General Physics 2 Reviewer

Lesson 1: Electrostatics and Electric plucked off and carried around when acted
Potential upon by an outside force.

Thales of Miletus was an ancient Greek Free electrons = Electron count -

philosopher who observed that when Valence electrons of an atom
amber is rubbed strongly with wool, it
creates a force that makes them appear to *The number of electrons in an atom is
attract each other. equal to the atomic number of an element,
for neutrally charged species.
- This phenomenon was called the
"the amber effect" *For neutral atoms, the number of valence
- The Greek word for amber is electrons is equal to the atom's main
'Elektron', the origin of the word group number.
electric.

Electrostatics is a branch of physics

dealing with the study of charges at rest
(static) and their properties.

- Static electricity involves charged

objects that are static, which means
not moving.
Protons = 8 (atomic number)
- A current is a flow of electrons.
Neutrons = 8 (atomic weight - atomic
➔ Static (Non-Moving) Charges number)
create an electric field Electrons = 8
➔ Current (Moving) Charges create Valence electrons = 6 (Oxygen is in the
a magnetic field 6th group of the periodic table)
Free electrons/electrons at rest = 2
Every atom comes with one negatively
charged electron for every proton that Conductors and Insulators
balances the charge of the nucleus.
Electrical conductors are materials
through which electrons move freely.
➔ Positive charges attract negative
charges and repel other positive - When two similar conductors come
charges. in contact, electrons separate as
➔ Negative charges attract positive much as possible.
charges and repel other negative
charges. ➔ Metals

Free Electrons Electrical insulators are materials that do

not let electrons flow freely.
➔ Protons and neutrons are massive
and tightly bound. - This is used for wire coatings or
➔ Electrons are massive and weakly protective gloves for electricians.
bound.
➔ Rubber
Free electrons reside in an atom’s outer ➔ Plastic
shell as valence electrons and are easily ➔ Glass, Air, and Wood
Ionization and Methods of Charging Charging by Conduction occurs on a
neutral object when a charged object is in
The process of acquiring a net charge by contact with it.
losing or gaining electrons is called
ionization. - Also known as charging by contact,
during conduction the same charge
- When an atom acquires an electron, is created in a neutral object.
there will be more electrons than - Electrons will transfer from a
protons making the net charge negative object to a neutral object
negative. making it negative.
- A neutral atom should become an - Charging by conduction is
'ion' which means 'charged atom'. considered permanent since
Charging by Friction is a transfer of electrons move to the new object
electrons between two objects that are until that object is grounded.
rubbed together. Charging by Induction does not require
- Also known as triboelectric charging, contact and redistributes the charge within
materials are characterized based a neutral object by bringing near a
on their electron affinity which is charged object.
the natural tendency of materials to - This is considered temporary
attract/gain electrons. because no electrons are
- The triboelectric series ranks transferred, and neutrality returns
different materials in decreasing when the close charged object is
order of electron affinity. Materials removed.
on higher spots tend to lose - It happens when a charged object is
electrons easily and materials on the placed close enough to attract/repel
lower spot gain electrons easily. the electrons of the neutral object
making it 'polarized'.

Polarization is the process of

separating/redistributing positive and
negative charges toward opposite sides of
an atom or an object.

- It creates a slight separation of

charge within the atom making one
side of it somewhat positive and the
opposite side somewhat negative
called the dipole moment.
- A polarized atom has 0 net charge
which means it is electrically neutral
because it does not gain or lose an
electron.

Grounding or Earthing is the removal of

a charge by producing a conductive path
to the ground.
 - It is permanently charging a ➔ Charge of an electron:
polarized object due to induction by 1. 602 × 10 𝐶
−19

connecting it to a "charge reservoir" ➔ Number of electrons in one negative

such as the surface of the earth to 18
coulomb of charge: 6. 24 × 10 𝐶
remove excess charges.
- Lightning is a form of grounding. Sample Problem: Two-point charges are
separated by one meter. They have equal
Law of Conservation of Charge
magnitudes of − 1µ𝐶. Find the magnitude
Law of Conservation of Charge states of electric force.
that a charge can neither be created nor
destroyed but it can be transferred from Given:
−6
one body to another. 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 =− 1µ𝐶 → − 1 × 10 𝐶 ;
2
9 𝑁𝑚
- The net quantity of charge in an 𝑟 = 1𝑚 ; 𝑘 = 9. 00 × 10 2
𝐶
object is always conserved. Required: 𝐹𝐸 = ?
(𝑞1)(𝑞2)
Coulomb's Law Equation: 𝐹𝐸 = 𝑘 2
𝑟
−6 2
Coulomb's Law states that electrical Solution: 𝐹𝐸 = 9. 00 × 10
9 (−1×10 )
2
force is directly proportional to the product (1)
−3
of the magnitude of the charges and is Answer: 𝐹𝐸 = 9 × 10 𝑁
inversely proportional to the square of the
distance of the two charges. Superposition of Coulomb’s Law

- Charles Coulomb discovered in the Since electric force is a vector, when a

18th century that attractive and charge experiences a force from a system
repulsive forces exerted by charges of charges we compute the vector sum of
decrease inversely as the distance all electrical forces.
squares.
- By definition, Coulomb's Law Formula: 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2+ 𝐹3...
quantifies the attractive or repulsive
electrostatic force brought by Sample Problem: 𝑞1 =− 8µ𝐶 has a
interacting charges. distance of 0.3m from 𝑞2 = 3µ𝐶 which
has a distance of 0.2m from 𝑞3 =− 4µ𝐶.
(𝑞1)(𝑞2)
Formula: 𝐹𝐸 = 𝑘 2 Find the net electric force of 𝑞3.
𝑟
➔ 𝐹𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁) Given: 𝑞1 =− 8µ𝐶 ; 𝑞2 = 3µ𝐶 ;
9 𝑁𝑚
2
𝑞3 =− 4µ𝐶 ; 𝑟12 = 0. 3𝑚 ; 𝑟23 = 0. 2𝑚 ;
➔ 𝑘 = 9. 00 × 10 2 2
𝐶 9 𝑁𝑚
𝑟13 = 0. 5𝑚 ; 𝑘 = 9. 00 × 10
➔ 𝑞 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶) 𝐶
2

➔ 𝑟 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 (𝑚) Required: 𝐹𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑞3 = ?

(𝑞1)(𝑞3) (𝑞2)(𝑞3)
Constants: Equation: 𝐹𝐸 = 𝑘 2 +𝑘 2
𝑟13 𝑟23

➔ Microcoulomb to Coulomb: Solution:

−6 −6
−6 9 (−8×10 )(−4×10 )
1µ𝐶 = 10 𝐶 𝐹𝐸 = 9 × 10 2 = 1. 15𝑁
(0.5)
➔ Nanocoulomb to Coulomb: −6
9 (3×10 )(−4×10 )
−6
−9 𝐹𝐸 = 9 × 10 2 =− 2. 7𝑁
1𝑛𝐶 = 10 𝐶 (0.2)
Answer: 𝐹𝐸 = 1. 15 − 2. 7 =− 1. 55𝑁
Electric Field Sample Problem 1: Calculate the
strength and direction of the electric field
An electric field is a region around an due to a point charge of 2𝑛𝐶 at a distance
electrically charged particle wherein other of 5 mm from the charge.
electrically charged particles experience
an electrical force (attraction or repulsion). −9
Given: 𝑞 = 2𝑛𝐶 → 2 × 10 𝐶 ; 𝑟 = 5𝑚𝑚
2
9 𝑁𝑚
- A British scientist named Michael → 0. 005𝑚 ; 𝑘 = 9. 00 × 10 2
𝐶
Faraday hypothesized that every
Required: 𝐸 =?
charged object generates a field that 𝑄
extends through space and exerts a Equation: 𝐸 = 𝑘 2
𝑟
force on other charged objects that it 9 2×10
−9
Solution: 𝐸 = 9. 00 × 10
encounters. (0.005)
2

- It is defined as electric force per Answer: 𝐸 = 7. 20 × 10

5 𝑁
𝐶
unit of charge.
𝐹 𝑄 Sample Problem 2: An electron is
Formula: 𝐸 = 𝑜𝑟 𝐸 = 𝑘
𝑞 2
𝑟 released from rest in a uniform electric
𝑁 𝑁
➔ 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 ( 𝐶 ) field of magnitude 100 𝐶
. Find the
➔ 𝐹 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁) magnitude of force applied to it?
➔ 𝑞 = 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)
𝑁 −19
9 𝑁𝑚
2
Given: 𝐸 = 100 𝐶
; 𝑞 = 1. 602 × 10 𝐶
➔ 𝑘 = 9. 00 × 10 2
𝐶 (𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛)
➔ 𝑟 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 (𝑚)
Required: 𝐹 =?
The direction of the electric field of positive Equation: 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
charge points radially outward while the −19
electric field of negative charge points Solution: 𝐹 = (1. 602 × 10 )(100)
−17
radially inward as shown below. Answer: 𝐹 = 1. 602 × 10 𝑁

Superposition of Electric Field

It states that the net electric field at a point

from a system of charges acting on a test
charge is simply the vector sum of all
individual electric fields of each charge at
that point from each charge.

Formula: 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2+ 𝐸3...

Electric field lines:
*The electric field between two closely
1. originate on positive charges, spaced oppositely charged parallel plates
2. terminate on negative charges, is constant.
3. never cross,
4. density indicates the strength of the Electric Flux
electric field.
Electric flux is defined as the measure of
*The closer to the charge means greater the electric field passing through a given
the density, thus greater electric field surface area.
strength.
 - It is the rate of flow of the electric ➔ 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 by
field through a given area. the surface
- It is proportional to the number of −12 𝐶
2
➔ ε0 = 8. 85 × 10
electric field lines going through a 𝑁𝑚
2

virtual space. (permittivity of free space constant)

Formula: ϕ = 𝐸𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 Sample Problem: Find the electric flux of

𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 −6
an enclosed charge of 3 × 10
2
𝑁𝑚
➔ ϕ = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 ( 𝐶
) −6
𝑁
Given: 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 3 × 10 ;
➔ 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝐶) −12 𝐶
2

2
ε0 = 8. 85 × 10 2
𝑁𝑚
➔ 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚 )
Required: ϕ = ?
➔ θ = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
Sample Problem: Find the electric flux of Equation: ϕ = ε0
𝑁 −6
the electric field 14 𝐶
with an area of Solution: ϕ =
3×10
−12
8.85×10
2
0. 250𝑚 at 60°. 9 𝑁𝑚
2
Answer: ϕ = 3. 4 × 10 𝐶
𝑁 2
Given: 𝐸 = 14 ; 𝐴 = 0. 250𝑚 ;
𝐶 Electric Potential Energy
θ = 60°
Electric potential energy describes how
Required: ϕ = ? much stored energy a charge has.
Equation: ϕ = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠θ Formula: 𝑈 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑞

Solution: ϕ = (14)(0. 250)𝑐𝑜𝑠(60) ➔ 𝑈 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑁𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝐽)

2 ➔ 𝑞 = 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)
𝑁𝑚
Answer: ϕ = 1. 75 𝐶 ➔ 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 ( 𝐶 )
𝑁

*If a charge is not enclosed in a closed ➔ 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚)

𝑁𝑚 𝐽
surface or if there is no electric charge ➔ 𝑉 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ( 𝐶
𝑜𝑟 𝐶
𝑜𝑟 𝑉)
inside a closed surface, then there will be
0 electric flux. Sample Problem: What is the electric
potential energy of a 12.0 V motorcycle
Gauss’s Law with 5000 C of charge?
It states that the electric flux out of a Given: 𝑉 = 12. 0𝑉 ; 𝑞 = 5000𝐶
closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed divided by the permittivity of free Required: 𝑈 =?
space.
Equation: 𝑈 = 𝑉𝑞
- Formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss,
proponent of the bell curve of Solution: 𝑈 = (12. 0)(5000)
statistics. 4
- It is the measure of the electric field Answer: 𝑈 = 60000 𝐽 𝑜𝑟 6. 00 × 10 𝐽
through a closed volume.
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
Formula: ϕ = ε0
*The electric force caused by any ➔ 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑉) 𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
collection of charges at rest is a ➔ 𝑉𝐴= 𝑉 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
conservative force.

Electric Potential *If 𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝐵 is not given, use:

1 𝑄
Electric potential is the work done per 𝑉= ∑
4πε0 𝑟
charge to move it between two points in
an electric field. 𝑄𝐴+𝑞0 𝑄𝐵+𝑞0 2𝑞(𝑉𝐴−𝑉𝐵)
𝑉𝐴 = (4πε0)𝑟𝐴
; 𝑉𝐵 = (4πε0)𝑟𝐵
; 𝑉= 𝑚
- The flow of the electric field is
caused by a difference in electric Sample Problem: If 𝑞0 = 2𝑛𝐶 and
potential. 𝑚 = 5µ𝑔, find the final speed of 𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝐵
- It is directly proportional to the
electric potential energy.
𝑈 𝑞
Formula: 𝑉 = 𝑞
𝑜𝑟 𝑘 𝑟
𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛

Sample Problem: If 24 J of work is done −9

to push 0.0033 C of charge into an electric Given: 𝑞0 = 2𝑛𝐶 → 2 × 10 𝐶 ;
−6
field, what will the voltage of the charge 𝑚 = 5µ𝑔 → 5 × 10 𝑔 ;
be? −12 𝐶
2
ε0 = 8. 85 × 10 2
𝑁𝑚
Given: 𝑈 = 24𝐽 ; 𝑞 = 0. 0033𝐶 → −6
−3 𝑄𝐴 = 3𝑛𝐶 → 3 × 10 𝐶;
3. 3 × 10 𝐶
𝑟𝐴 = 1𝑐𝑚 → 0. 01𝑚
Required: 𝑉 =? −6
𝑄𝐵 =− 3𝑛𝐶 → − 3 × 10 𝐶 ;
𝑈
Equation: 𝑉 = 𝑞
𝑟𝐵 = 2𝑐𝑚 → 0. 02𝑚

Solution: 𝑉 =
24
−3
*𝑟𝐵 is 2 cm since the volt would start from
3.3×10
point a to point b (1 cm + 1 cm).
9
Answer: 𝑉 = 7272. 73 𝑉 𝑜𝑟 7. 27 × 10 𝑉
Required: 𝑉 =?
*Electric potential energy is also equal to
Equation:
the work done.
𝑄𝐴+𝑞0 𝑄𝐵+𝑞0 2𝑞(𝑉𝐴−𝑉𝐵)
𝑉𝐴 = ; 𝑉𝐵 = ; 𝑉=
Potential Difference (4πε0)𝑟𝐴 (4πε0)𝑟𝐵 𝑚

Potential difference is the difference in −6

3×10 𝐶 +2×10
−9
Solution: 𝑉𝐴 = −12 = 4495. 9
electric potential of a charge displaced (4π8.85×10 )0.01

from an initial point to a new point in an −6 −9

−3×10 +2×10
electric field. 𝑉𝐵 = −12 = 449. 6
(4π8.85×10 )0.02

- It is also called voltage.

2𝑞(4495.9−449.6)
𝑉= −6
Formula: ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 5×10

9
➔ ∆𝑉 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 Answer: 𝑉 = 1. 99 × 10 𝑉
Lesson 2: Capacitance and Ohm’s Law ➔ Area of plates – the bigger the
area of the plates, the greater the
Capacitance is the ratio of the amount of capacitance.
charge (q) in one plate to the potential ➔ Distance between the plates –
difference (∆V) between the plates. the closer the plates to one
- Capacitance is always positive. another, the greater its
- The capacitance is a measure of the capacitance.
capacitor’s ability to store charge. ➔ Insulating material or dielectric
- e.g. radio receivers, filters in power between them – a decrease in
supplies, energy storing devices in dielectric means an increase in
electronic flashes capacitance.

*The capacitance of a capacitor is the Dielectric is a non-conducting material

amount of charge the capacitor can store that, when placed between the plates of
per unit of potential difference. the capacitor, increases the capacitance.

𝑄 - e.g. nylon, paper, vacuum, pyrex

Formula: 𝐶 = ∆𝑉
➔ 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝐹) Formula: 𝐶 = κ𝐶0

2 ➔ κ = 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

𝑄 1 1
Formula: 𝑈 = 2𝐶
𝑜𝑟 2
𝑄∆𝑉 𝑜𝑟 2
𝐶(∆𝑉) ➔ 𝐶0 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)
➔ 𝑈 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐽)
*The dielectric constant of each material
Parallel plate capacitor is composed of varies.
two conducting plates that are parallel with
each other. Dielectric provides the following
advantages:
𝐴
Formula: 𝐶 = ε0 𝑑
➔ Increases the capacitance – this
Sample Problem: The capacitance of a decreases d which increases C
parallel plate capacitor with metal plates ➔ Increase the maximum operating
2 voltage – increases the effective
each of 1𝑚 separated by 1mm. capacitance by reducing the electric
2 field strength which means you get
Given: 𝐴 = 1𝑚 ; 𝑑 = 1𝑚𝑚 → 0. 001𝑚
2
the same charge at a lower voltage
−12 𝐶
ε0 = 8. 85 × 10 2
➔ Possible mechanical support
𝑁𝑚
between the plates – this allows
Required: 𝐶 =?
the plates to be close together
𝐴 without touching
Equation: 𝐶 = ε0 𝑑
Capacitor Network
−12 1
Solution: 𝐶 = 8. 85 × 10 0.001

−9
Answer: 𝐶 = 8. 85 × 10 𝐹

The capacitance of a parallel plate

capacitor is affected by the following
factors:
A circuit is an interconnection of electrical In a series circuit, there is a one
components. directional flow of charge.

- An electrical circuit consists of - There is only a single pathway

batteries, resistors, inductors, where the charge can flow between
capacitors, switches or transistors. the terminals.
- A circuit is a path along which the - The electrons do not “pile up” in any
electrons can flow. lamp but flow through each lamp—
- For the electrons to flow simultaneously
continuously, this should be a
complete circuit with no gaps. The devices in a parallel circuit operate
independently of the other device in the
An electrical network consists of a circuit.
closed loop.
- This also means that a break in one
of the paths within the circuit will not
interrupt the flow of charge of the
other paths.
- Electrical devices directly connected
to the same two points of an electric
circuit are said to be connected in
parallel.

Solving for Capacitance, Voltage, and

Charge in Series and in Parallel

Sample Problem: Determine the net

capacitance when 𝐶1 = 12µ𝐹, in series, is
parallel with 𝐶2 = 2µ𝐹 and 𝐶3 = 4µ𝐹.
When a 12 V potential difference is
maintained across the combination, find
the charge and voltage across each
capacitor.

Given: 𝐶1 = 12µ𝐹 ; 𝐶2 = 2µ𝐹 ; 𝐶3 = 4µ𝐹

𝑉 = 12𝑉

Required: 𝐶𝑇 =?
1 1 1
Equation: 𝐶23 = 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 ; 𝐶𝑇
= 𝐶1
+ 𝐶23
Solution: 𝐶23 = 2µ𝐹 + 4µ𝐹 = 6µ𝐹 → Charge across Q3: 𝑄3 = (𝐶3)(𝑉23) = (4)
1 1 1 1 (8) → 𝑄3 = 32µ𝐶
𝐶𝑇
= 12µ𝐹
+ 6µ𝐹
= 4µ𝐹

Answer: 𝐶𝑇 = 4µ𝐹 Solving for Voltage, Current, and

Resistance in Series and in Parallel
*Always reciprocate answers involving
fractions of net capacitance.

*The capacitors share the 12.0-V potential

difference so 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 +...

𝑄1 𝑄23
Solution: 12𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 𝐶1
+ 𝐶23

*Since the capacitors are

in series, they have
the same charge
𝑄1 = 𝑄23. Resistance

It is the opposition of a material to the flow

𝑄1 𝑄1
12𝑉 = + → Multiply both sides of charge.
12µ𝐹 6µ𝐹
by 12.0 and 6.0 to cancel out 12.0 μF and - A resistor is a device commonly
6.0 μF. seen on an electrical device which
𝑄1 𝑄1
resists flow on a current.
(12µ𝐹)(6µ𝐹)(12𝑉 = 12µ𝐹
+ 6µ𝐹
)(12µ𝐹)(6µ𝐹)

2 (12µ𝐹)(6µ𝐹)𝑄1 (12µ𝐹)(6µ𝐹)𝑄1
(72(µ𝐹) )(12𝑉) = 12µ𝐹
+ 6µ𝐹
)

2
(864𝑉(µ𝐹) ) = (6µ𝐹)𝑄1 + (12µ𝐹)𝑄1

2
(864𝑉(µ𝐹) ) (18µ𝐹)𝑄1
18µ𝐹
= 18µ𝐹
→ 48. 0𝑉µ𝐹

Answer: 𝑄1 = 48. 0𝐶

Potential Difference across Capacitor

𝑄1 48
1: 𝑉1 = 𝐶1
= 12
→ 𝑉1 = 4𝑉
e.g. Resistor - Red, Orange, Blue, Gold
Potential Difference across Capacitor
➔ Red (1st band) = 2
2: 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 → 𝑉23 = 𝑉𝑇 −
➔ Orange (2nd band) = 3
𝑉1 = 12 − 4 → 𝑉23 = 8𝑉 ➔ Blue (Multiplier) = 1𝑀Ω
➔ Gold (Tolerance) = ± 10%
Charge across Q2: 𝑄2 = (𝐶2)(𝑉23) = (2)
(8) → 𝑄2 = 16µ𝐶 = 23 × 1𝑀Ω (± 10% ) 𝑜𝑟 23𝑀Ω (± 10% )
Ohm’s Law Electromagnetism is the use of electric
current to make magnets.
The current is directly proportional to the
potential difference and inversely - These temporarily induced magnets
proportional to the resistance. are called electromagnets.
- Early in the 19th century, it was
𝑉
Formula: 𝐼 = 𝑅 discovered that electrical currents
➔ 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝐴) cause magnetic effects. The first
➔ 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉) significant observation was by the
➔ 𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑟 Ω) Danish scientist Hans Christian
Oersted (1777–1851), who found
that a compass needle was
deflected by a current-carrying wire.

*An electromagnet creates magnetism

with an electric current.

A magnetic field represents magnetic

Sample Problem: What resistance would
forces.
produce a current of 120 amps from a 6-V
battery? - It is traditionally called the B-field.
- The direction of magnetic field lines
Given: 𝐼 = 120𝐴 ; 𝑉 = 6𝑉
is defined to be the direction in
Required: 𝑅 =? which the north end of a compass
needle points.
𝑉
Equation: 𝑅 = 𝐼
6
Solution: 𝑅 = 120

Answer: 𝑅 = 0. 05Ω

Lesson 3: DC Circuits and Magnetic

Field
Properties of a Magnetic Field
Ferromagnets exhibit strong magnetic
effects such as iron, cobalt, nickel, and 1. The direction of the magnetic field is
gadolinium. tangent to the field line at any point
in space. A small compass will point
- Such materials are called
in the direction of the field line.
ferromagnetic, after the Latin word
2. The strength of the field is
for iron, ferrum.
proportional to the closeness of the
- A group of materials made from the
lines. It is exactly proportional to the
alloys of the rare earth elements are
number of lines per unit area
also used as strong and permanent
perpendicular to the lines (called the
magnets; a popular one is
areal density).
neodymium.
3. Magnetic field lines can never cross,
- Ferromagnets can also be
meaning that the field is unique at
magnetized themselves— that is,
any point in space.
they can be induced to be magnetic
or made into permanent magnets.
 4. Magnetic field lines are continuous,
forming closed loops without
beginning or end. They go from the
north pole to the south pole.

*The last property is related to the fact that

the north and south poles cannot be
separated. It is a distinct difference from
electric field lines, which begin and end on
the positive and negative charges. If
magnetic monopoles existed, then
magnetic field lines would begin and end
on them. Sample Problem: With the exception of
compasses, you seldom see or personally
Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge in experience forces due to the Earth’s small
a Magnetic Field magnetic field. To illustrate this, suppose
that in a physics lab you rub a glass rod
Formula: 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
with silk, placing a 20-nC positive charge
➔ 𝐹 = 𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁) on it. Calculate the force on the rod due to
➔ 𝑞 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶) the Earth’s magnetic field, if you throw it
➔ 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑚/𝑠) with a horizontal velocity of 10 m/s due
➔ 𝐵 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 ; 𝑇) west in a place where the Earth’s field is
➔ θ = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 due north parallel to the ground. (The
direction of the force is determined with
Constant: right hand rule 1 as shown in figure below)
−5
➔ 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 5 × 10 𝑇

Right Hand Rule 1

The direction of the magnetic force F is

perpendicular to the plane formed by v
and B, as determined by the right hand
rule 1 (or RHR-1)

- To determine the direction of the

magnetic force on a positive moving −9
charge, you point the thumb of the Given: 𝑞 = 20𝑛𝐶 → 20 × 10 𝐶 ;
−5
right hand in the direction of v , the 𝑣 = 10𝑚/𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 ; 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 5 × 10 𝑇
fingers in the direction of B , and a
perpendicular to the palm points in Required: 𝐹 =?
the direction of F.
Equation: 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 (𝑛𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)
*The force on a negative charge is in
exactly the opposite direction to that on a Solution:
−9 −5
positive charge. 𝐹 = (20 × 10 )(10)(5 × 10 )

−11
Answer: 𝐹 = 1 × 10 𝑁
There is no magnetic force on static Sample Problem: A magnet brought near
charges. However, there is a magnetic an old-fashioned TV screen severely
force on moving charges. distorts its picture by altering the path of
the electrons that make its phosphors
- When charges are stationary, their glow. To illustrate this, calculate the radius
electric fields do not affect magnets. of curvature of the path of an electron
- When charges move, they produce having a velocity of 6.00×107 m/s
magnetic fields that exert forces on perpendicular to a magnetic field of
other magnets. strength 0.500 T.
- When there is relative motion, a
connection between electric and 7
Given: 𝑣 = 6. 00 × 10 𝑚/𝑠 ; 𝐵 = 0. 500𝑇
magnetic fields emerges—each −19 −31
𝑞 = 1. 602 × 10 𝐶 ; 𝑚 = 9. 11 × 10 𝑘𝑔
affects the other.
Required: 𝑟 =?
Magnetic Force in Circular Motion
𝑚𝑣
Magnetic force can cause a charged Equation: 𝑟 = 𝑞𝐵
particle to move in a circular or spiral path.
−31 7
(9.11×10 )(6.00×10 )
Solution: 𝑟 =
- Cosmic rays are energetic charged (1.602×10
−19
)(0.500)
particles in outer space, some of
−4
which approach the Earth and can Answer: 𝑟 = 6. 82 × 10 𝑚𝑚
be forced into spiral paths by the
Earth’s magnetic field.
- The curved paths of charged
particles in magnetic fields are the
basis of a number of phenomena
and can even be used analytically,
such as in a mass spectrometer.

Magnetic force is always perpendicular

to velocity, so that it does no work on the
charged particle.

- The particle's kinetic energy and

speed thus remain constant.
- The direction of motion is affected,
but not the speed.
𝑚𝑣
Formula: 𝑟 = 𝑞𝐵

➔ 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑚𝑚) Magnetic Force on Current-Carrying

➔ 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔) Wire
Constants: The force on the wire depends on the
current, the length of the wire, the
➔ Charge of an electron:
−19 magnetic field, and its orientation. Its
1. 602 × 10 𝐶 direction is given by RHR-1.
➔ Mass of an electron:
9. 11 × 10
−31
𝑘𝑔 Formula: 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
 ➔ 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 (𝑚) 2
Solution: 𝐴𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 = (0. 1) = 0. 01
Sample Problem: Calculate the force on τ = (100)(15)(0. 01)(2)𝑠𝑖𝑛(90°)
the wire shown below, given B = 1.50 T , 𝑙
*The maximum torque occurs when
= 5.00 cm , and I = 20.0 A
θ = 90° ; 𝑠𝑖𝑛(90°) = 1
Given: 𝐵 = 1. 50𝑇 ; 𝑙 = 5. 00𝑐𝑚 → 0. 05𝑚
Answer: τ = 30𝑁𝑚
𝐼 = 20. 0 𝐴
Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents:
Required: 𝐹 =?
Ampere’s Law
Equation: 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 (𝑛𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒) µ0𝐼
Formula: 𝐵 = 2π𝑟
Solution: 𝐹 = (20)(0. 05)(1. 50)
−7 𝑇𝑚
Answer: 𝐹 = 1. 50𝑁 ➔ µ0 = 4π × 10 𝐴
(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒)
Motors
Constant:
Motors are the most common application
of magnetic force on current-carrying −4
➔ 𝐵𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 1. 0 × 10 𝑇
wires.

- Motors have loops of wire in a Sample Problem: Find the current in a

magnetic field. long straight wire that would produce a
- When current is passed through the magnetic field twice the strength of the
loops, the magnetic field exerts Earth’s at a distance of 5.0 cm from the
torque on the loops, which rotates a wire.
shaft.
Given: 𝑟 = 5𝑐𝑚 → 0. 05𝑚 ;
- Electrical energy is converted to −4 −7 𝑇𝑚
mechanical work in the process. 𝐵𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 1. 0 × 10 𝑇 ; µ0 = 4π × 10 𝐴

Torque on a Current Loop: Motors Required: 𝐼 =?

Formula: τ = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛θ µ0𝐼 2π𝑟𝐵

Equation: 𝐵 = 2π𝑟
→𝐼 = µ0
➔ τ = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝑁𝑚)
−4
➔ 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 Solution: 𝐼 =
2π(0.05)(1.0×10 )
−7
𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠 4π×10
- 𝑁= 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Answer: 𝐼 = 25𝐴
Sample Problem: Find the maximum
torque on a 100-turn square loop of a wire
of 10.0 cm on a side that carries 15.0 A of
current in a 2.00-T field. Right Hand Rule 2

Given: 𝑁 = 100 ; 𝑙 = 10𝑐𝑚 → 0. 1𝑚 ; Point the thumb of the right hand in the
𝐼 = 15𝐴 ; 𝐵 = 2𝑇 direction of current, and the fingers curl in
the direction of the magnetic field loops
Required: 𝐴𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 =? ; τ =? created by it.
2
Equation: 𝐴𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 = 𝑙 ; τ = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
 𝑁
Equation: 𝑛 = 𝑙
; 𝐵 = µ0𝑛𝐼

2000
Solution: 𝑛 = 2
= 1000
−7
𝐵 = (4π × 10 )(1000)(1600)

Answer: 𝐵 = 2. 01 𝑇

Currents

In an electron current, electrons flow

from the negative terminal to the positive.

Magnetic Field Produced by a In a conventional current (also called

Current-Carrying Loop current), electrons flow from the positive
terminal to the negative.
µ0𝐼
Formula: 𝐵 = 2𝑅 All voltage sources have two fundamental
parts: emf and internal resistance.
➔ 𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 (𝑚)
An electric circuit needs a battery or
Magnetic Field Produced by a
generator to produce a current called emf
Current-Carrying Solenoid
(electromotive force).
A solenoid is a long coil of wire with many
- Electromotive force (ε) is the
turns or loops, as opposed to a flat loop.
maximum possible voltage.
- Because of its shape, the field inside - It is the potential difference that
a solenoid can be very uniform, and creates an electric field which exerts
also very strong. force on charges, causing a current.
- The field just outside the coils is - The emf supplies energy, not force.
nearly zero.
𝑒𝑚𝑓𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑒𝑚𝑓1 + 𝑒𝑚𝑓2 + 𝑒𝑚𝑓3...
Formula: 𝐵 = µ0𝑛𝐼
*The positive terminal is always at a
➔ 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ higher potential than the negative
𝑁 terminal.
- 𝑛= 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
; 𝑁 = 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
Internal resistance (r) affects the voltage
Sample Problem: What is the field inside output when a current flows.
a 2.00 m long solenoid that has 2000
loops and carries a 1600-A current? - The voltage output of a device is
called terminal voltage given by:
Given: 𝑙 = 2𝑚 ; 𝑁 = 2000 ; 𝐼 = 1600𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑒𝑚𝑓 − 𝐼𝑟
−7 𝑇𝑚
µ0 = 4π × 10 𝐴
𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3...
Required: 𝑛 =? ; 𝐵 =?
𝐸 𝑒𝑚𝑓
Formula: 𝐼 = 𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑+𝑟
𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = 𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑+𝑟
*To get the number of loops per unit
length, divide the number of loops to the
Sample Problem: A certain battery has a
length.
12.0 V emf and an internal resistance of
0.100 Ω. Calculate its terminal voltage - This process is also called
when connected to a 10.0 Ω load. magnetic induction to distinguish it
from charging by induction, which
Given: 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 12. 0𝑉 ; 𝑟 = 0. 100Ω ; utilizes the Coulomb force.
𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 10. 0Ω
*The faster the motion, the greater the
Required: 𝐼 =? ; 𝑉 =? emf, and there is no emf when the magnet
is stationary relative to the coil.
𝑒𝑚𝑓
Equation: 𝐼 = 𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑+𝑟
; 𝑉 = 𝑒𝑚𝑓 − 𝐼𝑟
Magnetic Flux
12
Solution: 𝐼 = = 1. 18𝐴 Formula: ϕ = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
10+0.100
𝑉 = 12 − (1. 18)(0. 100) ➔ ϕ = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 (𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑏)
Answer: 𝑉 = 11. 88 𝑉 *When the face of the loop is parallel to B,
θ = 90o and Φ = 0. When B is
Kirchhoff’s Rules
perpendicular to the face of the loop, θ =
Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that the 0o and Φ = BA.
sum of all currents entering a junction Any changes in magnetic flux induces
must equal the sum of all currents leaving an emf.
the junction:
- This process is defined to be
∑𝐼𝑖𝑛 = ∑𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ; a junction, or node, is a electromagnetic induction.
connection of three or more wires. Current
is the flow of charge, and charge is Faraday’s Law of Induction
conserved; thus, whatever charge flows
1. Emf is directly proportional to the
into the junction must flow out.
change in flux ΔΦ.
Kirchhoff’s loop rule states that the 2. Emf is greatest when the change in
algebraic sum of changes in potential time Δt is smallest— that is, emf is
around any closed circuit path (loop) must inversely proportional to Δt .
be zero: 3. If a coil has N turns, an emf will be
produced that is N times greater
∑𝑉 = 0 than for a single coil, so that emf is
directly proportional to N .
*Voltmeters measure voltage; Ammeters
measure currents; Multimeters can Formula: 𝑒𝑚𝑓 =− 𝑁
∆ϕ
𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑚𝑓 =
∆ϕ
𝑖𝑓
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
measure voltage, resistance, and current.
𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
Week 5: Electromagnetism
*N is always negative.
In 1831, Michael Faraday and Joseph
The minus means that the emf creates a
Henry independently demonstrated that
current I and magnetic field B that oppose
magnetic fields can produce currents.
the change in flux ΔΦ — this is known as
The basic process of generating emfs Lenz’s law.
(electromotive force) and, hence, currents
- It is named after Heinrich Lenz.
with magnetic fields is known as
induction.
Sample Problem 1: Consider a wire loop Light as an Electromagnetic Wave
2
of area 2𝑚 initially far from any sources
Mechanical waves are waves that require
of magnetic field. A strong bar of magnet
a medium for it to travel; electromagnetic
with 1. 0𝑇 near its poles is suddenly waves can travel in space or vacuum (no
inserted into the loop, filling the loop medium required) and can be classified
completely. If the time required to insert and arranged according to their various
the magnet is ∆t = 0.5 s, what is the wavelengths and frequencies through the
approximate value of the emf induced in electromagnetic spectrum.
the loop?
- Gamma rays have the highest
2
Given: 𝐴 = 2𝑚 ; 𝐵 = 1. 0𝑇 ; ∆𝑡 = 0. 5𝑠 frequency, whereas radio waves
have the lowest.
Required: ϕ =? ; ε =? - Visible light is approximately in the
∆ϕ middle of the spectrum, and
Equation: ϕ = 𝐵𝐴 ; ε = ∆𝑡 comprises a very small fraction of
the overall spectrum.
Solution: ϕ = (1)(2) = 2𝑊𝑏
2
ε= In a vacuum, light travels at the speed of
0.5
approximately 299,792,458 meters per
Answer: ε = 4𝑉 second (m/s).

- This is known as the speed of light.

It is the fastest that anything in the
Sample Problem 2: Suppose a 50-turn universe is able to move!
coil lies in the plane of the page in a - For comparison, the speed of sound
uniform magnetic field that is directed into is only approximately 300 m/s. This
the page. The coil originally has an area of is why during a storm you always
2
0.250 𝑚 . It is stretched to have no area in see lightning before hearing thunder.
0.100 s. What is the direction and
𝑐
magnitude of the induced emf if the Formula: 𝑣 = λ
uniform magnetic field has a strength of
1.50 T? ➔ 𝑣 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑧)
8
➔ 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (3 × 10 𝑚/𝑠)
2
Given: 𝑁 = 50 ; 𝐴 = 0. 250𝑚 ; ➔ λ = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚)
∆𝑡 = 0. 100𝑠 ; 𝐵 = 1. 50𝑇

Required: ε =? ; 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =?

∆ϕ 𝐵𝐴
Equation: ε =− 𝑁 ∆𝑡
→ ε =− 𝑁 ∆𝑡

(1.50)(0.250)
Solution: ε =− 50 (0.100)

Answer: ε =− 187. 5 𝑉 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

*If the answer is negative, direction is

clockwise; if the answer is positive,
direction is counterclockwise.
Waves and the Spectrum of Light The Ray Aspect of Light

- The distance between one crest and A straight line that originates at some point
the next is called wavelength. is called a ray.
- The frequency of a wave is the
number of crest (or troughs) that - The part of optics dealing with the
pass a point in one second. ray aspect of light is called
- The wavelength multiplied by the geometric optics.
frequency equals the speed at - The rays are straight lines
which the wave travels. perpendicular to the wave fronts.
- A wave moving through a medium
travels in a straight line in the
direction of its rays.

Light can travel in three ways from a

source to another location:

1. directly from the source through

empty space;
2. through various media;
3. after being reflected from a mirror.
Week 6: Geometric Optics, Interference
and Diffraction Reflection

Optics is the study of the behavior of The law of reflection states that: “the angle
visible light and other forms of of reflection (that the ray makes with the
electromagnetic waves. normal to a surface) equals the angle of
incidence.”
- When electromagnetic radiation,
such as visible light, interacts with θ𝑖 = θ𝑟
objects that are large compared with
its wavelength, its motion can be
represented by straight lines like
rays. Ray optics is the study of
such situations and includes lenses
and mirrors.
- When electromagnetic radiation
interacts with objects about the
same size as the wavelength or
smaller, its wave nature becomes
apparent. For example, observable
detail is limited by the wavelength,
and so visible light can never detect
individual atoms, because they are When light reflects from a rough surface,
so much smaller than its the law of reflection still holds, but the
wavelength. Physical or wave angle of incidence varies. This is called
optics is the study of such situations diffuse reflection.
and includes all wave
characteristics.
 - The principal axis is the straight
line perpendicular to the curved
surface at its center of curvature, C
(line CA).
- The point F, where incident parallel
rays come to a focus after reflection,
is called the focal point.
- The distance between F and the
center of the mirror, length FA, is
What you see when you look into a plane called the focal length, f.
(flat) mirror is an image, which appears to - Thus the focal length is half the
be behind the mirror called a virtual 𝑟
radius of curvature: 𝑓 = .
image as the light does not go through it. 2

- The distance of the image from the Mirror Equation

mirror is equal to the distance of the
The mirror equation relates the object
object from the mirror.
and image distances to the focal length f.
- 𝑑0 = 𝑑𝑖
1 1 1
Formula: 𝑑0
+ 𝑑𝑖
= 𝑓
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
Magnification of an Image
Spherical mirrors are shaped like sections
The magnification, m, of a mirror is
of a sphere, and may be reflective on
defined as the height of the image divided
either the inside (concave) or outside
by the height of the object.
(convex).
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖
Formula: 𝑚 = ℎ0
=− 𝑑0

The minus sign is inserted as a

convention. Sign conventions are
chosen so as to give the correct locations
and orientations of images, as predicted
by ray diagrams.
Parallel rays striking a spherical mirror do
The sign conventions we use are:
not all converge at exactly the same place
if the curvature of the mirror is large; this is 1. The image height is positive if the
called spherical aberration. image is upright, and negative if
inverted, relative to the object
(assuming is taken as positive);
2. or is positive if image or object is in
front of the mirror; if either image or
object is behind the mirror, the
corresponding distance is negative.

*Thus, the magnification is positive for an

upright image and negative for an inverted
image (upside down).
Sample Problem 1: A 1.50-cm-high 𝑑𝑖 17.54
Since 𝑚 =− , 𝑚 =− =− 0. 46;
object is placed 20.0 cm from a concave 𝑑0 38

mirror with radius of curvature 30.0 cm. thus, the image is inverted.
Determine (a) the position of the image,
and (b) its size. Convex Mirrors

The analysis used for concave mirrors can

Given: ℎ0 = 1. 50𝑐𝑚 ; 𝑑0 = 20𝑐𝑚 ;
be applied to convex mirrors.
𝑟 = 30𝑐𝑚

Required: 𝑑𝑖 =? ; ℎ𝑖 =?

1 1 1 ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖
Equation: 𝑑0
+ 𝑑𝑖
= 𝑓
; ℎ0
=− 𝑑0

𝑟 30
Solution: 𝑓 = 2
→𝑓 = 2
= 15
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑑𝑖
20
+ 𝑑𝑖
= 15
→ 15
− 20
= 𝑑𝑖
→ 1

ℎ𝑖 60 60(1.50)
𝑑𝑖 = 60 ; 1.50
=− 20
→ ℎ𝑖 =− 20 - The reflected rays diverge, but seem
to come from point F behind the
Answer: 𝑑𝑖 = 60 𝑐𝑚 ; ℎ𝑖 =− 4. 50 𝑐𝑚 mirror. This is the focal point, and its
distance from the center of the
*Solving for m would give us mirror (point A) is the focal length, f.
60
𝑚 =− 20
=− 3 which means the image is
*No matter where the object is placed on
3 times larger than the object and the
the reflecting side of a convex mirror, the
minus sign reminds us that the image is
image will be virtual, upright and
inverted.
smaller.
Sample Problem 2: A small candle is 38
Refraction
cm from a concave mirror having a radius
of curvature of 24 cm. (a) What is the focal In general, light slows somewhat when
length of the mirror? (b) Where will the traveling through a medium.
image of the candle be located? (c) Will
the image be upright or inverted? The index of refraction of the medium is
the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to
Given: 𝑑0 = 38𝑐𝑚 ; 𝑟 = 24𝑐𝑚 the speed of light in the medium:
𝑐
Required: 𝑓 =? ; 𝑑𝑖 =? Formula: 𝑛 = 𝑣

Equation: 𝑓 =
𝑟
;
1
+
1
=
1 ➔ 𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2 𝑑0 𝑑𝑖 𝑓
8
➔ 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (3 × 10 𝑚/𝑠)
Solution: 𝑓 =
24
= 12 ➔ 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑚/𝑠)
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = → − = *The index of refraction is never less than
38 𝑑𝑖 12 12 38 𝑑𝑖
1.
Answer: 𝑓 = 12 𝑐𝑚 ; 𝑑𝑖 = 17. 54 𝑐𝑚 ;
The angle of refraction depends on the Given: θ1 = 60. 0° ; 𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 1. 50 ;
indices of refraction, and is given by 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1. 00
Snell’s law.

Formula: 𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛θ1 = 𝑛2𝑠𝑖𝑛θ2 Required: θ𝐴 =? ; θ𝐵

Equation: 𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛θ1 = 𝑛2𝑠𝑖𝑛θ2

Solution: 1. 00𝑠𝑖𝑛(60) = 1. 50𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝐴

*The incident ray is in air, so 𝑛1 = 1.00 and

𝑛2 = 1.50.

1.00𝑠𝑖𝑛(60)
1.50
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝐴 → 0. 5773 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝐴
−1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (0. 5773) = θ𝐴 → 35. 3° = θ𝐴

*At this second interface, 𝑛1 = 1.50 and 𝑛2

= 1.00

1. 50𝑠𝑖𝑛(35. 3°) = 1. 00𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝐵

Sample Problem: Light traveling in air
strikes a flat piece of uniformly thick glass 1.50𝑠𝑖𝑛(35.3°)
at an incident angle of 60.0°. If the index 1.00
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝐵 → 0. 8669 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝐵
of refraction of the glass is 1.50, (a) what −1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (0. 8669) = θ𝐵 → 60° = θ𝐵
is the angle of refraction in the glass; (b)
what is the angle at which the ray Answer: θ𝐴 = 35. 3° ; θ𝐵 = 60°
emerges from the glass?
*If the sample problem includes “to the
normal”, n = 1.00.

Total Internal Refraction

If light passes into a medium with a

smaller index of refraction, the angle of
refraction is larger. There is an angle of
incidence for which the angle of refraction
will be 90°; this is called the critical
angle.
𝑛2 𝑛2
- 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝐶 = 𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛(90°) = 𝑛1

Total Internal Reflection

If the angle of incidence is larger than 90°,

no transmission occurs. This is called
total internal reflection.
 - Parallel rays are brought to a focus
by a converging lens.
- A diverging lens makes parallel light
diverge; the focal point is that point
where the diverging rays would
converge if projected back.

Ray tracing for thin lenses is similar to that

- Binoculars often use total internal for mirrors. We have three key rays:
reflection; this gives true 100%
reflection, which even the best 1. This ray comes in parallel to the axis
mirror cannot do. and exits through the focal point.
- Total internal reflection is also the 2. This ray comes in through the focal
principle behind fiber optics. Light point and exits parallel to the axis.
will be transmitted along the fiber 3. This ray goes through the center of
even if it is not straight. An image the lens and is undeflected.
can be formed using multiple small
Thin Lens Equation and Magnification
fibers.
The thin lens equation is the same as the
Lenses
mirror equation:
Thin lenses are those whose thickness is 1 1 1
+ =
small compared to their radius of 𝑑0 𝑑𝑖 𝑓

curvature. They may be either converging

(a) or diverging (b). Also, the magnification formula is also the
same as that for a mirror:
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑚= ℎ0
=− 𝑑0

The sign conventions are slightly

different.

1. The focal length is positive for

converging lenses and negative for
diverging.
2. The object distance is positive when
the object is on the same side as the
light entering the lens (not an issue
except in compound systems);
otherwise it is negative.
3. The image distance is positive if the
image is on the opposite side from
the light entering the lens; otherwise
it is negative.
4. The height of the image is positive if
the image is upright and negative
- Converging lenses are thicker at otherwise.
the center whereas diverging
lenses are thicker at the edges.