MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Objectives:
a. Define grammar.
b. Familiarize on the history of grammar.
c. Determine the different approaches of grammar.

Grammar is the system of a language.

People sometimes describe grammar as the
"rules" of a language; but in fact no language
has rules*. If we use the word "rules", we
suggest that somebody created the rules first
and then spoke the language, like a new
game. But languages did not start like that.
Languages started by people making sounds
which evolved into words, phrases and
sentences. No commonly-spoken language is
fixed. All languages change over time. What
we call "grammar" is simply a reflection of a
language at a particular time.
Grammar, rules of a language
governing the sounds, words, sentences, and
other elements, as well as their combination and interpretation. The word grammar also
denotes the study of these abstract features or a book presenting these rules. In a
restricted sense, the term refers only to the study of sentence and word structure
(syntax and morphology), excluding vocabulary and pronunciation.

A common contemporary definition of grammar is the underlying structure of a

language that any native speaker of that language knows intuitively. The systematic
description of the features of a language is also a grammar. These features are the
phonology (sound), morphology (system of word formation), syntax (patterns of word
arrangement), and semantics (meaning). Depending on the grammarian’s approach, a

CHAPTER I: GRAMMAR AND ITS APPROACHES 1

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

grammar can be prescriptive (i.e., provide rules for correct usage), descriptive (i.e.,
describe how a language is actually used), or generative (i.e., provide instructions for
the production of an infinite number of sentences in a language). The traditional focus of
inquiry has been on morphology and syntax, and for some contemporary linguists (and
many traditional grammarians) this is the only proper domain of the subject.

In Europe the Greeks were the first to write grammars. To them, grammar was a
tool that could be used in the study of Greek literature; hence their focus on the literary
language. The Alexandrians of the 1st century BC further developed Greek grammar in
order to preserve the purity of the language. Dionysus Thrax of Alexandria later wrote
an influential treatise called The Art of Grammar, in which he analyzed literary texts in
terms of letters, syllables, and eight parts of speech.
The Romans adopted the grammatical system of the Greeks and applied it to
Latin. Except for Varro, of the 1st century BC, who believed that grammarians should
discover structures, not dictate them, most Latin grammarians did not attempt to alter
the Greek system and also sought to protect their language from decay. Whereas the
model for the Greeks and Alexandrians was the language of Homer, the works of Cicero
and Virgil set the Latin standard. The works of Donatus (4th century AD) and Priscian
(6th century AD), the most important Latin grammarians, were widely used to teach
Latin grammar during the European Middle Ages. In medieval Europe, education was
conducted in Latin, and Latin grammar became the foundation of the liberal arts
curriculum. Many grammars were composed for students during this time. Aelfric, the
abbot of Eynsham (11th century), who wrote the first Latin grammar in Anglo-Saxon,
proposed that this work serve as an introduction to English grammar as well. Thus
began the tradition of analyzing English grammar according to a Latin model.
The modistae, grammarians of the mid-13th to mid-14th century who viewed
language as a reflection of reality, looked to philosophy for explanations of grammatical
rules. The modistae sought one “universal” grammar that would serve as a means of
understanding the nature of being. In 17th-century France a group of grammarians from
Port-Royal were also interested in the idea of universal grammar. They claimed that
common elements of thought could be discerned in grammatical categories of all
languages. Unlike their Greek and Latin counterparts, the Port-Royal grammarians did
not study literary language but claimed instead that usage should be dictated by the
actual speech of living languages. Noting their emphasis on linguistic universals, the
contemporary linguist Noam Chomsky called the Port-Royal group the first
transformational grammarians.

CHAPTER I: GRAMMAR AND ITS APPROACHES 2

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

By 1700 grammars of 61 vernacular languages had been printed. These were

written primarily for purposes of reforming, purifying, or standardizing language and
were put to pedagogical use. Rules of grammar usually accounted for formal, written,
literary language only and did not apply to all the varieties of actual, spoken language.
This prescriptive approach long dominated the schools, where the study of grammar
came to be associated with “parsing” and sentence diagramming. Opposition to
teaching solely in terms of prescriptive and proscriptive (i.e., what must not be done)
rules grew during the middle decades of the 20th century.
The simplification of grammar for classroom use contrasted sharply with the
complex studies that scholars of linguistics were conducting about languages. During
the 19th and early 20th centuries the historical point of view flourished. Scholars who
realized that every living language was in a constant state of flux studied all types of
written records of modern European languages to determine the courses of their
evolution. They did not limit their inquiry to literary languages but included dialects and
contemporary spoken languages as well. Historical grammarians did not follow earlier
prescriptive approaches but were interested, instead, in discovering where the language
under study came from.
As a result of the work of historical grammarians, scholars came to see that the
study of language can be either diachronic (its development through time) or synchronic
(its state at a particular time). The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and other
descriptive linguists began studying the spoken language. They collected a large
sample of sentences produced by native speakers of a language and classified their
material starting with phonology and working their way to syntax.
Generative, or transformational, grammarians of the second half of the 20th
century, such as Noam Chomsky, studied the knowledge that native speakers possess
which enables them to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences.
Whereas descriptivists like Saussure examined samples of individual speech to arrive at
a description of a language, transformationalists first studied the underlying structure of
a language. They attempted to describe the “rules” that define a native speaker’s
“competence” (unconscious knowledge of the language) and account for all instances of
the speaker’s “performance” (strategies the individual uses in actual sentence
production). See generative grammar; transformational grammar.
The study of grammatical theory has been of interest to philosophers,
anthropologists, psychologists, and literary critics over the centuries. Today, grammar
exists as a field within linguistics but still retains a relationship with these other
disciplines. For many people, grammar still refers to the body of rules one must know in
order to speak or write “correctly.” However, from the last quarter of the 20th century a
more sophisticated awareness of grammatical issues has taken root, especially in
schools. In some countries, such as Australia and the United Kingdom, new English
curricula have been devised in which grammar is a focus of investigation, avoiding the

CHAPTER I: GRAMMAR AND ITS APPROACHES 3

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

prescriptivism of former times and using techniques that promote a lively and thoughtful
spirit of inquiry.

Universal grammar (UG) is a theory in linguistics usually credited to Noam

Chomsky that suggests that the ability to learn grammar is built into the human brain
from birth regardless of language
In the 1960s, linguists became interested in a new theory about grammar, or the
laws of language. The theory was popularized by an American linguist named Noam
Chomsky who often focused on the effortless language learning of young children.
Chomsky didn’t believe that exposure to a language was enough for a young
child to become efficient at understanding and producing a language. He believed that
humans are born with an innate ability to learn languages. According to Chomsky’s
theory, the basic structures of language are already encoded in the human brain at
birth.
This “universal grammar theory” suggests that every language has some of the
same laws. For example, every language has a way to ask a question or make
something negative. In addition, every language has a way to identify gender or show
that something happened in the past or present.
If the basic grammar laws are the same for all languages, a child needs only to
follow the particular set of rules that his peers follow in order to understand and produce
their native language. In other words, his environment determines which language he
will use, but he is born with the tools to learn any language effectively.

To see the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar, let’s first
start with a definition of grammar as commonly used by traditional grammarians. The
following definition stipulates that grammar is about distinguishing correct from incorrect
sentences. This is exactly what prescriptive grammar is all about. Put differently:
‘prescriptive grammar’ refers to a set of norms governing how sentences should or
should not be formed rather than describing how language is really used.
Prescriptive grammar is concerned with what the grammarians think to be right or
wrong, that is, it differentiates between good and bad language users.
Prescriptive grammar is contrasted with descriptive grammar:
Descriptive grammar focuses on describing the language as it is actually used, not as it
should be used. It is based on the language used by its speakers.
Descriptive linguists try to analyze real language data so that they can formulate
rules governing its use. The aim is not to distinguish good from bad language users.
Many forms of language that prescriptive grammarians think are not grammatical may
be included in the data the descriptive linguists analyze.

CHAPTER I: GRAMMAR AND ITS APPROACHES 4

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Here is an example of a form that prescriptive grammarians believe to be wrong:

John is older than her.
Although the above form is used by actual speakers, prescriptive grammar considers it
an example of bad language, contending that the right form should be:
John is older than she.
Prescriptive grammarians believe that the word ‘than’ is used as a conjunction that
should be followed by a subject pronoun. The correct form according to this approach
should be ‘he is older than she (is)’.
However, according to descriptive grammar, since the above form is used by
actual language speakers and writers, it should be included in the data and studied. The
word ‘than’ in this analysis is viewed as a preposition, and for that reason, it can be
argued that the sentence ‘John is older than her’ is also correct and that ‘her’ in this
case functions as the object of the preposition.
Descriptive grammar describes language forms objectively and nonjudgmentally.
The aim is to study the principles and patterns that underlie the actual language use.

But is prescriptive and descriptive grammar appropriate to the needs of English

language learners?
In most classroom practices, both prescriptive and descriptive grammars are
hard to teach, hence, the need for a more teachable grammar – a pedagogic grammar.
This grammar is helpful in teaching language and takes into consideration the level and
needs of the learners and the nature of the classroom. To be effective, this grammar
should meet some requirements.

The grammar rules should be:

Meaningful: Grammar rules should be contextualized and should make sense.
Simple: Lengthy explanations of grammar rules may be counterproductive. Short and
easy to formulate rules can be more effective.
True: The simplicity of grammar rules shouldn’t be at the expense of truthfulness.
Many teachers explain the use of the indefinite articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ by
stating that: ‘a’ is used before consonants while ’an’ is used before vowels.
This rule is simple but it is not truthful. There are many instances of the
article ‘a’ used before a vowel (cf. a university). Similarly, there are many
examples of the use of ‘an’ in front of a consonant (cf. an umbrella.) A more
appropriate and true formulation of the above rule is the following: ‘a’ is used
before consonant sounds while ’an’ is used before vowel sounds.
This is because a vowel letter like ‘u’ can be pronounced as a consonant
as in ‘umbrella’.
Grading:
Grammar rules have to be sequenced in such a way that easy structures should
be taught before complex ones. For example, one cannot teach the past perfect tense

CHAPTER I: GRAMMAR AND ITS APPROACHES 5

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

before teaching first the simple past tense. It is generally agreed among syllabus
designers that grammar points that are easy to teach should have precedence over
more complex ones. Common topics you can find in a core grammar syllabus for
beginners are: be, simple present, present continuous, articles, adjectives, can/can’t,
going to, etc.

EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading please refer to the link provided:
Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammar
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tyz2DfT6yX0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ih0UqZ7O7Cg

Pedagogic Grammar
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Z1bxYvY_f0

TEFL Grammar: Form vs Meaning vs Use

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlVBGQouvoA

Online Source:
 https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/what.htm
 https://www.britannica.com/topic/grammar
 https://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/what-is-the-difference-
between-prescriptive-and-descriptive-grammar/

CHAPTER I: GRAMMAR AND ITS APPROACHES 6

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Objectives:
a. Name and explain the different parts of speech.
b. Determine the different types of every part of speech.

There are nine parts of speech in the English

language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of
speech indicates how the word functions in meaning as
well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual
word can function as more than one part of speech when
used in different circumstances. Understanding parts of
speech is essential for determining the correct definition of
a word when using the dictionary.

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an
article (the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter;
common nouns do not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns
show possession by adding 's. Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence;
for example, a noun can be a subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement,
or object of a preposition.
Example.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

Types of Nouns
Nouns are an important part of speech in English, probably second only to verbs.
It is difficult to say much without using a noun.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 1

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

There are several different types of English nouns. It is often useful to recognize
what type a noun is because different types sometimes have different rules. This helps
you to use them correctly.

Common Nouns and Proper Nouns

Common Nouns
Most nouns are common nouns. Common nouns refer to people, places and
things in general like chair or dog. Any noun that is not a name is a common noun.

Examples: teacher, car, music, danger, receipt

Proper Nouns
Names of people, places or organizations are proper nouns. Your name is a
proper noun. London is a proper noun. United Nations is a proper noun.
Rule: Proper nouns always start with a capital letter.
Examples: Jane, Thailand, Sunday, James Bond, Einstein, Superman, Game of
Thrones, Shakespeare
Note: Adjectives that we make from proper nouns also usually start with a capital letter,
for example Shakespearian, Orwellian.

Concrete Nouns and Abstract Nouns

Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are physical things that you can touch.
Examples: man, rice, head, car, furniture, mobile phone

Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns are the opposite of concrete nouns. They are things that you
cannot touch. Abstract nouns are ideas, concepts and feelings.
An abstract noun is a noun which refers to ideas, qualities, and conditions -
things that cannot be seen or touched and things which have no physical reality.
Examples: happiness, courage, danger, truth

Count Nouns and Mass Nouns

Count Nouns
Count nouns are nouns that can be pluralized, or counted with a number (one
tomato, two tomatoes).
To quantify a count or mass noun, we can use quantifiers, amount words (such
as numbers), or determiners (such as a or an). A quantifier is a word that comes before
the noun and indicates the quantity or amount being referred to. Some quantifiers that
are used with count nouns cannot be used with mass nouns, and vice versa.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 2

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Examples: ball, boy, cat, person

Mass Nouns
Mass nouns (also called uncountable nouns or non-count nouns) are nouns that
cannot be pluralized. To quantify a mass noun, we need to use quantifiers, amount
words, or determiners.
Rule: We never use uncountable nouns with the indefinite article (a/an). Uncountable
nouns are always singular.
Examples: water, happiness, cheese

Collective Nouns
A collective noun denotes a group of individuals.
Examples: class (group of students), pride (group of lions), crew (group of sailors)
Rule: Collective nouns can be treated as singular or plural. More about this at rules of
subject-verb agreement with collective nouns.

Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words. Most
compound nouns are [noun + noun] or [adjective + noun]. Each compound noun acts as
a single unit and can be modified by adjectives and other nouns.
Compound nouns have three different forms:
 open or spaced - space between words (bus stop)
 hyphenated - hyphen between words (mother-in-law)
 closed or solid - no space or hyphen between words (football)
Examples: cat food, blackboard, breakfast, full moon, washing machine, software

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for
a specific noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent
for the pronoun she is the girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns
refer to specific persons or things; possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive
pronouns are used to emphasize another noun or pronoun; relative pronouns introduce
a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 3

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Types of Pronouns
The term pronoun covers many words, some of which do not fall easily under the
description "a word that replaces a noun or a noun phrase."
There are nine different kinds of pronouns. In general, these do not cause
difficulties for native English speakers, but each type has its quirks.

Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are used to demonstrate (or indicate). This, that, these,
and those are all demonstrative pronouns.
Examples:
 This is the one I left in the car. (In this example, the speaker could be indicating
to a mobile phone, in which case, the pronoun this replaces the words mobile
phone.)
 Shall I take those?

Indefinite Pronouns
Unlike demonstrative pronouns, which point out specific items, indefinite
pronouns are used for non-specific things. This is the largest group of pronouns. All,
some, any, several, anyone, nobody, each, both, few, either, none, one, and no one are
the most common.
Examples:
 Somebody must have seen the driver leave. (Somebody is not a specific person.)
 We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars. (Playwright
Oscar Wilde)
 I have nothing to declare except my genius. (Playwright Oscar Wilde)

Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used in questions. Although they are classified as
pronouns, it is not easy to see how they replace nouns. Who, which, what, where, and
how are all interrogative pronouns.
Examples:
 Who told you to do that?
 Which dog won the race?

Personal Pronouns
The personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and who. More often than
not (but certainly not always), they replace nouns representing people. When most
people think of pronouns, it is the personal pronouns that usually spring to mind.
Examples:

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 4

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 We can't all be heroes because somebody has to sit on the curb and clap as they
go by.
 I bought some batteries, but they weren't included. (Comedian Steven Wright)

Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns are used to show possession. The possessive pronouns
are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs.
Examples:
The tickets are as good as ours.
Shall we take yours or theirs?
These pronouns are sometimes called absolute possessive pronouns to
differentiate them from possessive determiners (my, your, his, her, its, our, and their),
which are also classified as a type of possessive pronoun.

 This is Sarah's English book. Have you seen her French book? (In this example,
the pronoun her replaces Sarah's.)

Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to add more information to a sentence. Which, that,
who (including whom and whose), and where are all relative pronouns.
Examples:
 Dr. Adam Sissons, who lectured at Cambridge for more than 12 years, should
have known the difference. (In this example, the relative pronoun who introduces
the clause who studied at Cambridge for 12 years and refers back to Dr Adams
Sissons.)
 The man who first saw the comet reported it as a UFO. (In this example, the
relative pronoun who introduces the clause who first saw the comet and refers
back to the man.)

Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns are used for actions or feelings that are reciprocated. The
reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another.
Examples:
They like one another.
They talk to each other like they're babies.

Reflexive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun ends ...self or ...selves and refers to another noun or
pronoun in the sentence (usually the subject of the sentence). The reflexive pronouns
are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 5

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Examples:
 The dog bit itself. (In this example, the intensive pronoun itself refers back to the
noun the dog.)
 Are you talking to yourself?

Intensive (or Emphatic) Pronouns

An intensive pronoun (sometimes called an emphatic pronoun) refers back to
another noun or pronoun in the sentence to emphasize it (e.g., to emphasize that it is
the thing carrying out the action).
Examples:
John bakes all the bread himself. (In this example, the intensive pronoun himself refers
back to the noun John.)
The cat itself opened the door.

A verb expresses action or being.

The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and
sometimes one or more helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the
helping verb.) A verb must agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both
are plural). Verbs also take different forms to express tense.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
Action Verbs
Action verbs indicate what the subject of a sentence performs. Action verbs can
make the listener/reader feel emotions, see scenes more vividly and accurately.
Action verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
Transitive verbs must have a direct object. A transitive verb demands
something/someone to be acted upon.
Example:
 I painted the car. (The verb ‘paint’ demands an object to be painted)
 She is reading the newspaper. (The verb ‘read’ asks the question “what is she
reading?” – the answer is the object)
Intransitive verbs do not act upon anything. They may be followed by an adjective,
adverb, preposition, or another part of speech.
Example:

 She smiled. (The verb ‘smile’ cannot have any object since the action of ‘smiling’
does not fall upon anything/anyone)
 I wake up at 6 AM. (No object is needed for this verb)

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 6

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Finite Verbs
Finite verbs are the actual verbs which are called the roots of sentences. It is a
form of a verb that is performed by or refers to a subject and uses one of the twelve
forms of tense and changes according to the number/person of the subject.
Example:
 Alex went to school. (Subject – Alex – performed the action in the past. This
information is evident only by the verb ‘went’.)
 Robert plays hockey.
 He is playing for Australia.
 He is one of the best players. (Here, the verb ‘is’ directly refers to the subject
itself.)

Non-finite Verbs
Non-finite Verbs are not actual verbs. They do not work as verbs in the sentence
rather they work as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc. Non-finite verbs do not change
according to the number/person of the subject because these verbs, also called verbals,
do not have any direct relation to the subject. Sometimes they become the subject
themselves.
The forms of non-finite verbs are – infinitive, gerund, and participle (participles
become finite verbs when they take auxiliary verbs.)
Example:
 Alex went abroad to play. (Infinitives)
 Playing cricket is his only job. (Present participle)
 I have a broken bat. (Past participle)
 Walking is a good habit. (Gerund)

Linking Verb
A linking verb adds details about the subject of a sentence. In its simplest form, it
connects the subject and the complement — that is, the words that follow the linking
verb. It creates a link between them instead of showing action.
Often, what is on each side of a linking verb is equivalent; the complement
redefines or restates the subject.
Generally, linking verbs are called ‘be’ verbs which are - am, is, are, was, were.
However, there are some other verbs which can work as linking verbs. Those verbs are:
Act, feel, remain, appear, become, seem, smell, sound, grow, look, prove, stay, taste,
turn.
Some verbs in this list can also be action verbs. To figure out if they are linking
verbs, you should try replacing them with forms of the be verbs. If the changed
sentence makes sense, that verb is a linking verb.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 7

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Example:
 She appears ready for the game. (She is ready for the game.)
 The food seemed delicious. (The food was delicious.)
 You look happy. (You are happy.)

Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs. An auxiliary verb extends the main
verb by helping to show time, tense, and possibility. The auxiliary verbs are – be verbs,
have, and do.
They are used in the continuous (progressive) and perfect tenses.
Linking verbs work as main verbs in the sentence, but auxiliary verbs help main
verbs.
Do is an auxiliary verb that is used to ask questions, to express negation, to
provide emphasis, and more.
Example:
 Alex is going to school.
 They are walking in the park.
 I have seen a movie.
 Do you drink tea?
 Don’t waste your time.
 Please, do submit your assignments.

Modal Verbs
A modal verb is a kind of an auxiliary verb. It assists the main verb to indicate
possibility, potentiality, ability, permission, expectation, and obligation.
The modal verbs are can, could, must, may, might, ought to, shall, should, will,
would.
Example:
 I may want to talk to you again.
 They must play their best game to win.
 She should call him.
 I will go there.

An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. An adjective is a word used to

modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the question of which one,
what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as adjectives.)

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 8

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

Types of Adjectives
Certain parts of speech are integral. Nouns and verbs are needed to make a
complete sentence. With a firm understanding of these parts of speech, we can move
into the world of adjectives and adverbs.
We have modifiers that dress up the most integral parts of our everyday
language. Adjectives, in particular, pair up with nouns. It's their job to modify nouns,
pronouns, and even other adjectives. This takes us from "the girl" to "the pretty girl."
Given their importance, there are several different types of adjectives. Let's dive
right into this multifaceted world.

Coordinate Adjectives
Coordinate adjectives are small groups of adjectives that band together to modify
the same noun. They're separated by the word "and" or with commas.
Example:
 She wore a pink and yellow top yesterday.
 It was a bright, sunny, and glorious morning along Tybee Beach.
 Their murder was a sad, sorry, gruesome affair.
Just be careful when you're piling up words before a noun. For example, "blue
hospital gown" doesn't have any commas or the word "and." That's because "blue" is
modifying "hospital gown." If in doubt over two words that could possibly be modifiers,
place the word "and" between them. If it doesn't make sense, know you're dealing with
a descriptive adjective and not a coordinate adjective.

Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives point to "which" noun or pronoun you're speaking
about. These four words will help you spot demonstrative adjectives:
 this
 that
 these
 those
Typically - although not always - adjectives come before the noun they're modifying.
With demonstrative adjectives, it's a sure bet. They'll stand right in front of the noun
they're working with.
Example:
 Would you like this bicycle?
 That car used to be mine.
 I don't want these accolades.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 9

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Descriptive Adjectives
The most common of the adjectives are descriptive adjectives. They're generally
what we envision when we imagine a word modifying a noun. They give the noun a
quality or attribute. This takes us from "the brother" to "the evil brother." Or, we learn
more as we progress from "the daisy" to "the perky daisy."
Example:
 The silly dog rolled around in the filthy mud for hours.
 She's such a nice cashier.
 He hurt her feelings when he labeled her an annoying sister.

Distributive Adjectives
Distributive adjectives point out specific entities. They single out a particular noun
or pronoun in order to modify, or draw attention, to it. Notable distributive adjectives
include:
 any
 each
 either
 every
 neither
Like most of their comrades, these adjectives stand right beside the noun they're
modifying.
Example:
 I don't like any liars.
 Don't touch either plant.
 She bought every handbag in that store.

Indefinite Adjectives
You can also have indefinite adjectives. Similar to indefinite articles, these
adjectives point to non-specific items. Be on the lookout for these token words to know
you're hot on the trail of an indefinite adjective:
 any
 few
 many
 no
 several
Example:
 I don't want any backtalk.
 Do you have many openings?
 There are no books in this library.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 10

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative adjectives pose a question. They need a noun or pronoun by their
side. In this category, be on the lookout for these words:
 what
 which
 whose
Examples:
 What color do you want to paint the cottage?
 Which kimono do you want to order?
 Whose land are we standing on?
Each interrogative adjective needed a noun after it. There are other words that pose
a question, such as "who" and "how," but they can't be adjectives because they don't
modify nouns. For example, you can say, "Whose land are we standing on?" But, it
would be incorrect to say, "Who land are we standing on?" or, "How land are we
standing on?"

Possessive Adjectives
These labels are pretty handy, huh? We're about to learn possessive adjectives
show possession. Easy enough, right? Here are the key players in the possessive
adjective realm:
 his
 her
 my
 our
 their
 your
Like demonstrative adjectives, possessive adjectives always come before their
corresponding nouns, with one notable exception. Before we get to that, consider these
sample sentences:
 Is that their Ferrari?
 Don't touch our Bugatti.
 I'm sorry; I didn't know this was your Lamborghini.
Those possessive adjectives are immediately followed by the noun. If you would
like to eliminate the requirement of the corresponding noun, you need to change the
adjective. Only "his" stays the same.
 his
 hers
 mine

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 11

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 ours
 theirs
 yours
It would be incorrect to say, "That's their," but it's perfectly acceptable to say,
"That's his." Now, you can also say:
 The necklace? That's hers.
 The red car over there? It's ours.
 I've got my ticket. Where's yours?

Predicate Adjectives
With the exception of some possessive adjectives, all the examples here are
attributive adjectives. That is, they come before the noun they modify. However, things
get a little more complicated in the land of linking verbs. Common linking verbs include:
 am
 is
 are
 was
 were
Adjectives that pop up after the linking verb are known as predicate adjectives.
Example:
 She is smart.
 We are rich.
 They were efficient.
Notice each of these adjectives is modifying the subject of the sentence - "she,"
"we," and "they." They're trickier to spot because they come after the verb, instead of
before the noun, but they're still a member of the adjective tribe.

Proper Adjectives
Proper adjectives are capitalized adjectives derived from proper nouns. A proper
noun is a specific name for a person, place, or thing. So, instead of "she," we have
"Marie." Instead of "country," we have "Japan." Proper adjectives look a lot like their
ancestral proper nouns. They just shift a little bit.
Example:
 I adore Japanese food.
 She's going to a Shakespearean festival.
 Well, that was a Freudian slip.

Quantitative Adjectives

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 12

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Quantitative adjectives describe the quantity of something. Now, we don't just

have a noun or pronoun. We can also answer the question, "How much?" or "How
many?" This turns words like "one" or "two" into adjectives. But, really, any quantity
that's providing further information about a noun constitutes a quantitative noun.
Example:
 She has two children.
 In the near future, I hope to have six puppies.
 In fact, I'll take the whole litter of puppies.
As an aside, when writing numbers, it's generally accepted practice to write out
the numbers zero through nine and use numerals for anything 10 and above.

Sequence Adjectives
Sequence adjectives are akin to quantitative adjectives. Instead of specifying
"two children" or "six puppies," you can assign an order to your numbers. They use the
appropriately named ordinal numbers as ordinal adjectives.
Example:
 This is my fourth doughnut.
 He ate the third hot dog.
 This is Lexi's fifteenth sweater.
We also have other adjectives that illustrate the order of things without using a
specific number.
Example:
 I'll watch the later show.
 This is my next book.
 I'm telling you for the last time.
Remember that, when a number or a sequence is being allocated to a noun, you
have a sequence adjective.

Articles as Adjectives
Here's where things get tricky. There are three articles in the English language:
a, an, the. Aren't articles… articles? Yes. But, they also act as adjectives. They fall into
the same pattern we've been discussing. They stand beside their nouns. Let's look at
them in simple sentences:
 I just adopted a dog.
 This is an elephant.
 Don't take away the iguana.
Each article is, indeed, an adjective. They point to a specific noun. While we're
here, let's take a quick run through the two categories of articles. They are:
Definite article: This article points to a specific item, as in the iguana, the glass, and
the amphitheater.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 13

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Indefinite articles: These articles point to non-specific items, as is the case with an
iguana, a glass, or an amphitheater.

An Adjectival Attitude
Have you ever heard someone's writing referred to as "flowery"? Basically, they
loaded it up with descriptors - most likely adjectives or adverbs - and made their writing
clunky. Of course, we're here to reach a certain level of grammatical genius, so it's good
to understand all these subcategories. Just consider the amount of adjectives you
sprinkle into your writing. Like anything else, you don't want to go too far.

A determiner is a word that introduces a noun. It always comes before a noun,

not after, and it also comes before any other adjectives used to describe the noun.

Determiners are required before a singular noun but are optional when it comes
to introducing plural nouns. For example, consider the placement and usage of the
common determiner the in the sentences below:
 The bunny went home.
 I ate the chocolate cookie for dessert.
 The metal cans are recyclable.

In every example, the determiner is placed before the noun or noun phrase,
regardless of whether the noun in the subject or predicate. In the first example, it comes
directly before the noun, but in the second example, it comes before the adjective
("chocolate") that describes the noun ("cookie").

Types of Determiner
There are four different types of determiners in English: articles, demonstratives,
quantifiers, and possessives.

Articles
Articles are among the most common of the determiners. There are three singular
articles: a, an, and the. Articles specify (or determine) which noun the speaker is
referring to. A and an are indefinite articles and are used when you are talking about a
general version of the noun.
Example:
 A dog is a good pet.
 An ostrich would beat a chicken in a race.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 14

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

In these examples, the sentence is talking about dogs or ostriches in general,

meaning any dog. When your meaning is general, use an indefinite article. Note that a
is used before words that begin with consonants while an is used before words
beginning with vowels.

On the other hand, the is a definite article, meaning the speaker is referring to a specific
noun.
Example:
 We went to the best restaurant in town.
 The dog is barking too loudly.

Here the speaker is referring to a particular dog and a particular restaurant. It's
not a general category, but only one animal or place that's important. When your
meaning is specific, use a definite article.

Demonstratives
Demonstrative pronouns are also used as determiners in English. There are four
of them: this, that, these and those. Demonstratives are used in a situation in which the
speaker can point to the item they mean, making them even more specific than a
definite article.
Example:
 Do you want this piece of chicken?
 I don't want to go to that movie.
 These black raspberries are sour.
 He wanted those boys to go away.

This and these refer to items nearby; that and those refer to items far away. Note
also that this and that are singular while these and those are plural.

Quantifiers
Quantifiers are determiners that indicate how much or how little of the noun is
being discussed. They include words such as all, few and many.
Example:
 He took all the books.
 She liked all desserts equally.
 Few children like lima beans, so the cafeteria stopped serving them.
 Many kittens are taught to hunt by their mothers.

Note that all can be used with other determiners to specify which particular items
are meant (i.e. all the books in this pile). In this case, the quantifier always comes

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 15

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

before the article or demonstrative. It's also possible to use all alone to refer to items
generally, as in the second example.

Possessives
When referring to a noun that belongs to someone or something, you can use
possessive pronouns to show ownership. Possessive pronouns include my, your, his,
her, its, our, and their.
Example:
 Where is your car?
 The dog growled and showed its teeth.
 My best friend is a cat.
 Which one is his house?
 Honesty is her best quality.
 The tree shed its leaves.
 It's our secret recipe.
As always, the determiner comes before the noun and any modifying adjectives.
In English, you can use the same possessive whether the noun it references is singular
or plural.

Using Determiners Correctly

How should you choose which determiner to use? For native English speakers,
determining which determiner to use is second nature, since determiners are so often
used in front of nouns.
For people learning English as a second language, it's helpful to remember a few
rules:
Determiners always come first in the noun phrase.
Determiners are required with singular nouns.
To speak about a singular noun generally, use an indefinite article (a or an).
To speak about a plural noun generally, do not use a determiner.
To speak about a singular noun specifically, use a definite article, demonstrative
pronoun, possessive pronoun or quantifier.
To speak about a plural noun specifically, use a definite article, demonstrative
pronoun, possessive pronoun or quantifier.

An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An

adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun.
It usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to
what degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 16

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

Types of Adverbs
Adverbs love to dress up verbs or other adverbs. For example, we might
progress from, "He sat down," to, "He hurriedly sat down." Now, we know the manner in
which he sat. Since verbs are such integral parts of our everyday language, their
modifiers are also multi-faceted.
To start, there are five types of adverbs you should familiarize yourself with:
adverbs of degree, frequency, manner, place, and time. With these categories under
your belt, you'll be well-positioned to identify several different parts of a sentence.

Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of degree tell us more about the intensity of the verb in the sentence, in other
words, they describe how much, or to what degree. They can be categorized as low
degree (e.g. somewhat), medium degree (e.g. fairly), and high degree (e.g. extremely).
Adverbs of degree can also modify adjectives and other adverbs and are placed before
the word they modify. Popular adverbs of degree include:
 almost
 enough
 hardly
 just
 nearly
 quite
 simply
 so
 too
Example:
 This short essay is hardly sufficient.
 It's simply not enough.
 I'm so excited to move to Ireland.

Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of frequency let us know how often the verb occurs. Therefore they mostly
modify verbs. These adverbs tend to appear right before the main verb in the sentence.
Popular adverbs in this category include:
 again
 always
 never
 normally

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 17

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 rarely
 seldom
 sometimes
 usually
Example:
 I always read a book before bed.
 Does he normally walk his dog at this time?
 She usually shops at the Korean market in town.

Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner tell us how, or in what manner, something was carried out.
They mostly modify verbs and can often be found at the end of a clause. This category
comprises the most common adverbs - the ones that end in -ly. Here are some
examples of adverbs of manner:
 beautifully
 generously
 happily
 neatly
 patiently
 softly
 quickly
 well
Example:
 He trimmed the white roses neatly.
 I combed my dog's fur carefully because it had lots of tangles.
 There's no reason why you can't discuss the topic with me calmly.

Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of place tell us more about where the verb took place. These tend to
pop up after the main verb or direct object of the sentence. Here are some common
adverbs of place:
 above
 below
 everywhere
 here
 in
 inside
 into
 nowhere

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 18

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 out
 outside
 there
Example:
 In Ireland, there are thatched-roof cottages everywhere.
 Clearly, there aren't any leprechauns here.
 I was so beguiled, I drove into a ditch.

Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time detail when the verb took place. We usually see these kinds of adverbs
placed at the beginning or end of a sentence. Adverbs of time include:
 annually
 daily
 monthly
 recently
 tomorrow
 weekly
 yearly
 yesterday
Example:
 Lately, you've been rude to everyone around.
 They recently relocated to Santa Fe.
 The morning newspaper arrives daily.

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase

modifying another word in the sentence.
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase
modifying another word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a
prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective
or as an adverb. The following list includes the most common prepositions:
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship between a noun and the
other words of a sentence. They explain relationships of sequence, space, and logic

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 19

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

between the object of the sentence and the rest of the sentence. They help us
understand order, time connections, and positions.
Example:
 I am going to Canada.
 Alex threw a stone into the pond.
 The present is inside the box.
 They have gone out of the town.
There are a few interesting linguistic facts about preposition.
First, they are a closed class of words which means no new preposition gets
added to the language. We use a fixed set of prepositions.
Second, prepositions do not have any other form. They cannot be plural,
possessive, inflection, or anything else.
Third, most of the prepositions have many different contextual and natural uses.
So, it is easy to be confused about preposition.
Fourth, sometimes a preposition works as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
Prepositions can be of one, two, three, or even more words. Prepositions with
two or more words are called phrasal prepositions.
There are some commonly used phrasal prepositions:
because of, in case of, instead of, by way of, on behalf of, on account of, in care of, in
spite of, on the side of, etc.

Types of Preposition
Most of the prepositions have many uses. There are some prepositions which
are common in every type of preposition as they function in a versatile way.
Prepositions of Time:
Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the nouns to the other
parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the most common
preposition of time.
Example:
 He started working at 10 AM.
 The company called meeting on 25th of October.
 There is a holiday in December.
 He has been ill since Monday.

Prepositions of Place and Direction:

Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the nouns to the
other parts of a sentence.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 20

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among, through, in front of,
behind, above, over, under, below, etc. are the most common prepositions of
place/direction.
Example:
 He is at home.
 He came from England.
 The police broke into the house.
 I live across the river.

Prepositions of Agents or Things:

Prepositions of agents or things indicate a causal relationship between nouns
and other parts of the sentence.
Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common prepositions of agents or
things.
Example:
 This article is about smartphones.
 Most of the guests have already left.
 I will always be here for you.
 He is playing with his brothers.
Phrasal Prepositions:
A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a combination of
two or more words which functions as a preposition.
Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of,
contrary to, in spite of, on account of, in reference to, in addition to, in regard to, instead
of, on top of, out of, with regard to, etc. are the most common phrasal prepositions.
Example:
 They along with their children went to Atlanta.
 According to the new rules, you are not right.
 In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.
 I’m going out of the city.

A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.

A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship
between the elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal
elements: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that
are not equal: because, although, while, since, etc. There are other types of
conjunctions as well.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 21

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

Types of Conjunctions
They may often be small words, but conjunctions are highly functional and very
important for constructing sentences. Did you notice that just now the coordinating
conjunctions but and and were used to link different parts of that first sentence?

This is the main job of conjunctions. They join words, phrases, and clauses
together. Since they serve such an important role, it may not come as a surprise that
there are three distinct types of conjunctions used in sentences: coordinating,
subordinating and correlative. Let's take a look at each category.

Conjunctions Are Linking Words

Conjunctions are known as connective or linking words. They join thoughts,
actions and ideas, as well as clauses and phrases. Each of the three different types of
conjunctions joins different parts of a sentence together. Let's take a look at some of the
most commonly used forms.

Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions like "and," "nor," or "so" link equal parts of a sentence,
be it words, phrases, or independent clauses.
Example:
 He was late for school, so he took a shortcut.
 Her favorite colors were purple and red.
 She doesn't like coffee, nor does she like tea.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions such as "because", "since" and "after" link a
dependent clause to an independent clause, helping to show the relationship between
the two clauses and emphasize the main idea of the freestanding/independent clause.
Example:
 Because it was raining, we had to cancel the class picnic.
 The house was a mess after the crazy party we had last night.
 He doesn't go skiing any more, since he had the accident.

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join together words or phrases that have
equal importance within a sentence, like "either/or", "such/that" and "not only/but also".
Example:

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 22

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 You can have either chocolate or vanilla ice cream.

 He not only plays the guitar but also the drums.
 Such was his strength that he was easily able to move the fallen tree.

An interjection is a word used to express emotion.

An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an
exclamation point.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
Types of Interjection

Interjections are divided into following 6 types on the basis of way they express
greeting, joy, surprise, approval, attention and sorrow, when used in sentences.

Interjections for Greeting

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to indicate the emotion of warmth
to the person meeting with such as Hello! , Hey! , Hi!
Example:
 ‘Hey! Where are you going?’
 Hi! What are you up to?
 Hello! I am Ekta.

Interjections for Joy

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to indicate immediate joy and
happiness on any happy occasion occurred such as hurrah, wow, hurray, etc. these
include: Hurrah! , Hurray! , Wow!
Example:
 Hurrah! We’ve won!
 Good! Now we can move on.
 Wow! What a beautiful dress!

Interjections for Attention

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to draw attention of someone
such as Look!, Listen!, Behold!, hush!, shh!
Example:
 Look! She is so bad.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 23

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 Listen! I am not talking about you.

 Behold! Something is there.
 Shh! be quiet!

Interjections for Approval

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the strong sense of
approval or agreement for something that has happened such as Bravo! , Brilliant! ,
Well done!
Example:
 Well done! You won the race
 Brilliant! That was a good shot.
 Bravo! You scored the most.

Interjections for Surprise

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the strong sense of
surprise about something that has happened such as Ha! , What! , Oh! , Ah! , Eh!
Example:
 Ah! It feels good.
 Oh! You both know each other.
 What! He died.
 Ah! I got a $100 note.

Interjections for Sorrow

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the emotion of sadness
about something unfortunate has happened such as Alas! , Ah! , Oh! , Ouch!
Example:
 Ouch! That hurts.
 Oops, I’m sorry. That was my mistake.
 Alas! He broke his leg.

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 24

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading please refer to the link provided:

Part of Speech
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v9fCKTwytJA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Dna4Tl_YlA

Types of Noun
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F0ESmyMenCQ

Types of Pronouns
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RnMx_vUy4N0

Using Correct Verb Forms

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4UxdvWIk4Fs

Types of Adjective
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PLKE82-meZA

Determiner
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Sb2fGNlcIA

Adverbs in English
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jXtHCBgbks0

Types of Preposition
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Km9CHeB0aQk

Types of Conjunction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lc_tEiy_B7U

Types of Interjection
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OWCwCInU4f4

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 25

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Online Source:
 https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/parts-of-speech.htm
 https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/nouns-types.htm
 https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/nouns-types.htm
 https://www.grammar-
monster.com/lessons/pronouns_different_types.htm
 https://www.learngrammar.net/english-grammar/verb
 https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/grammar/adjectives/type
s-of-adjectives.html
 https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-
speech/nouns/what/what-is-a-determiner.html
 https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/grammar/adverbs/types-
of-adverbs.html
 https://www.learngrammar.net/english-grammar/preposition
 https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-
speech/conjunctions/conjunctions.html
 https://www.englishbix.com/6-types-of-interjections-with-
examples/

CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH 26

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Objectives:
a. Explain the rules for subject-verb agreement.
b. Identify the common errors in subject-verb agreement.

Note: Underline word is the subject/s and italic word is the verb.

RULE 1: Subjects and verbs must agree in number.

This is the cornerstone rule that forms the background of the concept.
Example:
 The dog growls when he is angry.
 The dogs growl when they are angry.

RULE 2: Don’t get confused by the words that come between the subject and
verb; they do not affect agreement.
Example:
 The dog, who is chewing on my jeans, is usually very good.

RULE 3: Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb usually do not affect
agreement.
Example:
 The colors of the rainbow are beautiful.

RULE 4: When sentences start with “there” or “here,” the subject will always be
placed after the verb, so care needs to be taken to identify it correctly.
Example:
 There is a problem with the balance sheet. Here are the papers you
requested.

CHAPTER III: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 1

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

RULE 5: Subjects don't always come before verbs in questions.

Make sure you accurately identify the subject before deciding on the proper verb
form to use.
Example:
 Does Lefty usually eat grass?
 Where are the pieces of this puzzle?

RULE 6: If two subjects are joined by and, they typically require a plural verb
form.
Example:
 The cow and the pig are jumping over the moon.

RULE 7: The verb is singular if the two subjects separated by and refer to the
same person or thing.
Example:
 Red beans and rice is my mom's favorite dish.

RULE 8: If the words each, every, or no come before the subject, the verb is
singular.
Example:
 No smoking and drinking is allowed.
 Every man and woman is required to check in.

RULE 9: If the subjects are both singular and are connected by the words or, nor,
neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also the verb is singular.
Example:
 Jessica or Christian is to blame for the accident.

RULE 10: The only time when the object of the preposition factors into the
decision of plural or singular verb forms is when noun and pronoun subjects like
some, half, none, more, all, etc. are followed by a prepositional phrase. In these
sentences, the object of the preposition determines the form of the verb.
Example:
 All of the chicken is gone.
 All of the chickens are gone.

RULE 11: The singular verb form is usually used for units of measurement.
Example:

CHAPTER III: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 2

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running.

RULE 12: If the subjects are both plural and are connected by the words or, nor,
neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, the verb is plural.
Example:
 Dogs and cats are both available at the pound.

RULE 13: If one subject is singular and one plural and the words are connected
by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, you use the
verb form of the subject that is nearest the verb.
Example:
 Do your sisters or your girlfriend want any pizza?

RULE 14: Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs. *

Example:
 Everybody wants to be loved.

RULE 15: * Except for the pronouns (few, many, several, both) that always take
the plural form.
Example:
 Few were left alive after the flood.

RULE 16: If two infinitives are separated by and they take the plural form of the
verb.
Example:
 To walk and to chew gum require great skill.

RULE 17: When gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence they take the
singular verb form of the verb, but when they are linked by and they take the
plural form.
Example:
 Standing in the water was a bad idea.
 Swimming in the ocean and playing drums are my hobbies.

RULE 18: Collective nouns like herd, senate, class, crowd, etc. usually take a
singular verb form.
Example:
 The herd is stampeding.

CHAPTER III: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 3

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

RULE 19: Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as singular and take a
singular verb.
Example:
 The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks.

RULE 20: Final Rule – Remember, only the subject affects the verb.

EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading please refer to the link provided:

Subject-Verb Agreement - Khan Academy

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4fMipjAnlRk

Subject Verb Agreement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LfJPA8GwTdk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q9lNPthgeEQ

Online Source:
 http://www3.kau.se/kurstorg/files/t/C10B9A3D0a47e29FFBrlsiED2C12/
The%2020%20Rules%20of%20Subject%20Verb%20Agreement%20in
%20Standard%20English.pdf

CHAPTER III: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 4

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Objectives:
a. Define syntax.
b. Identify the nature of syntax.
c. Determine the how to construct sentences.

 Syntax is the proper order of words in a phrase or sentence.

 Syntax is a tool used in writing proper grammatical sentences.
 Native speakers of a language learn correct syntax without realizing it.
 The complexity of a writer's or speaker's sentences creates a formal or informal
level of diction that is presented to its audience.

Hearing and Speaking Syntax

Syntax is one of the major components of grammar. It's the concept that enables
people to know how to start a question with a question word ("What is that?"), or that
adjectives generally come before the nouns they describe ("green chair"), subjects often
come before verbs in non-question sentences ("She jogged"), prepositional phrases
start with prepositions ("to the store"), helping verbs come before main verbs ("can go"
or "will do"), and so on.
For native speakers, using correct syntax is something that comes naturally, as
word order is learned as soon as an infant starts absorbing the language. Native
speakers can tell something isn't said quite right because it "sounds weird," even if they
can't detail the exact grammar rule that makes something sound "off" to the ear.
"It is syntax that gives the words the power to relate to each other in a
sequence...to carry meaning—of whatever kind—as well as glow individually in just the
right place"

Syntactic Rules (Sequencing of subject, verb, and object)

English parts of speech often follow ordering patterns in sentences and clauses,
such as compound sentences are joined by conjunctions (and, but, or) or that multiple
adjectives modifying the same noun follow a particular order according to their class

CHAPTER IV: LANGUAGE SYNTAX 1

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

(such as number-size-color, as in "six small green chairs"). The rules of how to order
words help the language parts make sense.
Sentences often start with a subject, followed by a predicate (or just a verb in the
simplest sentences) and contain an object or a complement (or both), which shows, for
example, what's being acted upon. Take the sentence "Beth slowly ran the race in wild,
multicolored flip-flops." The sentence follows a subject-verb-object pattern ("Beth ran
the race"). Adverbs and adjectives take their places in front of what they're modifying
("slowly ran"; "wild, multicolored flip-flops"). The object ("the race") follows the verb
"ran", and the prepositional phrase ("in wild,
multicolored flip-flops") starts with the
preposition "in".
Word order refers to the way words
are arranged in a sentence. The standard
word order in English is: Subject + Verb +
Object. To determine the proper sequence of
words, you need to understand what the
subject, verb and object(s) are.
 Subject: typically a noun or pronoun—
the person, place or thing
 Verb: the action or state of being
 Object: the word or group of words
influenced by the verb

They also describe the relationship between the meaning of a group of words
and the arrangement of the words
o I mean what I say vs. I say what I mean
The rules of syntax also specify the grammatical relations of a sentence, such as
the subject and the direct object.
o Your dog chased my cat vs. My cat chased your dog.
Syntax rules specify constraints on sentences based on the verb of the sentence.
o *The boy found
o *The boy found in the house
o The boy found the ball
Syntax rules also tell us how words form groups and are hierarchically ordered in
a sentence
“The captain ordered the old men and women off the ship”
This sentence has two possible meanings:
1. The captain ordered the old men and the old women off the ship.
2. The captain ordered the old men and the women of any age off the ship.
The meanings depend on how the words in the sentence are grouped (specifically, to
which words is the adjective ‘old’ applied?)

CHAPTER IV: LANGUAGE SYNTAX 2

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

1. The captain ordered the [old [men and women]] off the ship.
2. The captain ordered the [old men] and [women] off the ship.

These groupings can be shown hierarchically in a tree.

These trees reveal the structural ambiguity in the phrase “old men and women”.
Each structure corresponds to a different meaning. Structurally ambiguous sentences
can often be humorous:
o Catcher: “Watch out for this guy, he’s a great fastball hitter.”
o Pitcher: “No problem. There’s no way I’ve got a great fastball.”

EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading please refer to the link provided:

Introduction to English Syntax

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9v2BYta1PFM

Syntax in English
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rw62E9v9DnU

Sequencing of Subject, Verb, and Object

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6l9JFrEfF8

Online Source:
 https://www.thoughtco.com/syntax-grammar-1692182
 https://www.toeflgoanywhere.org/importance-word-order-
english

CHAPTER IV: LANGUAGE SYNTAX 3

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Objectives:
a. Define constituents and syntactic category.
b. Recognize the syntactic categories of sentences and phrases.
c. Construct basic tree diagrams of sentences.
d.

Constituents
In syntactic analysis, a constituent is a word or a group of words that function as
a single unit within a hierarchical structure. The constituent structure of sentences is
identified using tests for constituents. These tests apply to a portion of a sentence, and
the results provide evidence about the constituent structure of the sentence. Many
constituents are phrases. A phrase is a sequence of one or more words (in some
theories two or more) built around a head lexical item and working as a unit within a
sentence. A word sequence is shown to be a phrase/constituent if it exhibits one or
more of the behaviors discussed below. The analysis of constituent structure is
associated mainly with phrase structure grammars, although dependency grammars
also allow sentence structure to be broken down into constituent parts.

Syntactic Category
A syntactic category is a type of syntactic unit that theories of syntax assume.
Word classes, largely corresponding to traditional parts of speech (e.g. noun, verb,
preposition, etc.) are syntactic categories. In phrase structure grammars, the phrasal
categories (e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase, etc.) are also syntactic
categories. Dependency grammars, however, do not acknowledge phrasal categories
(at least not in the traditional sense).
Word classes considered as syntactic categories may be called lexical
categories, as distinct from phrasal categories. The terminology is somewhat
inconsistent. The terminology is dependent on which grammarian theory we're learning
about. However, many grammars also draw a distinction between lexical categories
(which tend to consist of content words, or phrases headed by them) and functional
categories (which tend to consist of function words or abstract functional elements, or

CHAPTER V: SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 1

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

phrases headed by them). The term lexical category therefore has two distinct
meanings. Moreover, syntactic categories should not be confused with grammatical
categories (also known as grammatical features), which are properties such as tense,
gender, etc.
At least three criteria are used in defining syntactic categories:
The type of meaning it expresses
The type of affixes it takes
The structure in which it occurs
For instance, many nouns in English denote concrete entities, they are pluralized
with the suffix -s, and they occur as subjects and objects in clauses. Many verbs denote
actions or states, they are conjugated with agreement suffixes (e.g. -s of the third
person singular in English), and in English they tend to show up in medial positions of
the clauses in which they appear.

The third criterion is also known as distribution. The distribution of a given syntactic unit
determines the syntactic category to which it belongs. The distributional behavior of
syntactic units is identified by substitution. Like syntactic units can be substituted for
each other.
Additionally, there are also informal criteria one can use in order to determine
syntactic categories. For example, one informal means of determining if an item is
lexical, as opposed to functional, is to see if it is left behind in "telegraphic speech" (that
is, the way a telegram would be written; e.g., Pants fire. Bring water, need help.)

Lexical Categories vs. Phrasal Categories

The traditional parts of speech are lexical categories, in one meaning of that
term. Traditional grammars tend to acknowledge approximately eight to twelve lexical
categories, e.g.

Lexical Categories
adjective (A), adposition (preposition, postposition, circumposition) (P), adverb
(Adv), coordinate conjunction (C), determiner (D), interjection (I), noun (N),
particle (Par), pronoun (Pr), subordinate conjunction (Sub), verb (V), etc.

The lexical categories that a given grammar assumes will likely vary from this list.
Certainly numerous subcategories can be acknowledged. For instance, one can view
pronouns as a subtype of noun, and verbs can be divided into finite verbs and non-finite
verbs (e.g. gerund, infinitive, participle, etc.). The central lexical categories give rise to
corresponding phrasal categories:

CHAPTER V: SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 2

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Phrasal Categories
Adjective phrase (AP), adverb phrase (AdvP), adposition phrase (PP), noun
phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), etc.

In terms of phrase structure rules, phrasal categories can occur to the left of the
arrow while lexical categories cannot, e.g. NP → D N. Traditionally, a phrasal category
should consist of two or more words, although conventions vary in this area. X-bar
theory, for instance, often sees individual words corresponding to phrasal categories.
Phrasal categories are illustrated with the following trees:

The lexical and phrasal categories are identified according to the node labels, phrasal
categories receiving the "P" designation.

Lexical Categories Only

Dependency grammars do not acknowledge phrasal categories in the way that
phrase structure grammars do. What this means is that the interaction between lexical
and phrasal categories disappears, the result being that only the lexical categories are
acknowledged. The tree representations are simpler because the number of nodes and
categories is reduced, e.g.

The distinction between lexical and phrasal categories is absent here. The
number of nodes is reduced by removing all nodes marked with "P". Note, however, that
phrases can still be acknowledged insofar as any subtree that contains two or more
words will qualify as a phrase.

Lexical Categories vs. Functional Categories

Many grammars draw a distinction between lexical categories and functional
categories. This distinction is orthogonal to the distinction between lexical categories
and phrasal categories. In this context, the term lexical category applies only to those
parts of speech and their phrasal counterparts that form open classes and have full
semantic content. The parts of speech that form closed classes and have mainly just
functional content are called functional categories:

CHAPTER V: SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 3

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Lexical Categories
Adjective (A) and adjective phrase (AP), adverb (Adv) and adverb phrase (AdvP),
noun (N) and noun phrase (NP), verb and verb phrase (VP), preposition and
prepositional phrase (PP)

Functional Categories
Coordinate conjunction (C), determiner (D), negation (Neg), particle (Par),
preposition (P) and prepositional phrase (PP), subordinate conjunction (Sub),
etc.
There is disagreement in certain areas, for instance concerning the status of
prepositions. The distinction between lexical and functional categories plays a big role in
Chomskyan grammars (Transformational Grammar, Government and Binding Theory,
Minimalist Program), where the role of the functional categories is large. Many phrasal
categories are assumed that do not correspond directly to a specific part of speech, e.g.
inflection phrase (IP), tense phrase (TP), agreement phrase (AgrP), focus phrase (FP),
etc. (see also Phrase → Functional categories). In order to acknowledge such functional
categories, one has to assume that the constellation is a primitive of the theory and that
it exists separately from the words that appear. As a consequence, many grammar
frameworks do not acknowledge such functional categories, e.g. Head Driven Phrase
Structure Grammar, Dependency Grammar, etc.

EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Syntactic Categories
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oturENENbiM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iRkmhb_E3Eg
Syntactic Categories and Phrases
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fk3lkHv6j4U

Online Source:
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_category

CHAPTER V: SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 4

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Objectives:
a. Determine the how to construct sentences.
b. Familiarize with different sentence structure.
c. Compose sentences based on structure.

Sentence Structure refers to the physical nature of a sentence and how the
elements of that sentence are presented. Just like word choice, writers should strive to
vary their sentence structure to create rhythmic prose and keep their reader interested.
Sentences that require a variation often repeat subjects, lengths, or types.

Types of Sentence Structures

Types of sentences and their syntax modes include simple sentences, compound
sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences. Compound
sentences are two simple sentences joined by a conjunction. Complex sentences have
dependent clauses, and compound-complex sentences have both types included.

Simple Sentences
A simple sentence contains a subject
and a verb, and it may also have an object
and modifiers. However, it contains only one
independent clause.

Here are a few examples:

 She wrote.
 She completed her literature review.
 He organized his sources by theme.

CHAPTER VI: SENTENCE STRUCTURE 1

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains at
least two independent clauses. These two
independent clauses can be combined with a
comma and a coordinating conjunction or
with a semicolon.

Here are a few examples:

 She completed her literature review,
and she created her reference list.
 He organized his sources by theme;
then, he updated his reference list.
 They studied APA rules for many
hours, but they realized there was still
much to learn.
Using some compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least
one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. Dependent clauses can
refer to the subject (who, which) the
sequence/time (since, while), or the causal
elements (because, if) of the independent
clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent
clause, note the comma after this clause. If,
on the other hand, the sentence begins with
an independent clause, there is not a
comma separating the two clauses.

Here are a few examples:

 Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her
methods section.
Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
 Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to
follow.
Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
 They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.

CHAPTER VI: SENTENCE STRUCTURE 2

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an

independent clause.
Using some complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

Compound-Complex Sentences
Sentence types can also be combined.
A compound-complex sentence contains at
least two independent clauses and at least
one dependent clause.

Here are a few examples:

 She completed her literature review,
but she still needs to work on her
methods section even though she
finished her methods course last
semester.
 Although he organized his sources by
theme, he decided to arrange them
chronologically, and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization.
 With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many hours, and they
decided that writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise, and
objective.
Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence
variety.
Pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so that the
reader is easily able to follow the intended meaning.

EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

English Sentence Structure
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jul2urONzOQ
Types of sentence structures | Simple, Compound, Complex &
Compound-complex
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0bZ8wNfuYA
Basic Grammar Rules: English Sentence Structure
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G33vlAyU55w

Online Source:
 https://www.thoughtco.com/syntax-grammar-1692182

CHAPTER VI: SENTENCE STRUCTURE 3

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Objectives:
a. Define grammatical category.
b. Analyze the different types of grammatical category.
c. Use grammatical use according to its unction.
d.

Grammatical Category
The term "grammatical category" refers to specific properties of a word that can
cause that word and/or a related word to change in form for grammatical reasons
(ensuring agreement between words).

For example, the word "boy" is a noun. Nouns have a grammatical category
called "number". The values of number are singular (one) and plural (two or more).
 The boy is playing.
 The boys are playing.
In sentence 1, "boy" is in its basic form, giving its "number" the value of singular.
There is one boy and the related auxiliary verb "to be" is in the singular form (is).
In sentence 2, the form of "boy" has changed to "boys", giving its "number" the
value of plural. There is more than one boy and the related "to be" is in the plural form
(are).

In the above example, the "number" of "boy" influences the form of boy, and also
influences the form of a related word (be). "Number" is a "grammatical category".

A grammatical category is a set of syntactic features that express meanings from

the same conceptual domain, occur in contrast to each other, and are typically
expressed in the same fashion. Grammatical morphemes may be either free roots
(function words) or bound affixes (inflectional suffixes). Semantically, grammatical
morphemes express grammatical notions such as number or tense, what are called
grammatical categories. In synthetic languages such as Classic Latin or Greek, the
grammatical categories are expressed almost exclusively by inflectional endings,

CHAPTER VII: GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY 1

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

whereas in analytic languages such as present-day English, the grammatical categories

are expressed primarily by word order, and by function words. The following list of
grammatical categories will be exposed through the nominal categories (number,
gender, person, case, degree, definiteness) and then the verbal categories (tense,
aspect, mood, and voice).

Nominal Categories
Number
Number is a property of nouns and pronouns, and indicates quantity. Number
has two values:
 singular: indicates one only
 plural: indicates two or more

The category NUMBER merely indicates the numerable property (singularity or

plurality). It is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb
agreement that expresses count distinctions (such as "one", "two", or "three or more").
In English, the two number categories are singular and plural.

Word Type Number Category

Singular Example Plural Example
Noun cat, mouse cats, mice
Pronoun I, me, you, he, him, she, we, us, you, they, them
her, it
Adjective this, that, a, an, my, your, these, those, our, your,
his, her, its their
Verb am, is, was, has, I play, he Are, were, have, they play
plays

Case
Case is the grammatical function of a noun or pronoun. There are only three
cases in modern English, they are subjective (he), objective (him) and possessive (his).
They may seem more familiar in their old English form - nominative, accusative and
genitive. There is no dative case in modern English. Yippee!
First good news. you cannot really go wrong here, we got rid of most of our
cases and as a result English is easier than many other languages because nouns and
some indefinite pronouns (anyone, someone, everyone, and so on) only have a
distinctive case form for the possessive. There are a few remnants of old English
though, and pronouns have distinctive forms in all three cases and should be used with
a bit more care.
The pronoun cases are simple though. There are only three:

CHAPTER VII: GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY 2

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

1. Subjective Case: pronouns used as subject.

2. Objective Case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.
3. Possessive Case: pronouns which express ownership.

PERSONAL PRONOUN
Subjective/Nominative Objective/Accusative Possessive/Genitive
Referring to the subject Referring to the object in a The apostrophe form of
in a sentence sentence the word ("Lynne's).
I Me Mine
You You Yours
He Him His
She Her Hers
It It Its
We Us Ours
They Them Theirs
Who Whom Whose

Gender
Natural gender is a property of
pronouns, and differentiates the sexes.
Natural gender has three values:
 masculine: indicates male
 feminine: indicates female
 neuter: indicates everything else
Note that Old English had
"grammatical gender" where words
themselves had gender. Remnants of this are
found in "natural gender", which is based on
the sex of people rather than the gender of
words.

Person
Person is a property of pronouns, and differentiates
participants in a conversation. Person has three values:
 first person: refers to the speaker
 second person: refers to the hearer
 third person: refers to all other people or things

Note: First person refers to the speaker himself or

CHAPTER VII: GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY 3

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

a group that includes the speaker (i.e.," I," "me," "we," and "us"). Third person refers to
everybody else (e.g., "he," "him," "she," "her," "it," "they," "them"), including all other
nouns (e.g., "Bill," "Russians," "termite," "lions").

Examples of Second Person Pronouns in Different Cases

Here are the second person pronouns in the subjective case, the objective case,
and the possessive case:
Person Subjective Case Objective Case Possessive Possessive
Case Case
Possessive Possessive
Determiner Pronouns
Second you you your yours
Person
Singular Example: You left Example: She Example: That These
early. likes you. was your fault. are yours.
Second you you your yours
Person Plural
Example: You left Example: She Example: That These
early. likes you. was your fault. are yours.

Note: There is no difference in how the "second person singular" and "second
person plural" forms are written. We have to rely on
context to tell us whether "you" means one person or
more than one.

First, Second, and Third Person Pronouns

The table below shows the first, second, and third
person pronouns. The second person pronouns are
shaded.

Person Subjective Case Objective Case Possessive Possessive

Case Case
Possessive Possessive
Determiner Pronouns
First Person I me my mine
Singular
Second Person you you your yours
Singular
Third Person he/she/it him/her/it his/her/its his/hers/its
Singular
First Person we us our ours

CHAPTER VII: GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY 4

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Plural
Second Person you you your yours
Plural
Third Person they them their theirs
Plural

Degree
Degree is a property of gradable adjectives and adverbs, and indicates amount.
Degree has three values:
 positive: indicates a basic quality
 comparative: indicates a greater quality
 superlative: indicates the maximum quality

Definiteness
The category definiteness distinguishes definite and indefinite nouns. This
grammatical category is typically associated to nouns through the use of determiners. A
determiner is a word that determines the kind of reference a noun or noun phrase has,
for example a, an, the, every, some. It distinguishes between referents/entities that are
identifiable in a given context (definite noun phrases) and entities which are not
(indefinite noun phrases). There is considerable variation in the expression of
definiteness across languages and some languages do not express it at all.
For example, in English definiteness
is usually marked by the selection of
determiner. Certain determiners, such as a,
an, many, any, either, and some typically
mark a noun phrase as indefinite. Others,
including the, this, every, and both mark the
noun phrase as definite.

Verbal Categories
Tense
The category tense refers to the time
at which the actions or events took place.
The time of an expression serves as a
reference point to past, present or future.
Tense is a grammatical feature for any of
the forms of a verb which show the time at which an action happened.
Tense is a property of verbs, and most closely corresponds with location in time.
Tense has two values:
 past: indicates before now
 present: indicates now (and sometimes before and after now)

CHAPTER VII: GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY 5

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Aspect
Aspect is a property of verbs, and
expresses our view of the time structure of an
activity or state. Aspect has three values:
 simple: the time has no structure
 continuous: expresses ongoing action
 perfect: expresses completed action

The category aspect expresses the way

in which time is denoted by a verb. Aspect
markers on verbs tell us whether an action is
completed or is still continuing. This
grammatical category relates to tense. The
images above contain verbs that tell us about
the state of the action.

Mood
Mood is a property of verbs, and
relates to the speaker's feelings about the
reality of what he is saying. Mood has three
values:
 indicative: expresses simple
statement of fact
 imperative: expresses command
 subjunctive: expresses something
desired or imagined

Voice
Voice is a property of transitive verbs*,
and expresses the relationship of the subject
to the action. Voice has two values:
 active: the subject does the action
 passive: the subject receives the action

CHAPTER VII: GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY 6

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Grammatical Categories
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nKADb-FGa_0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JlfZGd7DA7M

Grammatical Categories Function

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4eztRqo4aOA

Online Source:
 https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/sentence/category.ht
m
 https://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/casetext.html
 https://www.grammar-
monster.com/glossary/second_person.htm
 https://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/default/Unisa-
Open/OER-@-Unisa/Linguistics/Grammatical-categories

CHAPTER VII: GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY 7

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Objectives:
a. Define spelling.
b. Explain basic spelling rules.
c. Identify examples of spelling rules.

Spelling is a set of conventions that regulate the way of using graphemes to

represent a language in its written form. In other words, spelling is the rendering of
speech sound (phoneme) into writing (grapheme). Spelling is one of the elements of
orthography, and highly standardized spelling is a prescriptive element.
Spellings originated as transcriptions of the sounds of spoken language
according to the alphabetic principle. They remain largely reflective of the sounds,
although fully phonemic spelling is an ideal that most languages' orthographies only
approximate, some more closely than others. This is true for various reasons, including
that pronunciation changes over time in all languages, yet spellings as visual norms
may resist change. In addition, words from other languages may be adopted without
being adapted to the spelling system, and different meanings of a word or homophones
may be deliberately spelled in different ways to differentiate them visually.
Words in English are not always spelled as they are pronounced. Spelling in
English follows some basic rules and the majority of English words (around 75%) follow
these rules. You can learn the rules but there are always exceptions to the rules that
need to be learned too.
The main basic spelling rules of English relate to: prefixes and suffixes; spelling
and plurals; doubling letters; dropping and adding letters; verb forms. This section
focuses on British English but also covers some basic differences in spelling between
British and American English.

CHAPTER IX: SPELLING RULES 1

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Spelling: Prefixes
When there is a prefix, we do not normally add or take away more letters:

dis + obey → disobey mis + spell → misspell

dis + satisfied → dissatisfied over + hear → overhear

in + humane → inhumane super + human → superhuman

in + sane → insane un + natural → unnatural

inter + national → international un + sure → unsure

mis + rule → misrule under + pass → underpass

Prefixes il-, im-, ir-

We commonly change the prefix in- to il-, im- or ir- when the first letter of a word
is l, m, p, or r.

in becomes il- before l in becomes im- before m or p in becomes ir- before r

illegible immoral irrelevant

illiterate immature irresponsible
illogical impossible irreplaceable

Spelling and Plurals

There are rules for the plurals of regular nouns and the -s forms of regular verbs.
The general rule is add -s:
bring → brings day → days ear → ears smile → smiles speak → speaks town → towns
If the ending is pronounced as ‘ch’ /tʃ/ or ‘s’ /s/, we add -es /ɪz/:

noun plurals verb -s forms

CHAPTER IX: SPELLING RULES 2

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

bus → buses cross → crosses

church → churches fetch → fetches

kiss → kisses guess → guesses

If a word ends in an -e, we add an -s:

noun plurals noun plurals/verb -

s forms

tomato → tomatoes echo → echoes

cargo → cargoes embargo → embargoes

hero → heroes go → goes (go [n]

= attempt)

base → bases face → faces judge → judges lose → loses

If the word ends in a consonant plus -y, we change -y to i and add -es:

noun plurals verb -s forms

baby → babies marry → marries

opportunity → opportunities reply → replies

We add -es to some words ending in -o:

noun plurals noun plurals/verb -s forms

tomato → tomatoes echo → echoes

cargo → cargoes embargo → embargoes

hero → heroes go → goes (go [n] = attempt)

CHAPTER IX: SPELLING RULES 3

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

However, some words ending in -o only require -s: videos, discos, pianos,
memos, photos.
For some nouns ending in -f or -fe, we form the plural by changing the -f or -fe to
-ves:
loaf → loaves shelf → shelves thief → thieves wife → wives

Spelling: Doubling Consonants

We often double the final consonant of a word (b, d, g, l, m, n, p, r, t) when a
suffix beginning with a vowel is added (-ed, -er, -est, -ing):

hop + -ed → hopped slim + -ing → slimming

red + -ish → reddish thin + -er → thinner

rub + -ed → rubbed travel+ -er → traveller

sit + -ing → sitting wet + -er → wetter

When we add a suffix to a word with more than one syllable, we double the
consonant only when the word ends in a stressed syllable (the stressed syllable of the
base form is in bold):

admit + -ing → admitting prefer + -ed → preferred

forget + -ing → forgetting transmit + -ed → transmitted

occur + -ence → occurrence upset + -ing → upsetting

Compare, however, visit or enter where the spoken stress is on the first syllable:

visit → visiting enter → entered

Not: visitting Not: enterred

Note:
Note too that in each case the vowel before the last consonant is a short vowel.
Don’t double the final consonant before a suffix:

CHAPTER IX: SPELLING RULES 4

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 if the word ends in two written consonants, e.g. export = exported, find =
finding, insist = insisted, lift = lifted, persist = persistence
 if there are two written vowels together in the word, e.g. meeting, rained,
weaken, trainer, repeated.

Irregular Forms and Exceptions

Note:
Some monosyllabic words ending in -s are irregular. We normally do not double
the -s, although some doubled forms will be seen. For example: busses and
buses; gasses and gases. (Busses and gasses are not common.)
Some words, several of them ending in l, with more than two syllables, have a
double consonant even though the last syllable is not stressed; for example,
labelling, traveller, equalled, handicapped, programmed.
In American English the single consonant spelling is usually more common:
labeling, traveler.

Spelling: Dropping and Adding Letters

The final -e
Drop the final -e when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a word:

approve + -al → approval hope + -ing → hoping

fame + -ous → famous invite + -ation → invitation

hate + -ed → hated note + -able → notable

Note:
Keep the -e in dyeing (from dye) and singeing (from singe) to differentiate them
from similar words e.g. dying (from die) and singing (from sing).

When a suffix begins with a consonant (e.g. -less, -ful, -ly, -ment) we do not normally
drop the -e:
Definitely excitement forceful hopeless lately widely
Sometimes do drop the -e:
Some words have alternative forms
argue → argument true → truly
with or without an -e: for example,
acknowledgement or acknowledgment, and
due → duly whole → wholly

CHAPTER IX: SPELLING RULES 5

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

judgment or judgment.

The suffix -ally

The suffix -ally is added to adjectives ending in -ic to form adverbs:
basic → basically
realistic → realistically
tragic → tragically
Changing -y to -i
When we add a suffix to a word ending in a consonant + -y, we normally change
-y to i:

amplify + -er → amplifier happy + -ly → happily

busy + -ness → business hurry + -s → hurries

day + -ly → daily purify + -cation → purification

easy + -ly → easily reply + -ed → replied

fury + -ous → furious spy + -s → spies

Note:
Some words with one syllable keep the -y before a suffix: dryness, shyness,
slyness.
 Keep -y before -ing: studying, worrying.
 Keep -y before ’s: the fly’s wings, Andy’s house.
 Keep the -y in most words that end in a vowel + -y:
 buy → buyer
 destroy → destroys

Spelling: ie or ei
If in doubt about ie or ei, when the sound of the vowel is as in brief /i:/, we spell it
ie; but after the letter c, we spell it ei:

CHAPTER IX: SPELLING RULES 6

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

ie ei after c

achieve ceiling

belief conceit

diesel deceive

niece receipt

relieve perceive
Words in which -y has changed to i end in -ies even after a c:
emergency → emergencies
bureaucracy → bureaucracies
Note:
In most words that do not have the pronunciation /i:/ as in brief, the usual order is
e before i, e.g. neighbour, leisure, height; friend, ancient, science are common
exceptions.

Spelling and Verb Forms

Past and -ed forms
The past and -ed forms are the same in regular verbs. The following are the spelling
rules for regular verbs.
Add -ed to the base form of the verb:
 clean → cleaned echo → echoed email → emailed sail → sailed
If the word ends in -e, we add -d to the base form of the verb:
 agree → agreed dine → dined love → loved
If the word ends in a consonant + -y, we change the -y to i before -ed:
 apply → applied cry → cried

There are three common exceptions, where we change the -y to i after a vowel and just
-d is added:
 pay → paid say → said

-ing forms
The general rule is add -ing to the base form of the verb:

CHAPTER IX: SPELLING RULES 7

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 go → going hurry → hurrying play → playing

If the word ends in -e, we drop the -e before -ing:
 love → loving lose → losing write → writing
But if the word ends in -ee, -ye, or -oe, we keep the -e:
 agree → agreeing dye → dyeing (compare: die/dying) see → seeing
If the word ends in -ie, we change the -i to -y and we drop the -e before -ing:
 die → dying lie → lying tie → tying

Addition of Final -e to Indicate Long Vowel

Use a final silent -e to indicate that the stressed vowel is long:

Long Vowel Short Vowel

hate, fate hat, fat

theme, impede them, fed

dine, bite din, bit

Note:
There are some common exceptions:

come have none there

done live (as a verb) one were
give love some where
gone

British and American English Spelling

Here are some common differences between British and American English
spelling. A good learner’s dictionary will give information about other spelling
differences:

British English American English

analyse analyze

aeroplane airplane

centre center

CHAPTER IX: SPELLING RULES 8

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

cheque (bank) check

colour color

criticise criticize

defence defense

labour labor

neighbour neighbor

programme program

theatre theater

Homonyms
Homonyms are words that sound like one another but have different meanings.

Commonly Misused Homonyms

Lead, Led
 Lead (noun). A type of metal used in pipes and batteries.
The lead pipes in my homes are old and need to be replaced.
 Led (verb). The past tense of the verb lead.
After the garden, she led the patrons through the museum.
Lessen, Lesson
 Lessen (verb). To reduce in number, size, or degree.
My dentist gave me medicine to lessen the pain of my aching tooth.
 Lesson (noun). A reading or exercise to be studied by a student.
Today’s lesson was about mortgage interest rates.
Passed, Past
 Passed (verb). To go away or move.
He passed the slower cars on the road using the left lane.
 Past (noun). Having existed or taken place in a period before the present.
The argument happened in the past, so there is no use in dwelling on it.
Patience, Patients
 Patience (noun). The capacity of being patient (waiting for a period of time or
enduring pains and trials calmly).
The novice teacher’s patience with the unruly class was astounding.

CHAPTER IX: SPELLING RULES 9

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 Patients (plural noun). Individuals under medical care.

The patients were tired of eating the hospital food, and they could not wait for
a home-cooked meal.
Peace, Piece
 Peace (noun). A state of tranquility or quiet.
For once, there was peace between the argumentative brothers.
 Piece (noun). A part of a whole.
I would like a large piece of cake, thank you.
Principle, Principal
 Principle (noun). A fundamental concept that is accepted as true.
The principle of human equality is an important foundation for all nations.
 Principal (noun). The original amount of debt on which interest is calculated.
The payment plan allows me to pay back only the principal amount, not any
compounded interest.
 Principal (noun). A person who is the main authority of a school.
The principal held a conference for both parents and teachers.
Sees, Seas, Seize
 Sees (verb). To perceive with the eye.
He sees a whale through his binoculars.
 Seas (plural noun). The plural of sea, a great body of salt water.
The tidal fluctuation of the oceans and seas are influenced by the moon.
 Seize (verb). To possess or take by force.
The king plans to seize all the peasants’ land.
Threw, Through
 Threw (verb). The past tense of throw.
She threw the football with perfect form.
 Through (preposition). A word that indicates movement.
She walked through the door and out of his life.
Where, Wear, Ware
 Where (adverb). The place in which something happens.
Where is the restaurant?
 Wear (verb). To carry or have on the body.
I will wear my hiking shoes when go on a climb tomorrow morning.
 Ware (noun). Articles of merchandise or manufacture (usually, wares).
When I return from shopping, I will show you my wares.
Which, Witch
 Which (pronoun). Replaces one out of a group.
Which apartment is yours?

CHAPTER IX: SPELLING RULES 10

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 Witch (noun). A person who practices sorcery or who has supernatural

powers.
She thinks she is a witch, but she does not seem to have any powers.

EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading please refer to the link provided:

English Spelling Rules

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IWPfD2WcAXg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=alg7qHta0Sk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lZaHMvzwwEA

Online Source:
 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/grammar/british-
grammar/spelling
 https://opentextbc.ca/writingforsuccess/chapter/chapter-2-
working-with-words-which-word-is-right/

CHAPTER IX: SPELLING RULES 11

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Objectives:
a. Explain phonetics as the sound of language.
b. Determine the different feature of phonetics.
c. Identify the importance of intonation.

Knowing a language includes knowing the sounds of that language

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds
Able to segment a continuous stream of speech into distinct parts and recognize
the parts in other words
Everyone who knows a language knows how to segment sentences into words
and words into sounds

Speech Sounds
Our linguistic knowledge allows us to ignore nonlinguistic differences in speech
(such as individual pitch levels, rates of speed, coughs)
We are capable of making sounds that are not speech sounds in English but are
in other languages
 The click tsk that signals disapproval in English is a speech sound in
languages such as Xhosa and Zulu where it is combined with other sounds
just like t or k is in English
The science of phonetics aims to describe all the sounds of all the world’s
languages
 Acoustic phonetics: focuses on the physical properties of the sounds of
language
 Auditory phonetics: focuses on how listeners perceive the sounds of
language
 Articulatory phonetics: focuses on how the vocal tract produces the sounds
of language

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 1

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Spelling, or orthography, does not consistently represent the sounds of language

Some problems with ordinary spelling:
 The same sound may be represented by many letters or combination of
letters:
he seize seas
people machine see
key Caesar amoeba
believe
 The same letter may represent a variety of sounds:
father badly many
village made
 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
Shoot either coat
character physics deal
Thomas rough
 A single letter may represent a combination of sounds
xerox
 Some letters in a word may not be pronounced at all
Autumn lamb write
sword corps knot
resign psycholog
pterodactyl y
 There may be no letter to represent a sound that occurs in a word
cute
use

In 1888 the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was invented in order to have a
system in which there was a one- to-one correspondence between each sound in
language and each phonetic symbol
Someone who knows the IPA knows how to pronounce any word in any
language
Dialectal and individual differences affect pronunciation, but the sounds of
English

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 2

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 3

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Using IPA symbols, we can now represent the pronunciation of words

Most speech sounds are produced by pushing air through the vocal cords
 Glottis - the opening between the vocal cords
 Larynx - ‘voice box’
 Pharynx - tubular part of the throat above the larynx
 Oral Cavity - mouth
 Nasal Cavity - nose and the passages connecting it to the throat and
sinuses
Consonants: Place of Articulation
Consonants are sounds produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal
tract
Consonants are classified based in part on where in the vocal tract the airflow is
being restricted (the place of articulation)
The major places of articulation are: bilabial, labiodental, interdental, alveolar,
palatal, velar, uvular, and glottal

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 4

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Bilabials: [p] [b] [m]

 Produced by bringing both lips together
Labiodentals: [f] [v]
 Produced by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth
Interdentals [θ] [ð]
 Produced by putting the tip of the tongue between the teeth
Alveolars: [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r]
 All of these are produced by raising the tongue to the alveolar ridge in some
way
o [t, d, n]: produced by the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge (or
just in front of it)
o [s, z]: produced with the sides of the front of the tongue raised but the tip
lowered to allow air to escape
o [l]: the tongue tip is raised while the rest of the tongue remains down so
air can escape over the sides of the tongue (thus [l] is a lateral sound)
o [r]: air escapes through the central part of the mouth; either the tip of the
tongue is curled back behind the alveolar ridge or the top of the tongue is
bunched up behind the alveolar ridge
Palatals: [ʃ] [ʒ] [ʧ] [ʤ][ʝ]

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 5

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 Produced by raising the front part of the tongue to the palate

Velars: [k] [g] [ŋ]
 Produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate or velum
Uvulars: [ʀ] [q] [ɢ]
 Produced by raising the back of the tongue to the uvula
Glottals: [h] [Ɂ]
 Produced by restricting the airflow through the open glottis ([h]) or by stopping
the air completely at the glottis (a glottal stop: [Ɂ])

The manner of articulation is the way the airstream is affected as it flows from the
lungs and out of the mouth and nose
Voiceless sounds are those produced with the vocal cords apart so the air flows
freely through the glottis
Voiced sounds are those produced when the vocal cords are together and
vibrate as air passes through
The voiced/voiceless distinction is important in English because it helps us
distinguish words like:
rope/robe fine/vine seal/zeal
[rop]/[rob] [faɪn]/[vaɪn] [sil]/[zil]
But some voiceless sounds can be further distinguished as aspirated or
unaspirated
aspirated unaspirated
pool [phul] spool [spul]
tale [thel] stale [stel]
kale [khel] scale [skel]
Oral sounds are those produced with the velum raised to prevent air from
escaping out the nose
Nasal sounds are those produced with the velum lowered to allow air to escape
out the nose
So far we have three ways of classifying sounds based on phonetic features: by
voicing, by place of articulation, and by nasalization
 [p] is a voiceless, bilabial, oral sound
 [n] is a voiced, alveolar, nasal sound
Stops: [p] [b] [m] [t] [d] [n] [k] [g] [ŋ] [ʧ][ʤ] [Ɂ]
 Produced by completely stopping the air flow in the oral cavity for a
fraction of a second
All other sounds are continuants, meaning that the airflow is continuous through
the oral cavity

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 6

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Fricatives: [f] [v] [θ] [ð] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ] [x] [ɣ] [h]
 Produced by severely obstructing the airflow so as to cause friction
Affricates: [ʧ] [ʤ]
 Produced by a stop closure that is released with a lot of friction
Liquids: [l] [r]
 Produced by causing some obstruction of the airstream in the mouth, but
not enough to cause any real friction
Glides: [j] [w]
 Produced with very little obstruction of the airstream and are always
followed by a vowel
Approximants: [w] [j] [r] [l]
 Sometimes liquids and glides are put together into one category because
the articulators approximate a frictional closeness but do not actually
cause friction
Trills and flaps: [r]* [ɾ]
 Trills are produced by rapidly vibrating an articulator
 Flaps are produced by a flick of the tongue against the alveolar ridge
Clicks:
 Produced by moving air in the mouth between various articulators
 The disapproving sound tsk in English is a consonant in Zulu and some
other southern African languages
 The lateral click used to encourage a horse in English is a consonant in
Xhosa
*The textbook uses [r] to represent the central liquid as in the word ready rather than as
a trills.

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 7

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 8

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Vowels are classified by how high or low the tongue is, if the tongue is in the front
or back of the mouth, and whether or not the lips are rounded
 High vowels: [i] [ɪ] [u] [ʊ]
 Mid vowels: [e] [ɛ] [o] [ə] [ʌ] [ɔ]
 Low vowels: [æ] [a]
 Front vowels: [i] [ɪ] [e] [ɛ] [æ]
 Central vowels: [ə] [ʌ]

 Back vowels: [u] [ɔ] [o] [æ] [a]

Round vowels: [u] [ʊ] [o] [ɔ]

 Produced by rounding the lips
 English has only back round vowels, but other languages such as French and
Swedish have front round vowels
Diphthongs: [aɪ] [aʊ] [ɔɪ]
 A sequence of two vowel sounds (as opposed to the monophthongs we have
looked at so far)
Nasalization:

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 9

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 Vowels can also be pronounced with a lowered velum, allowing air to pass
through the nose
 In English, speakers nasalize vowels before a nasal sound, such as in the
words beam, bean, and bingo
 The nasalization is represented by a diacritic, an extra mark placed with the
symbol:

Tense vowels:
 Are produced with greater
tension in the tongue
 May occur at the end of words
Lax vowels:
 Are produced with less tongue
tension
 May not occur at the end of
words

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 10

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

Noncontinuants: the airstream is totally obstructed in the oral cavity

 Stops and affricates
Continuants: the airstream flows continuously out of the mouth
 All other consonants and vowels
Obstruents: the airstream has partial or full obstruction
 Non-nasal stops, fricatives, and affricates
Sonorants: air resonates in the nasal or oral cavities
 Vowels, nasal stops, liquids, and glides
Consonantal: there is some restriction of the airflow during articulation
 All consonants except glides
Consonantal sounds can be further subdivided:
 Labials: [p] [b] [m] [f] [v] [w] [ʍ]
Articulated with the lips
 Coronals: [θ] [ð] [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ] [ʧ][ʤ] [l] [r]
Articulated by raising the tongue blade
Consonantal categories cont.:
 Anteriors: [p] [b] [m] [f] [v] [θ] [ð] [t] [d] [n] [s] [z]
Produced in the front part of the mouth (from the alveolar area forward)
 Sibilants: [s] [z] ] [ʃ] [ʒ] [ʧ][ʤ]
Produced with a lot of friction that causes a hissing sound, which is a
mixture of high--‐frequency sounds
Syllabic Sounds: sounds that can function as the core of a syllable
 Vowels, liquids, and nasals

Prosodic, or suprasegmental features of sounds, such as length, stress and

pitch, are features above the segmental values such as place and manner of
articulation
Length: in some languages, such as Japanese, the length of a consonant or a
vowel can change the meaning of a word:
biru [biru] “building” biiru [biːru] “beer”
saki [saki] “ahead” sakki [sakːi] “before”
Stress: stressed syllables are louder, slightly higher in pitch, and somewhat
longer than unstressed syllables
 The noun digest has the stress on the first syllable

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 11

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

 The verb digest has the stress on the second syllable

 English is a stress-timed language, meaning that at least one syllable is
stressed in an English word
French functions differently, so when English speakers learn French they
put stress on certain syllables which contributes to their foreign accent

Tone languages are languages that use pitch to contrast the meaning of words
For example, in Thai, the string of sounds [naː] can be said with 5 different
pitches and can thus have 5 different meanings:

Intonation languages (like English) have varied pitch contour across an

utterance, but pitch is not used to distinguish words. However, intonation may
affect the meaning of a whole sentence:
 John is here said with falling intonation is a statement
 John is here said with rising intonation is a question

Signs can be broken down into segmental features similar to the phonetic
features of speech sounds (such as place and manner of articulation)
 And just like spoken languages, signed languages of the world vary in these
features
 Signs are formed by three major features:
1. The configuration of the hand (handshape)
2. The movement of the hand and arm towards or away from the body
3. The location of the hand in signing space
The configuration of the hand (handshape)
The movement of the hand and arm
The location of the hand in signing space

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 12

 MODULE: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading please refer to the link provided:

Learn English Pronunciation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=USKrBTvgY_s

Phonetics: Intro to Linguistics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLBsvdaR_ow

Phonology: Intro to Linguistics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1JYahvKUvPU

Intonation in English
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A6aE4nceJt8

Online Source:
 https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonetics.ppt.pdf

CHAPTER X: PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE 13