THE JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION VOL. 37/NO.

3/1

What Is Special About Special Education for Students

with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders?

Timothy J. Landrum, University of

Virginia Melody Tankersley, Kent State
University James M. Kauffman, University
of Virginia

Although students with emotional or behavioral disorders have historically experienced poor school
outcomes compared to other students with and without disabilities, a number of effective practices
are available that can make special education for students with emotional or behavioral disorders
special. Within the three broad intervention areas of inappropriate behavior, academic learning
problems, and interpersonal relationships, we provide a brief overview of a number of empirically
validated prac- tices. We argue that teaching students with emotional or behavioral disorders
demands unique inter- ventions that are beyond that typically available or necessary in general
education. We conclude that special education is special for students with emotional or behavioral
disorders and that it can be even more special with greater efforts at implementing research-based
practices early, with integrity, and sustaining these interventions over the course of students’ school
careers.

Describing what is special about special education for stu- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2001).
dents with emotional or behavioral disorders (EBD) presents Most likely, those served are students with the most severe
a uniquely difficult challenge, given that students with EBD prob- lems and intense needs. Simple logic suggests that
probably experience less school success than any other sub- failing to identify students early and circumscribing the
group of students with or without disabilities. It has been population to include only those with the most extreme and
well documented that students with disabilities experience protracted prob- lems does not portend success (Kauffman,
poorer outcomes than do their nondisabled peers (e.g., 1999; Walker, Col- vin, & Ramsey, 1995). Thus, it is not
Blackorby & Wagner, 1996), but for students with EBD in surprising that concerns about the effectiveness of special
particular, the out- look for school and later life success has education are particularly serious with regard to students
historically been quite bleak. Students with EBD generally with EBD.
earn lower grades, fail more courses, are retained in grade
Despite the challenges associated with education and
more often, pass mini- mum competency tests at lower rates,
treatment of students with EBD, credible research supports a
and have more difficulty adjusting to adult life than do
number of promising interventions (see Dunlap & Childs,
students with other disabilities (Frank, Sitlington, & Carson,
1996; Shinn, Walker, & Stoner, 2002). In this article, we ad-
1995; Koyangi & Gaines, 1993). Perhaps one of the greatest
dress three questions with regard to the literature on
obstacles to improving their out- comes is school attendance:
effective practices for students with EBD:
It has been estimated that 43% to 56% of students with EBD
drop out of school, a rate almost twice that for all students
1. What research-based practices offer the most
with disabilities (Marder, 1992).
promise for working effectively with
This relatively negative assessment of the current state students with EBD?
of affairs for students with EBD demands some qualification 2. Are these effective practices implemented
and, in fact, should not be taken as evidence of an inability with regularity and fidelity in schools and
to intervene effectively. For example, students with EBD are class- rooms?
not typically identified at an early age, when their problems
3. Are these practices unique to the field of
are most amenable to treatment (Walker et al., 1996), but
special education, or do they simply
much later in their development, when problems are
reflect sound educational practice?
predictably se- vere and intractable. Moreover, probably
only a fraction of those who need intervention for their
In other words, is special education for students with EBD
emotional or behavioral disorders are actually identified and
special?
served (Kauffman, 2001;
2 THE JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION VOL. 37/NO. 3/2003/PP. 148–156

Address: Timothy J. Landrum, University of Virginia, 235 Ruffner Hall, 405 Emmet St., Charlottesville, VA 22904; e-mail: [email protected]
 THE JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION VOL. 37/NO. 3/3

Effective Practices for EBD Interventions for Inappropriate Behavior

Although the challenges that students with EBD present can
Although there may be risk in treating the population of stu- seem complex and insurmountable, one could argue that
dents with EBD as a homogenous group, it proves useful to these difficulties can be explained as a combination of
structure a discussion of effective practice with some gener- behavioral excesses (too much negative behavior) and
alizations about the behavior and performance of students deficits (not enough appropriate behavior). We do not mean
identified with EBD. First, by definition, students with EBD, to reduce the constellation of problems experienced by most
compared to students without behavior problems, tend to students with EBD to a simple matter of contingencies;
dis- play disproportionately high rates of inappropriate however, credible evidence has suggested that successful
behavior and, conversely, low rates of positive behavior interventions for these students must be built on a behavioral
(Walker, Hops, & Greenwood, 1993; Walker, Shinn, O’Neill, foundation (e.g., Walker et al., 1995; Walker, Kavanagh, et
& Ramsey, 1987). Second, they tend to experience academic al., 1998). The basic con- cept underlying behavioral
difficulties that are at least related, if not causally linked, to procedures is a simple one:
their behavioral ex- cesses and deficits (Dishion, Patterson,
Stoolmiller, & Skinner, 1991; Kupersmidt & Coie, 1990;
1. Environmental cues, or antecedents, set
Lipsey & Derzon, 1998; Lloyd, Hallahan, Kauffman, &
the occasion for behavior.
Keller, 1998). Finally, students with EBD typically have
2. Behavior occurs.
social difficulty in relating to both peers and adults (Walker,
3. A consequence ensues; that is, a new
1995; Walker et al., 1995). In each of these three contexts—
stimulus is added or a stimulus already
inappropriate behavior, academic learn- ing problems, and
present is avoided or withdrawn (see Alberto
ineffectual interpersonal relationships—we consider the
& Troutman, 2003).
extent to which the field has developed a set of effective
practices. In Table 1, we have listed for each of these
This behavioral equation allows two points for intervention
contexts some potential target areas for intervention and ex-
— prior to the behavioral occurrence (i.e., antecedent) and
amples of specific practices that have empirical support. It
after the behavior occurs (i.e., consequence).
should be noted that these lists are not exhaustive but repre-
Although a vast literature supports the application of
sentative of potential targets and effective practices that ad-
behavioral procedures in education (e.g., Kauffman,
dress what we believe are the areas of greatest need for most
Mostert, Trent, & Hallahan, 2002; Shinn et al., 2002;
children and adolescents with EBD. Following is a brief
Walker et al., 1995), it is perplexing that some question the
overview of the interventions listed in Table 1.
value of such interventions (e.g., Kohn, 1993), while others
disagree over

TABLE 1. Promising Interventions for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (EBD)

Characteristics of
students with EBD Potential targets of intervention Examples of effective practices

Inappropriate behavior Excesses • Reinforcement (positive, differential, negative)

• Aggression • Precision requests
• Disruptive classroom behavior • Behavioral momentum

Deficits • Time-out
• Social withdrawal • Response cost
• Noncompliance • Group-oriented contingencies (e.g., the Good Behavior Game)
• Continuous monitoring of student performance (e.g., single-
subject research evaluation methods)

Academic learning • Achievement • Direct instruction

problems • Attention to task • Self-monitoring
• Academic responding • ClassWide Peer Tutoring
• Reciporcal Peer Tutoring • Continuous monitoring of student performance (e.g., curriculum-
based measurement, single-subject research evaluation methods)

Unsatisfactory inter- • Social skills • Direct instruction of individually targeted behaviors

personal relationships • Language skills • Modifying antecedents and consequences
• Opportunity to practice in natural settings
 150 THE JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION VOL. 37/NO. 3/2003

fundamental aspects of behavioral concepts (see Biederman, in-

Davey, Ryder, & Franchi, 1994; Ward, 1995). In our view,
be- havioral procedures are woefully misunderstood (see
Maag, 2001; Walker, Forness, et al., 1998) and, as we
discuss in a later section, may frequently be implemented
incorrectly or insufficiently, leading to the erroneous
conclusion that be- havioral procedures do not work. We
take the overwhelming empirical evidence that has accrued
over the past 30 years as good reason for educators working
with students with EBD to focus considerable attention on
altering antecedents and consequences in the environment to
increase the likelihood that appropriate behavior will occur
and reduce the likelihood that inappropriate behavior will
occur.

Altering Antecedents. Among the most challenging and

far-reaching behaviors frequently demonstrated by students
with EBD is noncompliance (Patterson, Reid, & Dishion,
1992; Walker, 1995). Noncompliance in school situations
refers to refusal of or lack of appropriate response to the
directive of an adult who has made a request of the student
(Walker & Walker, 1991). The likelihood of a student
complying with a directive may be enhanced by the way the
directive is delivered—an antecedent to compliance. Two
methods of framing directives have been shown to increase
the probability of students’ com- plying: precision requests
(Montgomery & Ayllon, 1993; Neville & Jenson, 1984;
Rhode, Jensen, & Reavis, 1993) and behavioral momentum,
also called interspersal training and pretask requesting
(Mace et al., 1988; Munk & Repp, 1994; Singer, Singer, &
Horner, 1987). Precision requests involve de- livering
directives in a format that (a) is predictable for students (uses
discriminative stimuli), (b) incorporates consequences (re-
inforcement for compliance and punishment for noncompli-
ance), and (c) provides opportunity for the child to comply
(wait time). Behavioral momentum involves the teacher de-
livering a set of high-probability directives (i.e., those that
the student is most likely to engage in or comply with)
before de- livering the low-probability directive (i.e., the
request that the student is most likely to refuse).

Altering Consequences. Consequences occur after the

production of a behavior and have the effect of either
increas- ing or decreasing the future rate or probability of
the behav- ior. Reinforcement is the consequence if the
future rate of the behavior increases, and punishment is the
consequence if the future rate of the behavior decreases. One
of the most obvi- ous examples of altering consequences in
classrooms involves an easy-to-implement application of
reinforcement. Specifi- cally, the effect of positive teacher
attention, or praise, on the social and academic behavior of
students with behavioral prob- lems is well established. Even
two decades ago, Strain, Lam- bert, Kerr, Stagg, and
Lenkner (1983) suggested that “literally hundreds of
classroom based studies have shown that teach- ers’ delivery
of social reinforcement can result in improved academic
performance . . . rule-following and good school de-
portment . . . cognitive and linguistic performance . . . and
 THE JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION VOL. 37/NO. 3/151

creased social responsiveness” (p. 243). Descriptions of can be delivered individually or to groups of students to alter
praise and its effective use are abundant in the special the occurrence of behavior. Group-oriented contingencies
education lit- erature (e.g., Alberto & Troutman, 2003). By are those in which consequences for the entire group are
definition, praise must first be contingent (i.e., delivered based
only when a targeted appropriate behavior is displayed); to
be effective, it should also be immediate, specific, and
descriptive, so that the stu- dent understands exactly what
behavior is being acknowl- edged (Sutherland, Copeland, &
Wehby, 2001); and finally, it should result in an increase in
the occurrence of the behavior targeted. Indeed, for any
consequence to be a reinforcer, there must be an increase in
the future rate of the behavior.
Punishments are consequences that reduce the
occurrence of behavior. There are four general classes of
punishment:

1. those that rely on reinforcement strategies

(e.g., differential reinforcement of other
behavior, differential reinforcement of
incompatible behavior);
2. extinction (terminating reinforcement);
3. removal of desirable stimuli; and
4. presentation of aversive stimuli (Alberto
& Troutman, 2003).

Although each class of punishment uses different

techniques, all four classes claim the same effect of
reducing behavior. Given its obvious focus on negative
behavior and behavior re- duction, punishment as a whole
has been the source of some controversy (see Repp &
Singh, 1990). However, this con- troversy is primarily
aimed at one class of punishment—the presentation of
aversive stimuli—because the potential for mis- use of
aversives is great.
Because of the typically well-developed nature of the
behavioral problems of students with EBD (Patterson et al.,
1992), no single technique will be sufficient to make
behav- ioral progress for most of these students. Therefore,
use of punishment techniques to reduce inappropriate
behaviors is often necessary in conjunction with use of
reinforcement tech- niques to teach or increase appropriate
behavior. Evidence suggests that two punishment
techniques in particular, time- out from positive
reinforcement (Salend & Gordon, 1987) and response cost
(Proctor & Morgan, 1991), are among the eas- iest to
implement and the most effective strategies available to the
classroom teacher for reducing students’ inappropriate
behaviors (Walker, 1995; Witt & Elliott, 1982). Time-out
from positive reinforcement involves the student losing the
oppor- tunity to be reinforced for a specified amount of
time when inappropriate behavior occurs, and response cost
involves the removal of a privilege or an earned reinforcer
when inappro- priate behavior occurs. In both cases, the
techniques are de- signed to reduce the frequency or rate of
negative behavior, but neither involves the delivery of
aversives.
Consequences, whether reinforcement or punishment,
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on the performance of one or more individuals within the ClassWide Peer Tutoring (CWPT; see Delquadri,
group (Kauffman et al., 2002). The Good Behavior Game Green- wood, Whorton, Carta, & Hall, 1986) and Reciprocal
(GBG), for example, has repeatedly been shown to decrease Peer Tu- toring (RPT; e.g., Fantuzzo, King, & Heller, 1992;
disruptive and aggressive behaviors in the classroom (Dar- Pigott, Fantuzzo, & Clement, 1986) have also been shown to
veaux, 1984; Dolan et al., 1993; Harris & Sherman, 1973). increase students’ academic engagement and responding
Originally introduced by Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf (1969), rates. Both techniques use a peer-tutoring format and are
the GBG relies on the presentation of group contingencies in based on the re- inforcement principles of group-oriented
the context of team competition that enlists peer influence contingencies. CWPT requires students to respond in a
for supporting positive behavior. A body of research has game-like format while their peer partners determine the
shown that while playing the GBG, students display fewer accuracy of their responses. RPT, which has been used
episodes of disruptiveness, such as being out of seat and primarily in the context of mathematics instruction, also
talking out (see Tankersley, 1995). incorporates self-monitoring procedures. Be- cause CWPT
and RPT provide a format for peers to supervise academic
Interventions for Academic Learning responding, students can engage in direct practice of specific
Problems academic skills with opportunity for immediate error
correction or reinforcement.
Examining the academic problems of students with EBD de- Attention to task is another academic-related skill that
mands attention to both the achievement problems that students with EBD often lack (Kauffman, 2001). At mini-
typify this population and the behavioral characteristics that mum, attention is the critical first step in engaging students
proba- bly further inhibit their school performance (see academically so that they can best profit from instruction.
Kauffman, 2001). Although academic-related behaviors such Self-monitoring is one strategy that has been effective for in-
as attention to task, academic engagement, and academic creasing students’ attention to task. The term self-monitoring
responding are critical for making students available for (other terms include self-recording or self-management)
learning, improve- ments in these behaviors may be short- refers to a set of interventions that involve teaching students
lived if students do not simultaneously receive appropriate sys- tematic procedures for observing, evaluating, and
instruction for their skill deficits (Broughton & Lahey, recording their own behavior during specific times (e.g.,
1978). Consequently, interven- tions must target not only during inde- pendent seatwork). A rich literature base has
effective instruction designed to en- hance achievement documented the effectiveness of self-management
(e.g., direct instruction) but also learning strategies that procedures (see reviews by Lloyd, Forness, & Kavale, 1998;
enhance students’ ability to attend to instruc- tion, retain Lloyd, Landrum, & Halla- han, 1991). Generally, the
information, and apply knowledge in appropriate contexts. procedures are easy to implement, and positive results have
Among instructional strategies, direct instruction has been observed in both students’ rates of on-task behavior and
per- haps the richest empirical history in enhancing the their academic productivity (Lloyd, Bateman, Landrum, &
academic achievement of struggling learners. As Walker et Hallahan, 1989).
al. (1995) ar- gued, though, there is a paucity of research Another important feature of effective intervention for
focusing specifi- cally on academic interventions for students with EBD involves the continuous monitoring of
students with the serious behavior problems typical of EBD. stu- dent performance (e.g., Kauffman et al., 1991). This
Nonetheless, we agree with their assessment that “direct ongoing monitoring is as important for behavioral
instruction has a number of fea- tures that are particularly interventions as it is for academic instruction. In the context
suitable for meeting these chal- lenging needs” (p. 101). One of academic in- struction, curriculum-based measurement
of the key advantages of direct instruction for low-achieving (CBM) uses students’ performance on brief, standardized
students is its emphasis on aca- demic engagement. Research measurements based on the curriculum in which students are
has shown that academic achieve- ment is significantly working as the basis for decision making (Deno, 1985; this
related to academic engagement rates, or the proportion of issue). Similarly, behav- ioral intervention effectiveness is
instructional time during which students are engaged in also enhanced when inter- ventions are designed (e.g.,
learning, as demonstrated by behaviors such as attending to functional assessment), modified, and evaluated (i.e.,
task, working on assignments, and participat- ing in class comparisons are made between baseline and intervention
activities (e.g., Greenwood, 1991; Greenwood, Delquadri, & levels of behavior) using ongoing, repeated measurement of
Hall, 1984)—critical areas of behavior in which students the target behaviors (e.g., Kazdin, 1982).
with EBD often have problems (Walker et al., 1995). Thus,
the key features of direct instruction—including the
structure, sequencing, and pacing of instruction, as well as Interventions for Interpersonal
the provision of frequent corrective feedback and Relationships
opportunities for practice of newly acquired skills—provide
By definition, students with EBD invariably experience
unique oppor- tunities for advancing the academic success
diffi- culty in their interpersonal relationships with peers and
of students with EBD.
adults. Thus, social skills intervention is a standard
component of vir- tually all programming for these students.
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Despite its preva- lence, though, the effectiveness of social

skills intervention is
 154 THE JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION VOL. 37/NO. 3/2003

routinely called into question. In summaries of the interven- contingent

tion literature based on meta-analyses (e.g., Forness, Kavale,
Blum, & Lloyd, 1997; Lloyd, Forness, & Kavale, 1998), so-
cial skills interventions have not shown promising effect
sizes. One explanation for this overall view of social skills
inter- ventions as ineffective is that most interventions are
generic in nature (e.g., packaged curricula delivered to an
entire class or even an entire school).
Gresham (2002) argued that social skills interventions
for students with EBD must be based on carefully and in-
dividually targeted behaviors that serve to (a) promote skill
acquisition, (b) enhance skill performance, (c) remove com-
peting problem behaviors, and/or (d) facilitate
generalization. Moreover, Walker and his colleagues (see
Walker, Schwarz, Nippold, Irvin, & Noell, 1994)
recommended (a) teaching so- cial skills as one would teach
any academic subject, relying on the same effective
instructional procedures (e.g., direct in- struction) and (b)
accompanying social skills instruction with planned
response opportunities, consistent feedback on per-
formance, and the use of contingencies, particularly in
natural settings as newly acquired skills are applied. Such
recom- mendations, although not specific to one intervention
per se, are based on the effective practices for academic and
behav- ioral skills noted here earlier.
Another consideration in relation to social skills is stu-
dents’ ability to use language effectively. Research has
shown that a large proportion of students with EBD have
language dis- orders (see Rogers-Adkinson & Griffith,
1999), particularly in the area of pragmatic language skills
—those skills associ- ated with the use of language and
nonverbal communication in social situations. Because the
field is just beginning to study the relationship between
language and behavior problems (Rogers-Adkinson &
Griffith, 1999), specific effective prac- tices for students
with EBD have not been well established. However,
techniques based on known effective practices, such as
varying antecedents (e.g., directives) and providing oppor-
tunities for students to work together (e.g., CWPT), allow
students to practice teacher-to-student and student-to-student
communication in the natural environment of the classroom
(Audet & Tankersley, 1999).

Is Research Translated Into Practice?

Despite the growing list of research-based approaches avail-
able for intervening with the behavioral, learning, and social
problems characteristic of students with EBD, the research-
to-practice dilemmas that plague all of special education are
equally problematic here. Research has shown that many of
the effective practices are not routinely implemented (e.g.,
Meadows, Neel, Scott, & Parker, 1994; Shores et al., 1993).
As Kauffman (1996) asserted, there may even be an inverse
relationship between implementation of an instructional
prac- tice and its research support. One of the most glaring
examples in the case of students with EBD is in the area of
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teacher attention. A number of observational studies have behaviors are stable

shown that teachers infrequently use positive attention in
their class- rooms. In an early study of teacher responses
to behavior, Strain et al. (1983) found that teacher attention
followed com- pliance only about 10% of the time and,
further, that 82% of the children in their study who were
rated low in social ad- justment never received positive
consequences for compliance. In classrooms specifically for
students with EBD, Shores et al. (1993) found teacher
praise rates as low as one per hour. Similar results from
other studies led Wehby, Symons, Ca- nale, and Go (1998)
to conclude that “teacher praise . . . is al- most nonexistent in
classrooms for children with E/BD” (p. 51).
That teachers do not always use effective
interventions has become a frequent topic in the
educational literature, as a result of scholars’ debates about
the research-to-practice gap that most agree afflicts
education (Carnine, 1997; Landrum & Tankersley, 1999).
The proposition that evidence-based prac- tices must
become the standard in schools seems irrefutable. A further
concern in using such practices has to do with in- tervention
integrity. As Malouf and Schiller (1995) lamented, “When
research does find its way into practice, it is often mis-
applied” (p. 419). Intervention integrity, also known as
treat- ment fidelity or intervention adherence (Moncher &
Prinz, 1991), is compromised when teachers fail to
implement a strategy completely or implement a strategy
imprecisely or in- adequately. Indeed, research has shown
that the extent to which interventions are implemented as
designed is directly associated with the degree of behavior
change (Allinder & Oats, 1997; Gansle & McMahon, 1997;
Greenwood, Terry, Arreaga- Mayer, & Finney, 1992;
Gresham, Gansle, Noell, Cohen, & Rosenblum, 1993).
Many factors are related to intervention integrity.
Telz- row and Beebe (2002) and Gresham (1989) concluded
that in- terventions most acceptable to teachers, and
accordingly most likely to be implemented with integrity,
are (a) easy to im- plement, (b) not time-intensive, (c)
positive, (d) perceived to be effective by the teacher, and
(e) compatible with the con- text in which the intervention
will be employed (e.g., re- sources available, teacher
experiences, treatment philosophy, instructional
environment). Unfortunately, many interven- tions that
have proven effective for addressing the behavioral and
academic needs of students with EBD do not meet these
criteria (Telzrow & Beebe, 2002) and therefore are not
liable to be implemented with integrity, if they are
implemented at all.
In addition to choosing interventions that are empiri-
cally supported and implementing them with integrity,
inter- ventions must also be implemented early in the cycle
of behavioral problems. Indeed, compelling evidence has
sug- gested that the development of behavioral disorders
can be ameliorated dramatically if intervention is provided
early and intensively (see Shinn et al., 2002). Longitudinal
studies have shown that students who are identified with
behavioral disor- ders have recognizable problem behavior
even before enter- ing first grade and that these problem
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through 3- and 6-year follow-ups (Achenbach, Howell, Mc- skill to en- sure intervention integrity. Thus, although the
Conaughy, & Stranger, 1995; McConaughy, Stranger, & procedures we
Ach- enbach, 1992). Moreover, research has shown that
preventive efforts can break this cycle (see Shinn et al.,
2002). Nonethe- less, those in the field of EBD remain
reluctant to intervene early. In fact, Kauffman (1999) listed a
number of ways that professionals, in essence, “prevent
prevention” of EBD, in- cluding resisting labeling for fear of
stigmatization, refusing to invest resources in prevention
programs, and denying the deviance of children’s behavior
for reasons that may be asso- ciated with age (development)
or diversity.
As schools and educators face greater and more
frequent behavioral challenges (Walker, Forness, et al.,
1998; Walker, Kavanagh, et al., 1998), questions remain
about the capacity of both general and special education
teachers to deal with the most difficult students they
encounter. Unfortunately, it ap- pears that many, if not most,
teachers are inadequately trained to intervene and effectively
manage the more serious behav- ioral and instructional
challenges that students with EBD are likely to present (see
Kauffman & Wong, 1991). For exam- ple, there is evidence
that when teaching students with EBD in general education
classes, many teachers do not modify their instructional or
management techniques (Meadows et al., 1994). Moreover,
even teachers of students with EBD may lack sufficient
training in empirically sound practices (Bul- lock, Ellis, &
Wilson, 1994).

Is Education for Students

with EBD Special?
Whether effective teachers of students with EBD must be
uniquely trained specialists who possess distinctive skills
un- like those associated with teaching nondisabled students
or students with other disabilities remains unclear. Kauffman
and Wong (1991) commented on this phenomenon a decade
ago and concluded that teachers may indeed need to exercise
a set of specialized skills in order to be effective with
students with the most severe behavior disorders. Kauffman,
Bantz, and McCullough (2002) described the successful
application of such specialized skills in a separate class for
students with EBD and suggested that the keys to success lie
at least par- tially in the contextual variables that can
characterize a sepa- rate class. As Kauffman et al. have
suggested, the structure, intensity, precision, and
relentlessness with which teachers deliver, monitor, and
adapt instruction is surely beyond that which would be
possible in a regular classroom.
The procedures outlined in Table 1 are probably appro-
priate for any learner. That is, they are based on principles of
learning that should be effective for anyone learning a new
skill or generalizing a behavior. However, it should also be
clear that many of these interventions are not necessary for
typically developing learners. Many of these strategies
require a significant investment of teacher time, effort, and
 THE JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION VOL. 37/NO. 3/157

espouse for students with EBD are generally effective Although it could be argued that specific research conducted
teach- ing practices, there is probably no reason to suggest with participants identified with EBD is needed to verify
that all teachers learn these skills and use them with all the effectiveness of any intervention before it can be recom-
students. However, we do believe that any teacher mended as best practice for students with EBD, we counter
specializing in the education of students with EBD should
be knowledgeable about and competent in implementing, at
minimum, the pro- cedures we have suggested here—and
implementing them with a very high degree of precision,
which is a defining element of what makes special
education special (Kauffman, 2002).
In determining whether interventions for students
with EBD are effective, it is important to understand that
profes- sionals are probably not going to cure the emotional
or be- havioral problems that students with EBD present,
given that

1. by the time they are identified for special

edu- cation services, they typically have a
lengthy history of difficult behavior
(Duncan, Forness, & Hartsough, 1995) and
are well along the typical trajectory for
academic and social failure, and
2. EBD seems to be a lifelong disorder,
even when preventive efforts are
applied.

Recognizing that these students will probably need support

throughout their school careers (e.g., Wolf, Braukmann, &
Ramp, 1987) is an uncomfortable but necessary step in en-
suring that their education remains special.
At best, perhaps, we will be able to alleviate some of
the symptoms and reduce the frequency and intensity of the
prob- lems associated with EBD by using effective
techniques to ad- dress inappropriate behavior, enhance
learning, and influence social interactions; but, this is
special. These are not tech- niques to which students with
EBD are likely to be exposed outside of special education
(Kauffman et al., 2002), yet they are the techniques that
afford the strongest potential to influ- ence learning and
behavior positively. Of course, special ed- ucation for
students with EBD could be much more special (i.e.,
effective) if effective practices were (a) implemented fre-
quently and with integrity throughout these students’
school careers with integrity and (b) implemented early,
before their behavior becomes so entrenched and
intractable. Only when professionals concerned with the
education of students with EBD start identifying children
early for services and imple- menting proactive, effective,
preventive strategies with per- sistent regularity and
integrity throughout their educational experiences will we
see just how “special” special education for children with
EBD can be.

Conclusio
n
 158 THE JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION VOL. 37/NO. 3/2003

that many of the interventions currently available have in Dolan, L. J., Kellam, S. G., Brown, C. H., Werthamer-Larsson, L., Rebok,
fact been validated with students displaying the types of G.
learning, behavioral, and social problems that are typical of W., Mayer, L. S., et al. (1993). The short-term impact of two
students with EBD. Although we recognize the need to classroom- based preventive interventions on aggressive and shy behaviors
and poor achievement. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14,
expand our un- derstanding of what works for students with
317–345. Duncan, B. B., Forness, S. R., & Hartsough, C. (1995). Students
EBD, we also be- lieve that greater resources must be identified as seriously emotionally disturbed in day treatment: Cognitive,
employed to handle the problems associated with psychi- atric, and special education characteristics. Behavioral Disorders,
implementing what is already known to be effective, doing 20,
so at the earliest possible age, ensuring that procedures are 238–252.
Dunlap, G., & Childs, K. E. (1996). Intervention research in EBD: An analy-
implemented with integrity and precision, and sustaining
sis of studies from 1980-1993. Behavioral Disorders, 21, 125–136.
intervention efforts over time—in many cases, over school Fantuzzo, J. W., King, J. A., & Heller, L. R. (1992). Effects of reciprocal
careers or even the life spans of individuals with EBD. peer tutoring on mathematics and school adjustment: A component
Is special education for students with EBD special? It analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 331–339.
certainly is. And it can become even more special if we take Forness, S. R., Kavale, K., Blum, S., & Lloyd, J. W. (1997). Mega-analysis
of meta-analyses: What works in special education and related services.
full advantage of the currently available technology of be- Teaching Exceptional Children, 29(6), 4–9.
havioral and instructional intervention. Indeed, we think it Frank, A. R., Sitlington, P. L., & Carson, R. R. (1995). Young adults with be-
has the potential to become extraordinary. havioral disorders: A comparison with peers with mild disabilities.
Jour- nal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 3, 156–164.
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Notices
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