

Mani began preaching at an early age and was possibly influenced Manichaean priests, writing at their
by contemporary Babylonian-Aramaic movements such as desks. Eighth or ninth century
Mandaeism, and Aramaic translations of Jewish apocalyptic manuscript from Gaochang, Tarim
writings similar to those found at Qumran (such as the Book of Basin, China.
Enoch literature), and by the Syriac dualist-gnostic writer Bardaisan
(who lived a generation before Mani). With the discovery of the
Mani-Codex, it also became clear that he was raised in a Jewish-
Christian baptism sect, the Elcesaites, and was possibly influenced
by their writings, as well.

According to biographies preserved by ibn al-Nadim and the

Persian polymath al-Biruni, he received a revelation as a youth from
a spirit, whom he would later call his Twin (Imperial Aramaic:
‫ תאומא‬tɑʔwmɑ, from which is also derived the name of Thomas Yuan Chinese silk painting Mani's
the Apostle, the "twin"), his Syzygos (Koinē Greek: σύζυγος Birth.
"spouse, partner", in the Cologne Mani-Codex), his Double, his
Protective Angel or Divine Self. It taught him truths that he
developed into a religion. His divine Twin or true Self brought
Mani to self-realization. He claimed to be the Paraclete of the
Truth, as promised by Jesus in the New Testament.[33]

Manichaeism's views on Jesus are described by historians:

Jesus in Manichaeism possessed three separate

identities:
(1) Jesus the Luminous, A 14th-century illustration of the
(2) Jesus the Messiah and execution of Mani
(3) Jesus patibilis (the suffering Jesus).

(1) As Jesus the Luminous ... his primary role was as

supreme revealer and guide and it was he who woke
Adam from his slumber and revealed to him the divine
origins of his soul and its painful captivity by the body
and mixture with matter.
 (2) Jesus the Messiah was a historical being who was
the prophet of the Jews and the forerunner of Mani.
However, the Manichaeans believed he was wholly
divine, and that he never experienced human birth, as
the physical realities surrounding the notions of his
conception and his birth filled the Manichaeans with
horror. However, the Christian doctrine of virgin birth
was also regarded as obscene. Since Jesus the Messiah
was the light of the world, where was this light, they
reasoned, when Jesus was in the womb of the Virgin?
Jesus the Messiah, they believed, was truly born only
at his baptism, as it was on that occasion that the Father
openly acknowledged his sonship. The suffering, death
and resurrection of this Jesus were in appearance only
as they had no salvific value but were an exemplum of
the suffering and eventual deliverance of the human
soul and a prefiguration of Mani's own martyrdom.

(3) The pain suffered by the imprisoned Light-Particles

in the whole of the visible universe, on the other hand,
was real and immanent. This was symbolized by the
mystic placing of the Cross whereby the wounds of the
passion of our souls are set forth. On this mystical
Cross of Light was suspended the Suffering Jesus
(Jesus patibilis) who was the life and salvation of Man.
This mystica crucifixio was present in every tree, herb,
fruit, vegetable and even stones and the soil. This
constant and universal suffering of the captive soul is Sermon on Mani's Teaching of
exquisitely expressed in one of the Coptic Manichaean Salvation, 13th-century Chinese
psalms.[34] Manichaean silk painting.

Augustine of Hippo also noted that Mani declared himself to be an

"apostle of Jesus Christ".[35] Manichaean tradition is also noted to have claimed that Mani was the
reincarnation of different religious figures such as Buddha, Krishna, Zoroaster, and Jesus.

Academics also note that much of what is known about Manichaeism comes from later 10th- and 11th-
century Muslim historians like al-Biruni and especially ibn al-Nadim and his al-Fihrist), who "ascribed to
Mani the claim to be the Seal of the Prophets."[36] However, given the Islamic milieu of Arabia and Persia
at the time, it stands to reason that Manichaens would regularly assert in their evangelism that Mani, not
Muhammad, was the "Seal of the Prophets".[37] In reality, for Mani the metaphorical expression "Seal of
Prophets" is not a reference to his finality in a long succession of prophets, as it is in Islam, but, rather to his
followers, who testify or attest his message, as a seal does.[38][39]

Another source of Mani's scriptures was original Aramaic writings relating to the Book of Enoch literature
(see the Book of Enoch and the Second Book of Enoch), as well as an otherwise unknown section of the
Book of Enoch called The Book of Giants. This book was quoted directly, and expanded on by Mani,
becoming one of the original six Syriac writings of the Manichaean Church. Besides brief references by
non-Manichaean authors through the centuries, no original sources of The Book of Giants (which is
actually part six of the Book of Enoch) were available until the 20th century.[40]
Scattered fragments of both the original Aramaic "Book of Giants" (which
were analyzed and published by Józef Milik in 1976)[41] and of the
Manichaean version of the same name (analyzed and published by Walter
Bruno Henning in 1943)[42] were found with the discovery in the twentieth
century of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Judaean Desert and the Manichaean
writings of the Uyghur Manichaean kingdom in Turpan. Henning wrote in
his analysis of them:

It is noteworthy that Mani, who was brought up and spent

most of his life in a province of the Persian empire, and whose
mother belonged to a famous Parthian family, did not make
any use of the Iranian mythological tradition. There can no
longer be any doubt that the Iranian names of Sām, Narīmān,
etc., that appear in the Persian and Sogdian versions of the
Book of the Giants, did not figure in the original edition,
written by Mani in the Syriac language.[42]

By comparing the cosmology in the Book of Enoch literature and the Book
of Giants, alongside the description of the Manichaean myth, scholars have
observed that the Manichaean cosmology can be described as being based,
in part, on the description of the cosmology developed in detail in the Book Manichaean Painting of the
of Enoch literature.[43] This literature describes the being that the prophets Buddha Jesus depicts
saw in their ascent to heaven, as a king who sits on a throne at the highest Jesus Christ as a
of the heavens. In the Manichaean description, this being, the "Great King Manichaean prophet. The
of Honor", becomes a deity who guards the entrance to the world of light, figure can be identified as a
placed at the seventh of ten heavens.[44] In the Aramaic Book of Enoch, in representation of Jesus
the Qumran writings in general, and in the original Syriac section of Christ by the small gold
Manichaean scriptures quoted by Theodore bar Konai,[45] he is called cross that sits on the red
lotus throne in His left hand.
malkā rabbā d-iqārā "the Great King of Honor".

Mani was also influenced by writings of the gnostic Bardaisan

(154–222), who, like Mani, wrote in Syriac, and presented a
dualistic interpretation of the world in terms of light and darkness,
in combination with elements from Christianity.[46]

Mani was heavily inspired by Iranian Zoroastrian theology.[29]

Noting Mani's travels to the Kushan Empire (several religious

paintings in Bamyan are attributed to him) at the beginning of his
proselytizing career, Richard Foltz postulates Buddhist influences in
Manichaeism:

Buddhist influences were significant in the formation

of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of
souls became a Manichaean belief, and the
quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community,
10th century Manichaean Electae in
divided between male and female monks (the "elect")
Gaochang (Khocho), China.
and lay followers (the "hearers") who supported them,
appears to be based on that of the Buddhist sangha.[47]
The Kushan monk Lokakṣema began translating Pure Land
Buddhist texts into Chinese in the century prior to Mani arriving
there, and the Chinese texts of Manichaeism are full of uniquely
Buddhist terms taken directly from these Chinese Pure Land
scriptures, including the term "pure land" (Chinese:
[48]
淨土 ; pinyin:
jìngtǔ) itself. However, the central object of veneration in Pure
Land Buddhism, Amitābha, the Buddha of Infinite Light, does not
appear in Chinese Manichaeism, and seems to have been replaced
Akshobhya in the abhirati with the
by another deity.[49]
Cross of Light, a symbol of
Manichaeism.
Spread

Roman Empire

Manichaeism reached Rome through the

apostle Psattiq by 280, who was also in Egypt
in 244 and 251. It was flourishing in the
Faiyum in 290.

Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in

312 during the time of Pope Miltiades.[50]

In 291, persecution arose in the Sasanian

Empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin by A map of the spread of Manichaeism (300–500). World
Emperor Bahram II and the slaughter of many History Atlas, Dorling Kindersly.
Manichaeans. Then, in 302, the first official
reaction and legislation against Manichaeism
from the Roman state to Manichaeism was issued under Diocletian. In an official edict called the De
Maleficiis et Manichaeis compiled in the Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum and addressed to the
proconsul of Africa, Diocletian wrote:

We have heard that the Manichaeans [...] have set up new and hitherto unheard-of sects in
opposition to the older creeds so that they might cast out the doctrines vouchsafed to us in the
past by the divine favour for the benefit of their own depraved doctrine. They have sprung
forth very recently like new and unexpected monstrosities among the race of the Persians – a
nation still hostile to us – and have made their way into our empire, where they are committing
many outrages, disturbing the tranquility of our people and even inflicting grave damage to the
civic communities. We have cause to fear that with the passage of time they will endeavour, as
usually happens, to infect the modest and tranquil of an innocent nature with the damnable
customs and perverse laws of the Persians as with the poison of a malignant (serpent) ... We
order that the authors and leaders of these sects be subjected to severe punishment, and,
together with their abominable writings, burnt in the flames. We direct their followers, if they
continue recalcitrant, shall suffer capital punishment, and their goods be forfeited to the
imperial treasury. And if those who have gone over to that hitherto unheard-of, scandalous and
wholly infamous creed, or to that of the Persians, are persons who hold public office, or are of
any rank or of superior social status, you will see to it that their estates are confiscated and the
offenders sent to the (quarry) at Phaeno or the mines at Proconnesus. And in order that this
plague of iniquity shall be completely extirpated from this our most happy age, let your
devotion hasten to carry out our orders and commands.[51]
By 354, Hilary of Poitiers wrote that Manichaeism was a significant force in Roman Gaul. In 381,
Christians requested Theodosius I to strip Manichaeans of their civil rights. Starting in 382, the emperor
issued a series of edicts to suppress Manichaeism and punish its followers.[52]

Augustine of Hippo (354–430) converted to Christianity from

Manichaeism in the year 387. This was shortly after the Roman
emperor Theodosius I had issued a decree of death for all
Manichaean monks in 382 and shortly before he declared
Christianity to be the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire
in 391. Due to the heavy persecution, the religion almost
disappeared from western Europe in the fifth century and from the
eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century.[53]

According to his Confessions, after nine or ten years of adhering to Augustine of Hippo was once a
the Manichaean faith as a member of the group of "hearers", Manichaean.
Augustine of Hippo became a Christian and a potent adversary of
Manichaeism (which he expressed in writing against his
Manichaean opponent Faustus of Mileve), seeing their beliefs that knowledge was the key to salvation as
too passive and not able to effect any change in one's life.[54]

I still thought that it is not we who sin but some other nature that sins within us. It flattered my
pride to think that I incurred no guilt and, when I did wrong, not to confess it ... I preferred to
excuse myself and blame this unknown thing which was in me but was not part of me. The
truth, of course, was that it was all my own self, and my own impiety had divided me against
myself. My sin was all the more incurable because I did not think myself a sinner.[55]

Some modern scholars have suggested that Manichaean ways of thinking influenced the development of
some of Augustine's ideas, such as the nature of good and evil, the idea of hell, the separation of groups
into elect, hearers, and sinners, and the hostility to the flesh and sexual activity, and his dualistic
theology.[56]

Central Asia

Some Sogdians in Central Asia believed in the religion.[57][58] Uyghur khagan Boku Tekin (759–780)
converted to the religion in 763 after a three-day discussion with its preachers,[59][60] the Babylonian
headquarters sent high rank clerics to Uyghur, and Manichaeism remained the state religion for about a
century before the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840.

China

In the east it spread along trade routes as far as Chang'an, the capital of Tang China.[61][62]

After the Tang dynasty, some Manichaean groups participated in peasant movements. The religion was
used by many rebel leaders to mobilise followers. In Song and Yuan China, remnants of Manichaeism
continued to leave a legacy contributing to sects such as the Red Turbans. During the Song dynasty, the
Manichaeans were derogatorily referred by the Chinese as Chīcài shìmó (Chinese:
[63][64]
吃菜事魔
, meaning that
they "abstain from meat and worship demons").
An account in Fozu Tongji, an important historiography of
Buddhism in China compiled by Buddhist scholars during 1258–
1269, says that the Manichaeans worshipped the "White Buddha"
and their leader wore a violet headgear, while the followers wore
white costumes. Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against
the Song government and were eventually quelled. After that, all
governments were suppressive against Manichaeism and its
followers and the religion was banned in Ming China in
1370.[65][64] While it had long been thought that Manichaeism
arrived in China only at the end of the seventh century, a recent
archaeological discovery demonstrated that it was already known
there in the second half of the 6th century.[66]

The nomadic Uyghur Khaganate lasted for less than a century (744-
840) in the southern Siberian steppe, with the fortified city of Ordu-
Baliq on the Upper Orkhon River as its capital.[67] Before the end
of the year (763), Manichaeism was declared the official religion of
the Uyghur state. Boku Tekin banned all the shamanistic rituals that
had previously been in use. It is likely that his decision was A 13th-century manuscript from
accepted by his subjects. That much results from a report that the Augustine's book VII of Confessions
proclamation of Manichaeism as the state religion was met with criticizing Manichaeism.
enthusiasm in Ordu-Baliq. In an inscription in which the Kaghan
speaks for himself, he promised to the Manichaen high priests (the
“Elect”) that if they would give orders, he would promptly follow
them and respond to their requests. A fragmentary manuscript found
in the Turfan Oasis gives Boku Tekin the title of zahag-i Mani
("Emanation of Mani" or "Descendant of Mani"), a title of majestic
prestige among the Manichaeans of Central Asia.

Nonetheless, and despite the apparently willing conversion of the

Uyghurs to Manichaeanism, traces and signs of the previous
shamanistic practices persisted. For instance, in 765, only two years
after the official conversion, during a military campaign in China,
the Uyghur troops called forth magicians to perform a number of Amitābha in his Western Paradise
specific rituals. Manichaean Uyghurs continued to treat with great with Indians, Tibetans, and Central
respect a sacred forest in Otuken.[67] The conversion to Asians, with two symbols of
Manichaeism led to an explosion of manuscript production in the Manichaeism: Sun and Cross.
Tarim Basin and Gansu (the region between the Tibetan and the
Huangtu plateaus), which lasted well into the early 11th century. In
840 the Uyghur Khaghanate collapsed under the attacks of the Yenisei Kyrgyz, and the new Uyghur state
of Qocho was established with a capital in the city of Qocho.

Al-Jahiz (776–868 or 869) believed that the peaceful lifestyle that Manicheism brought to the Uyghurs was
responsible for their later lack of military skills, and eventual decline. This, however, is contradicted by the
political and military consequences of the conversion. After the migration of the Uyghurs to Turfan in ninth
century, the nobility maintained Manichaean beliefs for a while, before converting to Buddhism. Traces of
Manicheism among the Uyghurs in Turfan maybe detected in fragments of Uyghur Manichaean
manuscripts. In fact, Manicheism continued to rival the influence of Buddhism among the Uyghurs until the
13th century. It was the Mongols that gave the final blow to the Manichaeism among the Uyghurs.[67]

Tibet

Manichaeism spread to Tibet during the Tibetan Empire. There was a serious attempt made to introduce the
religion to the Tibetans as the text Criteria of the Authentic Scriptures (a text attributed to Tibetan Emperor
Trisong Detsen) makes a great effort to attack Manichaeism by stating that Mani was a heretic who
engaged in religious syncretism into a deviating and inauthentic form.[68]

Iran

Manichaeans in Iran tried to assimilate their religion along with Islam in the Muslim caliphates.[69]
Relatively little is known about the religion during the first century of Islamic rule. During the early
caliphates, Manichaeism attracted many followers. It had a significant appeal among the Muslim society,
especially among the elites. A part of Manichaeism that specifically appealed to the Sasanians was the
names of the Manichaean gods. The names Mani had assigned to the gods of his religion show
identification with those of the Zoroastrian pantheon, even though some divine beings he incorporates are
non-Iranian. For example, Jesus, Adam or Eve were, respectively, given the names Xradesahr, Gehmurd or
Murdiyanag. Because of these familiar names, Manichaeism did not feel completely foreign to the
Zoroastrians.[70] Due to the appeal of its teachings, many Sasanians adopted the ideas of its theology and
some even became dualists.

Not only were the citizens of the Sasanian Empire intrigued by Manichaeism, but so was the ruler at the
time of its introduction, Sabuhr l. As the Denkard states, Sabuhr, the first king of kings, was very well
known for gaining and seeking knowledge of any kind. Because of this knowledge, Mani knew that
Sabuhr would lend an ear to his teachings and accept him. Mani had specifically stated, while introducing
his teachings to Sabuhr, that his religion should be seen as a reform of Zarathrusta's ancient teachings.[70]
This was of great fascination to the king, as it perfectly fit Sabuhr's dream of creating a large empire that
incorporated all people and their different creeds. Thus, Manichaeism became popular and flourished
throughout the Sasanian Empire for thirty years. An apologia for Manichaeism ascribed to ibn al-Muqaffa'
defended its phantasmagorical cosmogony and attacked the fideism of Islam and other monotheistic
religions. The Manichaeans had sufficient structure to have a head of their community.[71][72][73]

Tolerance towards Manichaeism decreased after the death of Sabuhr I. His son, Ohrmazd, who became
king, still allowed for Manichaeism in the empire, but he also greatly trusted the Zoroastrian priest, Kirdir.
After Ohrmazd's short reign, his oldest brother, Wahram I, became king. Wahram I held Kirdir in high
esteem as well, and he also held much different religious ideals than Ohrmazd, and his father, Sabuhr I.
Due to influence from Kirdir, Zoroastrianism was strengthened throughout the empire, which in turn caused
Manichaeism to be diminished and weakened. Wahram sentenced Mani to prison, and he died there.[70]

Arab world

Under the eighth-century Abbasid Caliphate, Arabic zindīq and the adjectival term zandaqa could denote
many different things, though it seems primarily (or at least initially) to have signified a follower of
Manichaeism, however its true meaning is not known.[74] In the ninth century, it is reported that Caliph al-
Ma'mun tolerated a community of Manichaeans.[75]
During the early Abbasid period, the Manichaeans underwent persecution. The third Abbasid caliph, al-
Mahdi, persecuted the Manichaeans, establishing an inquisition against dualists who if being found guilty
of heresy refused to renounce their beliefs, were executed. Their persecution was finally ended in 780s by
Harun al-Rashid.[76][77] During the reign of the Caliph al-Muqtadir, many Manichaeans fled from
Mesopotamia to Khorasan from fear of persecution and the base of the religion was later shifted to
Samarkand.[53][78]

Bactria

The first indications and signs of Manichaeism in Bactria were actually during Mani's lifetime. While he
never physically traveled there, he did send a disciple, by the name of Mar Ammo, to spread his word.
Mani "called (upon) Mar Ammo, the teacher, who knew the Parthian language and script, and was well
acquainted with lords and ladies and with many nobles in those places..."[79]

Mar Ammo indeed did travel to the old Parthian lands of eastern Iran, which bordered Bactria. A translation
of Persian texts state the following from the perspective of Mar Ammo: "They had arrived at the watch post
of Kushān (Bactria), then the spirit of the border of the eastern province appeared in the shape of a girl, and
he (the spirit) asked me 'Ammo what do you intend? From where have you come?' I said, 'I am a believer, a
disciple of Mani, the Apostle.' That spirit said 'I do not receive you. Return from where you have come.'"

Despite the initial rejection Mar Ammo faced, we are told in these same Persian texts that Mani's spirit
appeared to Mar Ammo in a spirit form and requested him to persevere and read the chapter, "The
Collecting of the Gates" from The Treasure of the Living. Once he did this, spirit returned, converted, and
said, "I am Bag Ard, the frontier guard of the Eastern Province. When I receive you, then the gate of the
whole East will be opened in front of you." It seemed that this "border spirit" was a reference to the local
Eastern Iranian goddess, Ard-oxsho, who was incredibly prevalent in Bactria.[80]

Syncretism and translation

Manichaeism claimed to present the complete version of teachings

that were corrupted and misinterpreted by the followers of its
predecessors Adam, Abraham, Noah,[9] Zoroaster, the Buddha, and
Jesus.[81] Accordingly, as it spread, it adapted new deities from
other religions into forms it could use for its scriptures. Its original
Aramaic texts already contained stories of Jesus.

When they moved eastward and were translated into Iranian The four primary prophets of
languages, the names of the Manichaean deities (or angels) were Manichaeism in the Manichaean
often transformed into the names of Zoroastrian yazatas. Thus Abbā Diagram of the Universe, from left to
dəRabbūṯā ("The Father of Greatness", the highest Manichaean right: Mani, Zoroaster, Buddha and
deity of Light), in Middle Persian texts might either be translated Jesus.
literally as pīd ī wuzurgīh, or substituted with the name of the deity
Zurwān.

Similarly, the Manichaean primal figure Nāšā Qaḏmāyā "The Original Man" was rendered Ohrmazd Bay,
after the Zoroastrian god Ohrmazd. This process continued in Manichaeism's meeting with Chinese
Buddhism, where, for example, the original Aramaic ‫ קריא‬qaryā (the "call" from the World of Light to
those seeking rescue from the World of Darkness), becomes identified in the Chinese scriptures with
Guanyin ( 觀音 or Avalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, literally, "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]", the
bodhisattva of Compassion).
Manichaeism influenced some writing and traditions of proto-orthodox and other forms of Christianity, as
well as doing the same for branches of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Buddhism, and Islam.[82]

Persecution and suppression

Manichaeism was repressed by the Sasanian Empire.[69] In 291, persecution arose in the Persian empire
with the murder of the apostle Sisin by Bahram II, and the slaughter of many Manichaeans. In 296, the
Roman emperor Diocletian decreed all the Manichaean leaders to be burnt alive along with the Manichaean
scriptures and many Manichaeans in Europe and North Africa were killed. It was not until 372 with
Valentinian I and Valens that Manichaeism was legislated against again.[83]

Theodosius I issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 AD.[84] The religion was
vigorously attacked and persecuted by both the Christian Church and the Roman state, and the religion
almost disappeared from western Europe in the fifth century and from the eastern portion of the empire in
the sixth century.[53]

In 732, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang banned any Chinese from converting to the religion, saying it was a
heretic religion that was confusing people by claiming to be Buddhism. However, the foreigners who
followed the religion were allowed to practice it without punishment.[85] After the fall of the Uyghur
Khaganate in 840, which was the chief patron of Manichaeism (which was also the state religion of the
Khaganate) in China, all Manichaean temples in China except in the two capitals and Taiyuan were closed
down and never reopened since these temples were viewed as a symbol of foreign arrogance by the
Chinese (see Cao'an). Even those that were allowed to remain open did not for long.[62]

The Manichaean temples were attacked by Chinese people who burned the images and idols of these
temples. Manichaean priests were ordered to wear hanfu instead of their traditional clothing, which was
viewed as un-Chinese. In 843, Emperor Wuzong of Tang gave the order to kill all Manichaean clerics as
part of the Huichang persecution of Buddhism, and over half died. They were made to look like Buddhists
by the authorities, their heads were shaved, they were made to dress like Buddhist monks and then
killed.[62]

Although the religion was mostly forbidden and its followers persecuted thereafter in China, it survives
within syncretic sects throughout Fujian in a form of Chinese Manichaeism also called Mingjiao.[16][17]
Under the Song dynasty, its followers were derogatorily referred to with the chengyu 吃菜祀魔 (pinyin:
chī cài sì mó) "vegetarian demon-worshippers".

Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against the Song dynasty. They were quelled by Song China and
were suppressed and persecuted by all successive governments before the Mongol Yuan dynasty. In 1370,
the religion was banned through an edict of the Ming dynasty, whose Hongwu Emperor had a personal
dislike for the religion.[62][64][86] Its core teaching influences many religious sects in China, including the
White Lotus movement.[87]

According to Wendy Doniger, Manichaeism may have continued to exist in the modern-East Turkestan
region until the Mongol conquest in the 13th century.[88]

Manicheans also suffered persecution for some time under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad. In 780, the
third Abbasid Caliph, al-Mahdi, started a campaign of inquisition against those who were "dualist heretics"
or "Manichaeans" called the zindīq. He appointed a "master of the heretics" (Arabic: ‫ الزنادقة صاحب‬ṣāhib
al-zanādiqa), an official whose task was to pursue and investigate suspected dualists, who were then
examined by the Caliph. Those found guilty who refused to abjure their beliefs were executed.[76]
This persecution continued under his successor, Caliph al-Hadi, and continued for some time during reign
of Harun al-Rashid, who finally abolished it and ended it.[76] During the reign of the 18th Abbasid Caliph
al-Muqtadir, many Manichaeans fled from Mesopotamia to Khorasan from fear of persecution by him and
about 500 of them assembled in Samarkand. The base of the religion was later shifted to this city, which
became their new Patriarchate.[53][78]

Manichaean pamphlets were still in circulation in Greek in 9th-century Byzantine Constantinople, as the
patriarch Photios summarizes and discusses one that he has read by Agapius in his Bibliotheca.

Later movements associated with Manichaeism

During the Middle Ages, several movements emerged that were collectively described as "Manichaean" by
the Catholic Church, and persecuted as Christian heresies through the establishment of the Inquisition in
1184.[89] They included the Cathar churches of Western Europe. Other groups sometimes referred to as
"neo-Manichaean" were the Paulician movement, which arose in Armenia,[90] and the Bogomils in
Bulgaria and Serbia.[91] An example of this usage can be found in the published edition of the Latin Cathar
text, the Liber de duobus principiis (Book of the Two Principles), which was described as "Neo-
Manichaean" by its publishers.[92] As there is no presence of Manichaean mythology or church
terminology in the writings of these groups, there has been some dispute among historians as to whether
these groups were descendants of Manichaeism.[93]

Manichaeism could have influenced the Bogomils, Paulicians, and Cathars. However, these groups left few
records, and the link between them and Manichaeans is tenuous. Regardless of its accuracy, the charge of
Manichaeism was leveled at them by contemporary orthodox opponents, who often tried to make
contemporary heresies conform to those combatted by the church fathers.[91]

Whether the dualism of the Paulicians, Bogomils, and Cathars and their belief that the world was created by
a Satanic demiurge were due to influence from Manichaeism is impossible to determine. The Cathars
apparently adopted the Manichaean principles of church organization. Priscillian and his followers may also
have been influenced by Manichaeism. The Manichaeans preserved many apocryphal Christian works,
such as the Acts of Thomas, that would otherwise have been lost.[91]

Present day

Some sites are preserved in Xinjiang, Zhejiang, and Fujian in China.[94][95] The Cao'an temple is the most
widely known, and best preserved Manichaean building,[34]: 256–257 though it later became associated with
Buddhism.[96] Other temples in China, solely associated with Manichaeism also exist, such as the
Xuanzhen Temple noted for its stele.

Chinese Manichaeans continue to practice the faith,[97] mainly in Fujian and Zhejiang.[16][17][98] Some
platforms on the internet and social media are trying to spread some of its teachings. Some people are
registered in these electronic sources, and some scholars and students in the field of religious studies and the
arts continue to study Manichaeism.[99]
Some Manichaeans exist in Afghanistan, Syria, and Iran.[100]

Teachings and beliefs

General

Mani's teaching dealt with the origin of evil, by addressing a theoretical

part of the problem of evil by denying the omnipotence of God and
postulating two opposite powers. Manichaean theology teaches a
dualistic view of good and evil. A key belief in Manichaeism is that the
powerful, though not omnipotent good power (God), was opposed by
the eternal evil power (devil). Humanity, the world, and the soul are Uyghur Manichaean clergymen,
seen as the by-product of the battle between God's proxy, Primal Man, wall painting from the Khocho
and the devil.[101] ruins, 10th/11th century CE.
Located in the Museum für
The human person is seen as a battle-ground for these powers: the soul Asiatische Kunst, Humboldt
defines the person, but it is under the influence of both light and dark. Forum, Berlin.
This contention plays out over the world as well as the human body—
neither the Earth nor the flesh were seen as intrinsically evil, but rather
possessed portions of both light and dark. Natural phenomena (such as
rain) were seen as the physical manifestation of this spiritual
contention. Therefore, the Manichaean view explained the existence of
evil by positing a flawed creation in the formation of which God took
no part and which constituted rather the product of a battle by the devil
against God.[101]
Worship of the Tree of Life in the
Cosmogony World of Light; a Manichaean
picture from the Bezeklik Caves
Manichaeism presents an elaborate description of the conflict between
the spiritual world of light and the material world of darkness. The
beings of both the world of darkness and the world of light have names. There are numerous sources for
the details of the Manichaean belief. There are two portions of Manichaean scriptures that are probably the
closest thing to the original Manichaean writings in their original languages that will ever be available.
These are the Syriac-Aramaic quotation by the Nestorian Christian Theodore bar Konai, in his Syriac
Scholion (Ketba de-Skolion, 8th century),[45] and the Middle Persian sections of Mani's Shabuhragan
discovered at Turpan (a summary of Mani's teachings prepared for Shapur I).[25]

From these and other sources, it is possible to derive an almost complete description of the detailed
Manichaean vision[102] (a complete list of Manichaean deities is outlined below). According to Mani, the
unfolding of the universe takes place with three "creations":

The First Creation

Originally, good and evil existed in two completely separate realms, one the World of Light
(Chinese: 明界 ), ruled by the Father of Greatness together with his five Shekhinas (divine
attributes of light), and the other the World of Darkness, ruled by the King of Darkness. At a
certain point, the Kingdom of Darkness notices the World of Light, becomes greedy for it
and attacks it. The Father of Greatness, in the first of three "creations" (or "calls"), calls to
the Mother of Life, who sends her son Original Man (Imperial Aramaic: Nāšā Qaḏmāyā), to
battle with the attacking powers of Darkness, which include the Demon of Greed. The
Original Man is armed with five different shields of light (reflections of the five Shekhinas),
 which he loses to the forces of darkness in the ensuing
battle, described as a kind of "bait" to trick the forces of
darkness, as the forces of darkness greedily consume as
much light as they can. When the Original Man comes to,
he is trapped among the forces of darkness.

The Second Creation

Then the Father of Greatness begins the Second
Creation, calling to the Living Spirit, who calls to his five
sons, and sends a call to the Original Man (Call then
becomes a Manichaean deity). An answer (Answer
becomes another Manichaean deity) then returns from the
Original Man to the World of Light. The Mother of Life, the
Living Spirit, and his five sons begin to create the
universe from the bodies of the evil beings of the World of
Darkness, together with the light that they have
swallowed. Ten heavens and eight earths are created, all
consisting of various mixtures of the evil material beings
from the World of Darkness and the swallowed light. The
sun, moon, and stars are all created from light recovered
from the World of Darkness. The waxing and waning of
the moon is described as the moon filling with light, which
passes to the sun, then through the Milky Way, and
eventually back to the World of Light.

The Third Creation

Great demons (called archons in bar-Khonai's account)
are hung out over the heavens, and then the Father of
Greatness begins the Third Creation. Light is recovered
from out of the material bodies of the male and female evil
beings and demons, by causing them to become sexually
aroused in greed, towards beautiful images of the beings Manichaean Diagram of the
of light, such as the Third Messenger and the Virgins of Universe depicts the Manichaean
Light. However, as soon as the light is expelled from their
cosmology.
bodies and falls to the earth (some in the form of abortions
– the source of fallen angels in the Manichaean myth), the
evil beings continue to swallow up as much of it as they
can to keep the light inside of them. This results eventually in the evil beings swallowing
huge quantities of light, copulating, and producing Adam and Eve. The Father of
Greatness then sends the Radiant Jesus to awaken Adam, and to enlighten him to the true
source of the light that is trapped in his material body. Adam and Eve, however, eventually
copulate, and produce more human beings, trapping the light in bodies of mankind
throughout human history. The appearance of the Prophet Mani was another attempt by
the World of Light to reveal to mankind the true source of the spiritual light imprisoned
within their material bodies.
 Analysis of Mani's cosmology as Heaven scene from the Manichaean Diagram
illustrated in the Manichaean
Diagram

"Maiden of
Light" from the
Manichaean
Diagram

Cosmology

In the sixth century, many Manichaeans saw "the earth" as "a rectangular parallelepiped enclosed by walls
of crystal, above which three [sky] domes" existed, with the other two being above and larger than the first
one and second one, respectively.[103] These represented the "three heavens" in Chaldean religion.[103]

Outline of the beings and events in the Manichaean mythology

Beginning with the time of its creation by Mani, the Manichaean religion has had a detailed description of
deities and events that took place within the Manichaean scheme of the universe. In every language and
region that Manichaeism spread to, these same deities reappear, whether it is in the original Syriac quoted
by Theodore bar Konai,[45] or the Latin terminology given by Saint Augustine from Mani's Epistola
Fundamenti, or the Persian and Chinese translations found as Manichaeism spread eastward. While the
original Syriac retained the original description that Mani created, the transformation of the deities through
other languages and cultures produced incarnations of the deities not implied in the original Syriac writings.
Chinese translations are especially syncretic, borrowing and adapting terminology common in Chinese
Buddhism.[104]

The World of Light

The Father of Greatness (Syriac: ‫ ܐܒܐ ܕܪܒܘܬܐ‬Abbā dəRabbūṯā; Middle Persian: pīd ī
wuzurgīh, or the Zoroastrian deity Zurwān; Parthian: Pidar wuzurgift, Pidar roshn; Chinese:
無上明尊 ; lit. 'Unsurpassed Divinity of Light' or 薩緩
lit. 'Zurvan')

His Four Faces (Greek: ὁ τετραπρόσωπος πατήρ τοῦ μεγέθους; Chinese: 四寂法身; lit.
'Four Silent Dharmakayas')[104]

清净)
Divinity (Middle Persian: yzd; Parthian: bg’; Chinese:
Light (Middle Persian and Parthian: rwšn; Chinese: 光明)
Power (Middle Persian: zwr; Parthian: z’wr’; Chinese: 大力)
Wisdom (Middle Persian: whyh; Parthian: jyryft’; Chinese: 智慧)
His Five Shekhinas (Syriac: ‫ ܚܡܫ ܫܟܝܢܬܗ‬khamesh shkhinatei; Chinese:
五種大 wǔ zhǒng dà, lit. 'five great ones'): [105][104]

Shekhina: Reason Mind Intelligence Thought Understanding

‫ܗܘܢܐ‬ ‫ܡܕܥܐ‬ ‫ܡܚܫܒܬܐ‬

Syriac ‫ ܪܥܝܢܐ‬reyānā ‫ ܬܪܥܝܬܐ‬tarʻiṯā
hawnā maddeʻā maḥšavṯɑ

Parthian bām manohmēd uš andēšišn parmānag

Chinese
相 xiāng, 心 xīn, "heart- 念 niàn, 思 sī, "thought" 意 yì, "meaning"
"phase" mind" "mindfulness"

Turkic qut ög köngül saqinç tuimaq

ἔννοια φρόνησις ἐνθύμησις λογισμός
Greek νοῦς (Nous)
(Ennoia) (Phronēsis) (Enthymēsis) (Logismos)

Latin mens sensus prudentia intellectus cogitatio

The Great Spirit (Middle Persian: Waxsh zindag, Waxsh yozdahr; Latin: Spiritus Potens)

The first creation

The Mother of Life (Syriac: ‫ ܐܡܐ ܕܚܝܐ‬imā dəḥayyē; Middle Persian: mʾdrʾy zyndgʾn;
Chinese: 善母佛; lit. 'Good Mother Buddha')
The First Man (Syriac: ‫ ܐܢܫܐ ܩܕܡܝܐ‬Nāšā Qaḏmāyā; Middle Persian: Ohrmazd Bay, the
Zoroastrian god of light and goodness; Latin: Primus Homo)

First Enthymesis (Middle Persian: hndyšyšn nxwysṯyn; Chinese: 先意

; lit. 'First
Understanding')
His five Sons (the five Light Elements; Parthian: panj rōšn; Middle Persian:
Amahrāspandān; Chinese: 五明子)[104]
 Ether (Parthian: ardāw; Middle Persian: frâwahr; Chinese: 氣)
Wind (Parthian and Middle Persian: wād; Chinese: 風)
Light (Parthian and Middle Persian: rōšn; Chinese: 明)
Water (Parthian and Middle Persian: āb; Chinese: 水)
Fire (Parthian and Middle Persian: ādur; Chinese: 火)
His sixth Son, the Answer-God (Syriac: ‫ ܥܢܝܐ‬ʻanyā; Parthian and Middle Persian:
xroshtag; Chinese: 勢至
Shì Zhì "The Power of Wisdom", a Chinese bodhisattva). The
answer sent by the First Man to the Call from the World of Light.
The Living Self (Parthian and Middle Persian: grīw zīndag, grīw rōšn; Chinese: 明性; lit.
'Light Nature') The anima mundi made up of the five Light Elements, identical with the
Suffering Jesus who is crucified in the world.

The second creation

The Friend of the Lights (Syriac: ‫ ܚܒܝܒ ܢܗܝܖܐ‬ḥaviv nehirē; Chinese: 樂明佛; lit. 'Enjoyer of
Lights')[104] Calls to:
The Great Builder (Syriac: ‫ ܒܢ ܖܒܐ‬ban rabbā; Chinese: 造相; lit. 'Creator of Forms') In
charge of creating the new world that will separate the darkness from the light. He calls to:
The Living Spirit (Syriac: ‫ ܪܘܚܐ ܚܝܐ‬ruḥā ḥayyā; Middle Persian: Mihryazd; Chinese: 淨活
風; pinyin: Jìnghuófēng; Latin: Spiritus Vivens; Greek: Ζων Πνευμα). Acts as a demiurge,
creating the structure of the material world.

His five Sons (Syriac: ‫ ܚܡܫܐ ܒܢܘܗܝ‬ḥamšā benawhy; Chinese: 五等驍健子; lit. 'Five
Valiant Sons')
The Keeper of the Splendour (Syriac: ‫ ܨܦܬ ܙܝܘܐ‬ṣfat ziwā; Latin: Splenditenens;
Chinese: 催光明使 ; lit. 'Urger of Enlightenment'). Holds up the ten heavens from
above.
The King of Glory (Syriac: ‫ ܡܠܟ ܫܘܒܚܐ‬mlex šuvḥā; Latin: Rex Gloriosus; Chinese:
地藏 Dìzàng "Earth Treasury", a Chinese bodhisattva).
The Adamas of Light (Syriac: ‫ ܐܕܡܘܣ ܢܘܗܪܐ‬adamus nuhrā; Latin: Adamas;
Chinese: 降魔使 ; pinyin: Jiàngmó shǐ). Fights with and overcomes an evil being in
the image of the King of Darkness.
The Great King of Honour (Syriac: ‫ ܡܠܟܐ ܪܒܐ ܕܐܝܩܪܐ‬malkā rabbā dikkārā; Dead
Sea Scrolls Imperial Aramaic: ‫ מלכא רבא דאיקרא‬malka raba de-ikara; Latin: Rex
Honoris; Chinese: 十天大王 ; pinyin: Shítiān Dàwáng; lit. 'Ten Heavens Great King'). A
being that plays a central role in The Book of Enoch (originally written in Aramaic), as
well as Mani's Syriac version of it, the Book of Giants. Sits in the seventh heaven of
the ten heavens (corresponding to the celestial spheres, the first seven of which
house the classical planets) and guards the entrance to the world of light.
Atlas (Syriac: ‫ ܣܒܠܐ‬sebblā; Latin: Atlas; Chinese: 持世主; pinyin: Chíshìzhǔ).
Supports the eight worlds from below.
 His sixth Son, the Call-God (Syriac: ‫ ܩܪܝܐ‬qaryā; Middle Persian: Padvaxtag; Chinese:
觀音 Guanyin "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]", the Chinese Bodhisattva of
Compassion). Sent from the Living Spirit to awaken the First Man from his battle with the
forces of darkness.

The third creation

The Third Messenger (Syriac: ‫ ܐܝܙܓܕܐ‬izgaddā; Middle Persian: narēsahyazad, Parthian:

hridīg frēštag; tertius legatus)
Jesus the Splendour (Syriac: ‫ ܝܫܘܥ ܙܝܘܐ‬Ishoʻ Ziwā; Chinese: 光明夷數; lit. 'Jesus of Bright
夷數精和
Light' or lit. 'Jesus the Essence of Harmony'). Sent to awaken Adam and Eve to the
source of the spiritual light trapped within their physical bodies.
The Maiden of Light (Middle Persian and Parthian: qnygrwšn; Chinese: 謹你嚧詵
, a phonetic
loan from Middle Persian)
The Twelve Virgins of Light (Syriac: ‫ ܬܪܬܥܣܪܐ ܒܬܘܠܬܐ‬tratʻesrā btultē; Middle Persian:
kanīgān rōšnān; Chinese: 日宮十二化女 ; pinyin: Rìgōng shí'èr huànǚ; lit. 'Sun Palace
[b][104]
Twelve Maidens of Transformation'). Reflected in the twelve constellations of the
Zodiac.
The Column of Glory (Syriac: ‫ ܐܣܛܘܢ ܫܘܒܚܐ‬esṭun šuvḥā; Middle Persian: srōš-ahrāy;
Chinese: 蘇露沙羅夷 ; pinyin: Sūlù shāluóyí and 盧舍那 , Lúshěnà, both phonetic from Middle
Persian: srōš-ahrāy). The path that souls take back to the World of Light; corresponds to the
Milky Way.
The Great Nous

His five Limbs (Chinese: 五體) (See "His Five Shekhinas" above.)
Reason
Mind
Intelligence
Thought
Understanding
The Just Judge (Parthian: d’dbr r’štygr; Chinese: 平等王; lit. 'Impartial King')
[104]

The Last God

The World of Darkness

The Prince of Darkness (Syriac: ‫ ܡܠܟ ܚܫܘܟܐ‬mlex ḥešoxā; Middle Persian: Ahriman, the
Zoroastrian supreme evil being)
His five evil kingdoms Evil counterparts of the five elements of light, the lowest being the
kingdom of Darkness.
His son (Syriac: ‫ ܐܫܩܠܘܢ‬Ashaklun; Middle Persian: Az, from the Zoroastrian demon,
Aži Dahāka)
His son's mate (Syriac: ‫ ܢܒܪܘܐܠ‬Nevro'el)
Their offspring – Adam and Eve (Middle Persian: Gehmurd and Murdiyanag)
 Giants (Fallen Angels, also Abortions): (Syriac: ‫ ܝܚܛܐ‬yaḥtē, "abortions" or "those that fell";
also: ‫’ ;ܐܪܟܘܢܬܐ‬Εγρήγοροι Egrēgoroi, "Giants"). Related to the story of the fallen angels in
the Book of Enoch (which Mani used extensively in The Book of Giants), and the ‫נפילים‬
nephilim described in Genesis (6:1–4).

The Manichaean Church

Organization

The Manichaean Church was divided into the Elect, who had taken upon themselves the vows of
Manichaeism, and the Hearers, those who had not, but still participated in the Church. The Elect were
forbidden to consume alcohol and meat, as well as to harvest crops or prepare food, due to Mani's claim
that harvesting was a form of murder against plants. The Hearers would therefore commit the sin of
preparing food, and would provide it to the Elect, who would in turn pray for the Hearers and cleanse them
of these sins.[107]

The terms for these divisions were already common since the days of early Christianity, however, it had a
different meaning in Christianity. In Chinese writings, the Middle Persian and Parthian terms are transcribed
phonetically (instead of being translated into Chinese).[108] These were recorded by Augustine of
Hippo.[109]

The Leader (Syriac: ‫ ܟܗܢܐ‬/kɑhnɑ/; Parthian: yamag; Chinese: 閻默

; pinyin: yánmò), Mani's
designated successor, seated as Patriarch at the head of the Church, originally in
Ctesiphon, from the ninth century in Samarkand. Two notable leaders were Mār Sīsin (or
Sisinnios), the first successor of Mani, and Abū Hilāl al-Dayhūri, an eighth-century leader.
12 Apostles (Latin: magistrī; Syriac: ‫ ܫܠܝܚܐ‬/ʃ(ə)liħe/; Middle Persian: možag; Chinese: ; 慕闍
pinyin: mùdū). Three of Mani's original apostles were Mār Pattī (Pattikios; Mani's father),
Akouas and Mar Ammo.
72 Bishops (Latin: episcopī; Syriac: ‫ ܐܦܣܩܘܦܐ‬/ʔappisqoppe/; Middle Persian: aspasag,
aftadan; Chinese: 薩波塞 ; pinyin: sàbōsāi or Chinese: 拂多誕
; pinyin: fúduōdàn; see also:
seventy disciples). One of Mani's original disciples who was specifically referred to as a
bishop was Mār Addā.
360 Presbyters (Latin: presbyterī; Syriac: ‫ ܩܫܝܫܐ‬/qaʃʃiʃe/; Middle Persian: mahistan;
Chinese: 默奚悉德; pinyin: mòxīxīdé)
The general body of the Elect (Latin: ēlēctī; Syriac: ‫ ܡܫܡܫܢܐ‬/m(ə)ʃamməʃɑne/; Middle
Persian: ardawan or dēnāwar; Chinese: 阿羅緩
; pinyin: āluóhuǎn or Chinese: ; 電那勿
pinyin: diànnàwù)
The Hearers (Latin: audītōrēs; Syriac: ‫ ܫܡܘܥܐ‬/ʃɑmoʿe/; Middle Persian: niyoshagan;
Chinese: 耨沙喭; pinyin: nòushāyàn)
Religious practices

Prayers
Evidently from Manichaean sources, Manichaeans observed daily prayers, either four for the hearers or
seven for the elect. The sources differ about the exact time of prayer. The Fihrist by al-Nadim, points them
after noon, mid-afternoon, just after sunset and at nightfall. Al-Biruni places the prayers at dawn, sunrise,
noon, and nightfall. The elect additionally pray at mid-afternoon, half an hour after nightfall and at
midnight. Al-Nadim's account of daily prayers is probably adjusted to coincide with the public prayers for
the Muslims, while Al-Birunis report may reflect an older tradition unaffected by Islam.[110][111]

When Al-Nadim's account of daily prayers had been the only detailed source available, there was a concern
that these practises had been only adapted by Muslims during the Abbasid Caliphate. However, it is clear
that the Arabic text provided by Al-Nadim corresponds with the descriptions of Egyptian texts from the
fourth century.[112]

Every prayer started with an ablution with water or, if water was not available, with other substances
comparable to ablution in Islam[113] and consisted of several blessings to the apostles and spirits. The
prayer consisted of prostrating oneself to the ground and rising again twelve times during every prayer.[114]
During day, Manichaeans turned towards the Sun and during night towards the Moon. If the Moon is not
visible at night, they turned towards north.[115]

Evident from Faustus of Mileve, Celestial bodies are not the subject of worship themselves, but are "ships"
carrying the light particles of the world to the supreme god, who can not be seen, since he exists beyond
time and space, and also the dwelling places for emanations of the supreme deity, such as Jesus the
Splendour.[115] According to the writings of Augustine of Hippo, ten prayers were performed, the first
devoted to the Father of Greatness, and the following to lesser deities, spirits and angels and finally towards
the elect, in order to be freed from rebirth and pain and to attain peace in the realm of light.[112]
Comparable, in the Uighur confession, four prayers are directed to the supreme God (Äzrua), the God of
the Sun and the Moon, and fivefold God and the buddhas.[115]

Primary sources
Mani wrote seven books, which contained the teachings of the religion. Only scattered fragments and
translations of the originals remain, most having been discovered in Egypt and Turkistan during the 20th
century.[32]

The original six Syriac writings are not preserved, although their Syriac names have been. There are also
fragments and quotations from them. A long quotation, preserved by the eighth-century Nestorian Christian
author Theodore Bar Konai,[45] shows that in the original Syriac Aramaic writings of Mani there was no
influence of Iranian or Zoroastrian terms. The terms for the Manichaean deities in the original Syriac
writings are in Aramaic. The adaptation of Manichaeism to the Zoroastrian religion appears to have begun
in Mani's lifetime however, with his writing of the Middle Persian Shabuhragan, his book dedicated to the
Sasanian emperor, Shapur I.[25]

In it, there are mentions of Zoroastrian divinities such as Ahura Mazda, Angra Mainyu, and Āz.
Manichaeism is often presented as a Persian religion, mostly due to the vast number of Middle Persian,
Parthian, and Sogdian (as well as Turkish) texts discovered by German researchers near Turpan in what is
now Xinjiang, China, during the early 1900s. However, from the vantage point of its original Syriac
descriptions (as quoted by Theodore Bar Khonai and outlined above), Manichaeism may be better
described as a unique phenomenon of Aramaic Babylonia, occurring in proximity to two other new
Aramaic religious phenomena, Talmudic Judaism and Mandaeism, which also appeared in Babylonia in
roughly the third century.
The original, but now lost, six sacred books of Manichaeism were
composed in Syriac Aramaic, and translated into other languages to help
spread the religion. As they spread to the east, the Manichaean writings
passed through Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, Tocharian, and
ultimately Uyghur and Chinese translations. As they spread to the west,
they were translated into Greek, Coptic, and Latin.[116] Most Manichaean
texts survived only as Coptic and Medieval Chinese translations of their
original, lost versions.[117]

Henning describes how this translation process evolved and influenced the
Manichaeans of Central Asia:

Beyond doubt, Sogdian was the national language of

the Majority of clerics and propagandists of the
Manichaean faith in Central Asia. Middle Persian
(Pārsīg), and to a lesser degree, Parthian (Pahlavānīg),
occupied the position held by Latin in the medieval
church. The founder of Manichaeism had employed
Syriac (his own language) as his medium, but
conveniently he had written at least one book in An image of the Buddha as
Middle Persian, and it is likely that he himself had one of the primary prophets
arranged for the translation of some or all of his on a Manichaean pictorial
numerous writings from Syriac into Middle Persian. roll fragment from
Thus the Eastern Manichaeans found themselves Chotscho, 10th century.
entitled to dispense with the study of Mani’s original
writings, and to continue themselves to reading the
Middle Persian edition; it presented small difficulty to
them to acquire a good knowledge of the Middle
Persian language, owing to its affinity with
Sogdian.[120]

Originally written in Syriac

Statue of prophet Mani as the
the Gospel of Mani (Syriac: ‫ ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ‬/ʔɛwwanɡallijon/; "Buddha of Light" in Cao'an Temple
Koinē Greek: εὐαγγέλιον "good news, gospel"). in Jinjiang, Fujian, "a Manichaean
Quotations from the first chapter were brought in Arabic temple in Buddhist disguise",[118]
by ibn al-Nadim, who lived in Baghdad at a time when which is considered "the only extant
there were still Manichaeans living there, in his 938 Manichean temple in China"[119]
book, the Fihrist, a catalog of all written books known to
him.
The Treasure of Life
The Treatise (Coptic: πραγματεία, pragmateia)
Secrets
The Book of Giants: Original fragments were discovered at Qumran (pre-Manichaean) and
Turpan.
Epistles: Augustine brings quotations, in Latin, from Mani's Fundamental Epistle in some of
his anti-Manichaean works.
Psalms and Prayers: A Coptic Manichaean Psalter, discovered in Egypt in the early 1900s,
was edited and published by Charles Allberry from Manichaean manuscripts in the Chester
 Beatty collection and in the Berlin Academy, 1938–9.

Originally written in Middle Persian

The Shabuhragan, dedicated to Shapur I: Original Middle Persian fragments were
discovered at Turpan, quotations were brought in Arabic by al-Biruni.

Other books
The Ardahang, the "Picture Book". In Iranian tradition, this was one of Mani's holy books that
became remembered in later Persian history, and was also called Aržang, a Parthian word
meaning "Worthy", and was beautified with paintings. Therefore, Iranians gave him the title
of "The Painter".
The Kephalaia of the Teacher (Κεφαλαια), "Discourses", found in Coptic translation.
On the Origin of His Body, the title of the Cologne Mani-Codex, a Greek translation of an
Aramaic book that describes the early life of Mani.[23]

Non-Manichaean works preserved by the Manichaean Church

Portions of the Book of Enoch literature such as the Book of Giants
Literature relating to the apostle Thomas (who by tradition went to India, and was also
venerated in Syria), such as portions of the Syriac The Acts of Thomas, and the Psalms of
Thomas. The Gospel of Thomas was also attributed to Manichaeans by Cyril of Jerusalem,
a fourth-century Church Father.[121]
The legend of Barlaam and Josaphat passed from an Indian story about the Buddha,
through a Manichaean version, before it transformed into the story of a Christian Saint in the
west.

Later works

In later centuries, as Manichaeism passed through

eastern Persian-speaking lands and arrived at the
Uyghur Khaganate ( 回鶻帝國 ), and eventually
摩尼教文獻 The Chinese Manichaean "Compendium"
the Uyghur kingdom of Turpan (destroyed around
1335), Middle Persian and Parthian prayers
(āfrīwan or āfurišn) and the Parthian hymn-cycles
(the Huwīdagmān and Angad Rōšnan created by Mar Ammo) were added to the Manichaean writings.[122]
A translation of a collection of these produced the Manichaean Chinese Hymnscroll (Chinese: 摩尼教下部
讚 ; pinyin: Móní-jiào Xiàbù Zàn, which Lieu translates as "Hymns for the Lower Section [i.e. the Hearers]
of the Manichaean Religion"[123]).

In addition to containing hymns attributed to Mani, it contains prayers attributed to Mani's earliest disciples,
including Mār Zaku, Mār Ammo and Mār Sīsin. Another Chinese work is a complete translation of the
Sermon of the Light Nous, presented as a discussion between Mani and his disciple Adda.[124]

Critical and polemic sources

Until discoveries in the 1900s of original sources, the only sources
for Manichaeism were descriptions and quotations from non-
Manichaean authors, either Christian, Muslim, Buddhist, or
Zoroastrian ones. While often criticizing Manichaeism, they also
quoted directly from Manichaean scriptures. This enabled Isaac de
Beausobre, writing in the 18th century, to create a comprehensive
work on Manichaeism, relying solely on anti-Manichaean
sources.[125][126] Thus quotations and descriptions in Greek and
Arabic have long been known to scholars, as have the long
quotations in Latin by Saint Augustine, and the extremely important
quotation in Syriac by Theodore Bar Konai.

Patristic depictions of Mani and Manichaeism

Eusebius commented as follows: Two female musicians depicted in a

Manichaean text

The error of the Manichees, which commenced at this

time.

— In the mean time, also, that madman Manes,

(Mani is of Persian or Semitic origin) as he was
called, well agreeing with his name, for his
demoniacal heresy, armed himself by the
perversion of his reason, and at the instruction of
Satan, to the destruction of many. He was a
barbarian in his life, both in speech and conduct,
but in his nature as one possessed and insane.
Accordingly, he attempted to form himself into a
Christ, and then also proclaimed himself to be the
very paraclete and the Holy Spirit, and with all this
was greatly puffed up with his madness. Then, as
if he were Christ, he selected twelve disciples, the
partners of his new religion, and after patching
together false and ungodly doctrines, collected
from a thousand heresies long since extinct, he
swept them off like a deadly poison, from Persia,
upon this part of the world. Hence the impious
name of the Manichaeans spreading among many,
even to the present day. Such then was the
occasion of this knowledge, as it was falsely
called, that sprouted up in these times.[127]

Acta Archelai
An example of how inaccurate some of these accounts could be can be seen in the account of the origins of
Manichaeism contained in the Acta Archelai. This was a Greek anti-Manichaean work written before 348,
most well known in its Latin version, which was regarded as an accurate account of Manichaeism until
refuted by Isaac de Beausobre in the 18th century:

In the time of the Apostles there lived a man named Scythianus, who is described as coming
"from Scythia", and also as being "a Saracen by race" ("ex genere Saracenorum"). He settled
in Egypt, where he became acquainted with "the wisdom of the Egyptians", and invented the
religious system that was afterwards known as Manichaeism. Finally he emigrated to Palestine,
and, when he died, his writings passed into the hands of his sole disciple, a certain
Terebinthus. The latter betook himself to Babylonia, assumed the name of Budda, and
endeavoured to propagate his master's teaching. But he, like Scythianus, gained only one
disciple, who was an old woman. After a while he died, in consequence of a fall from the roof
of a house, and the books that he had inherited from Scythianus became the property of the old
woman, who, on her death, bequeathed them to a young man named Corbicius, who had been
her slave. Corbicius thereupon changed his name to Manes, studied the writings of Scythianus,
and began to teach the doctrines that they contained, with many additions of his own. He
gained three disciples, named Thomas, Addas, and Hermas. About this time the son of the
Persian king fell ill, and Manes undertook to cure him; the prince, however, died, whereupon
Manes was thrown into prison. He succeeded in escaping, but eventually fell into the hands of
the king, by whose order he was flayed, and his corpse was hung up at the city gate.

A. A. Bevan, who quoted this story, commented that it "has no claim to be considered historical".[128]

View of Judaism in the Acta Archelai

According to Hegemonius' portrayal of Mani, the evil demiurge who created the world was the Jewish
Jehovah. Hegemonius reports that Mani said,

"It is the Prince of Darkness who spoke with Moses, the Jews and their priests. Thus the
Christians, the Jews, and the Pagans are involved in the same error when they worship this
God. For he leads them astray in the lusts he taught them." He goes on to state: "Now, he who
spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests he says is the archont of Darkness, and the
Christians, Jews, and pagans (ethnic) are one and the same, as they revere the same god. For in
his aspirations he seduces them, as he is not the god of truth. And so therefore all those who
put their hope in the god who spoke with Moses and the prophets have (this in store for
themselves, namely) to be bound with him, because they did not put their hope in the god of
truth. For that one spoke with them (only) according to their own aspirations.[129]

Central Asian and Iranian primary sources

In the early 1900s, original Manichaean writings started to come to light when German scholars led by
Albert Grünwedel, and then by Albert von Le Coq, began excavating at Gaochang, the ancient site of the
Manichaean Uyghur Kingdom near Turpan, in Chinese Turkestan (destroyed around AD 1300). While
most of the writings they uncovered were in very poor condition, there were still hundreds of pages of
Manichaean scriptures, written in three Iranian languages (Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian) and old
Uyghur. These writings were taken back to Germany and were analyzed and published at the Prussian
Academy of Sciences in Berlin, by Le Coq and others, such as Friedrich W. K. Müller and Walter Bruno
Henning. While the vast majority of these writings were written in a version of the Syriac script known as
Manichaean script, the German researchers, perhaps for lack of suitable fonts, published most of them using
the Hebrew alphabet (which could easily be substituted for the 22 Syriac letters).

Perhaps the most comprehensive of these publications was Manichaeische Dogmatik aus chinesischen und
iranischen Texten (Manichaean Dogma from Chinese and Iranian texts), by Ernst Waldschmidt and
Wolfgang Lentz, published in Berlin in 1933.[130] More than any other research work published before or
since, this work printed, and then discussed, the original key Manichaean texts in the original scripts, and
consists chiefly of sections from Chinese texts, and Middle Persian and Parthian texts transcribed with the
Hebrew alphabet. After the Nazi Party gained power in Germany, the Manichaean writings continued to be
published during the 1930s, but the publishers no longer used Hebrew letters, instead transliterating the
texts into Latin letters.

Coptic primary sources

Additionally, in 1930, German researchers in Egypt found a large body of Manichaean works in Coptic.
Though these were also damaged, hundreds of complete pages survived and, beginning in 1933, were
analyzed and published in Berlin before World War II, by German scholars such as Hans Jakob
Polotsky.[131] Some of these Coptic Manichaean writings were lost during the war.[132]

Chinese primary sources

After the success of the German researchers, French scholars visited China and discovered what is perhaps
the most complete set of Manichaean writings, written in Chinese. These three Chinese writings, all found
at the Mogao Caves among the Dunhuang manuscripts, and all written before the 9th century, are today
kept in London, Paris, and Beijing. Some of the scholars involved with their initial discovery and
publication were Édouard Chavannes, Paul Pelliot, and Aurel Stein. The original studies and analyses of
these writings, along with their translations, first appeared in French, English, and German, before and after
World War II. The complete Chinese texts themselves were first published in Tokyo, Japan in 1927, in the
Taishō Tripiṭaka, volume 54. While in the last thirty years or so they have been republished in both
Germany (with a complete translation into German, alongside the 1927 Japanese edition),[133] and China,
the Japanese publication remains the standard reference for the Chinese texts.

Greek life of Mani, Cologne codex

In Egypt, a small codex was found and became known through antique dealers in Cairo. It was purchased
by the University of Cologne in 1969. Two of its scientists, Henrichs and Koenen, produced the first
edition known since as the Cologne Mani-Codex, which was published in four articles in the Zeitschrift für
Papyrologie und Epigraphik. The ancient papyrus manuscript contained a Greek text describing the life of
Mani. Thanks to this discovery, much more is known about the man who founded one of the most
influential world religions of the past.[134]

Figurative use
The terms "Manichaean" and "Manichaeism" are sometimes used figuratively as a synonym of the more
general term "dualist" with respect to a philosophy, outlook, or world-view.[135] The terms are often used
to suggest that the world-view in question simplistically reduces the world to a struggle between good and
evil. For example, Zbigniew Brzezinski used the phrase "Manichaean paranoia" in reference to U.S.
president George W. Bush's world-view (in The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, 14 March 2007); Brzezinski
elaborated that he meant "the notion that he [Bush] is leading the forces of good against the 'Axis of evil.' "
Author and journalist Glenn Greenwald followed up on the theme in describing Bush in his book A Tragic
Legacy (2007).

The term is frequently used by critics to describe the attitudes and foreign policies of the United States and
its leaders.[136][137][138]

Philosopher Frantz Fanon frequently invoked the concept of Manicheanism in his discussions of violence
between colonizers and the colonized.[139]

In My Secret History, author Paul Theroux's protagonist defines the word Manichaean for the protagonist's
son as "seeing that good and evil are mingled." Before explaining the word to his son, the protagonist
mentions Joseph Conrad's short story "The Secret Sharer" at least twice in the book, the plot of which also
examines the idea of the duality of good and evil.[140]

See also
Manichaean art
Athinganoi, a purportedly related movement
Abū Hilāl al-Dayhūri (8th century)
Agapius (Manichaean) (4th or 5th century)
Akouas
Ancient Mesopotamian religion
The Buddha in Manichaeism
Chinese Manichaeism
Good and evil
Dualism in cosmology
Hiwi al-Balkhi
Indo-Iranian religion
Mar Ammo (third century)
Mazdak
Ming Cult
Moral realism
Abu Isa al-Warraq
Yazdânism
Yazidi
Zurvanism

Notes
a. "According to the Fehrest, Mani was of Arsacid stock on both his father's and his mother's
sides, at least if the readings al-ḥaskāniya (Mani's father) and al-asʿāniya (Mani's mother)
are corrected to al-aškāniya and al-ašḡāniya (ed. Flügel, 1862, p. 49, ll. 2 and 3)
respectively. The forefathers of Mani's father are said to have been from Hamadan and so
perhaps of Iranian origin (ed. Flügel, 1862, p. 49, 5–6). The Chinese Compendium, which
makes the father a local king, maintains that his mother was from the house Jinsajian,
explained by Henning as the Armenian Arsacid family of Kamsarakan (Henning, 1943, p. 52,
n. 4 1977, II, p. 115). Is that fact, or fiction, or both? The historicity of this tradition is assumed
 by most, but the possibility that Mani's noble Arsacid background is legendary cannot be
ruled out (cf. Scheftelowitz, 1933, pp. 403–4). In any case, it is characteristic that Mani took
pride in his origin from time-honored Babel, but never claimed affiliation to the Iranian upper
class." – Manichaeism (http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mani-founder-manicheism) at
Encyclopædia Iranica
b. These are apparently the 'twelve centuries clothed with flowers and full of melodies'
(duodecim saecula floribus convestita et canoribus plena) at St Augustine, Contra Faustum
15.5[106]

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p. 357–378.
Legge, Francis (1964) [1914]. Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, From 330 B.C. to 330
A.D. (https://archive.org/details/forerunnersrival00legg). New York: University Books. LC
Catalog 64-24125. reprinted in two volumes bound as one
Lieu, Samuel N.C. (1992). Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China (htt
ps://archive.org/details/manichaeisminlat00lieu). Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-0-
7190-1088-0.
Ma, Xiaohe; Wang, Chuan (2018). "On the Xiapu Ritual Manual Mani the Buddha of Light" (h
ttps://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel9070212). Religions. 9 (7): 212. doi:10.3390/rel9070212 (https://
doi.org/10.3390%2Frel9070212).
Mani (216–276/7) and his 'biography': the Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis (CMC):
Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy (h
ttps://archive.org/details/greatconversatio00norm). McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-19-517510-3.
Runciman, Steven (1982) [1947]. The Medieval Manichee: a study of the Christian dualist
heresy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-28926-9.
Skjaervo, Prods Oktor (2006). An Introduction to Manicheism (https://archive.org/details/skja
ervo-2006-intro-manicheism).
Towers, Susanna (2019). Constructions of Gender in Late Antique Manichaean
Cosmological Narrative. Brepols. Turnhout.
Welburn, Andrew (1998). Mani, the Angel and the Column of Glory. Edinburgh: Floris.
ISBN 978-0-86315-274-0.
 Widengren, Geo (1965). Mani and Manichaeism. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Wurst, Gregor (July 2001). "Die Bema-Psalmen". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 60 (3):
203–204. doi:10.1086/468925 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F468925).

Further reading
Scheftelowitz, J. Is Manicheism an Iranic Religion? Part I. 1924.

External links

Outside articles
Catholic Encyclopedia – Manichæism (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09591a.htm) public
domain, published 1917.
International Association of Manichaean Studies (http://www.manichaeism.de)
Manichaean and Christian Remains in Zayton (Quanzhou, South China) (http://www.anchist.
mq.edu.au/doccentre/Zayton.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080719190544/h
ttp://www.anchist.mq.edu.au/doccentre/Zayton.htm) 19 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine
Religions of Iran: Manichaeism (http://www.iranchamber.com/religions/articles/manichaeism
1.php) by I.J.S. Taraporewala
专题研究–摩尼教研究 (http://www.guoxue.com/study/monijiao/mxh_001.htm) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20160304195504/http://www.guoxue.com/study/monijiao/mxh_001.
htm) 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
《光明皇帝》明尊教背景书(1) (http://vip.book.sina.com.cn/book/chapter_41799_25418.html)
Manichaean sources in English translation
A summary of the Manichaean creation myth (http://gnosis.org/library/Mani.html)
Manichaean Writings (http://gnosis.org/library/manis.htm)
Manicheism (https://web.archive.org/web/20071206031128/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~iran
ian/Manicheism/). Complete bibliography and selection of Manichaean source texts in PDF
format:
A thorough bibliography and outline of Manichaean Studies (http://www.fas.harvard.edu/
~iranian/Manicheism/Manicheism_I_Intro.pdf)
A number of key Manichaean texts in English translation (http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~ira
nian/Manicheism/Manicheism_II_Texts.pdf)
The Book of the Giants (http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/giants/giants.htm) by W.B. Henning,
1943
Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies (https://brill.com/view/serial/NHMS) (NHMS) series
from Brill (various volumes containing English translations of Manichaean texts)

Secondary Manichaean sources in English translation

St. Augustine Against the Fundamental Epistle of Manichaeus
 Acta Archelai (https://web.archive.org/web/20081223141441/http://www4.nau.edu/manichae
an/acta.htm)

Manichaean sources in their original languages

Photos of the Entire Koeln Mani-Kodex (http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/NRWakademie/p
apyrologie/Manikodex/bildermani.html) (Greek).
The Syriac Manichaean work quoted by Theodor bar Khonai (https://web.archive.org/web/20
110711161236/http://www.hebrewchinese.com/maninaya.pdf)
Photos of the Original Middle Persian Manichaean Writings/Fragments Discovered at
Turpan (https://web.archive.org/web/20070403174337/http://www.bbaw.de/forschung/turfanf
orschung/dta/m/dta_m_index.htm) (The index of this German site can be searched for
additional Manichaean material, including photos of the original Chinese Manichaean
writings)
"Sermon of the Soul", in Parthian and Sogdian (http://armazi.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etc
s/iran/miran/manich/sermseel/serms.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201312240
92154/http://armazi.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/iran/miran/manich/sermseel/serms.htm)
24 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
Middle Persian and Parthian Texts (http://www.azargoshnasp.net/languages/Pahlavi/pahlav
i.htm)
D. N. MacKenzie, Mani's Šābuhragān, pt. 1 (text and translation), BSOAS 42/3, 1979,
pp. 500–34,[1] (https://web.archive.org/web/20120322023046/http://www.essenes.net/pdf/M
ani%27s%20Sabuhragan.pdf) pt. 2 (glossary and plates), BSOAS 43/2, 1980, pp. 288–310
[2] (https://web.archive.org/web/20120324163131/http://www.essenes.net/pdf/Mani%20Sabu
hraganII%20.pdf).
Chinese Manichaean Scriptures: 摩尼教殘經一 (http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/sutra/chi_pdf/s
utra22/T54n2141B.pdf) ("Incomplete Sutra one of Manichaeism") & 摩尼光佛教法儀略 (http://
ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/sutra/chi_pdf/sutra22/T54n2141A.pdf)("The Mani Bright Buddha
teaching plan") & 下部讚(http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/sutra/chi_pdf/sutra22/T54n2140.pdf)
("The Lower Part Praises")

Secondary Manichaean sources in their original languages

Augustine's Contra Epistolam Manichaei (https://web.archive.org/web/20060629224313/htt
p://www.sant-agostino.it/latino/contro_lettera_mani/index.htm) (Latin)

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