UNIT-1 QUESTIONS

Q1. Define isotopes, isotones, and isobars with example.

Q2. What is atomic number and mass number and how atom of
different element symbolised by their atomic and mass number.
Q3. Explain Rutherford model of an atom.
Q4. What are the postulates of Bohr’s model of an atom.
Q5. Draw the shapes of all s, p orbitals.
Q6. What is Quantum Number and what are the different type of
Quantum Numbers explain briefly.
Q7. Define
(a)Aufbau Principle
(b)Pauli’s exclusion Principle
(c)Hund’s Rule
Q8. Write the Electronic Configuration of Cu2+, Cr3+, Mn, Zn, Sc,
Ti3+etc.
Q9. Explain the BOHRS ATOMIC MODEL of an atom.
Q10. Write down the electronic configuration of oxygen, calcium,
manganese and identify their group, period, lock, valence electron and
valency
Q11. What conclusion Rutherford draw form his experiment?
Q12. Draw the shape of S and p orbitals
Q13. If n=3 what will be the possible value of all Quantum number

BY NILOFER EQBAL
 Unit-1 Notes
Atomic Number: - The total number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom gives us the atomic number of that atom.

 It is represented with the letter ‘Z.’

 All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of
protons, and hence the same atomic number.
 Atoms of different elements have different atomic numbers.
 For example, all Carbon atom have the atomic number of 6,
whereas all atoms of Oxygen have 8 protons in their nucleus.
 The atomic number of an atom is equal to the number of protons
in the nucleus of an atom or the number of electrons in an
electrically neutral atom.
Atomic number = Number of protons
For example, in a sodium atom, there are 11 electrons and 11
protons. Thus, the atomic number of Na atom = number of
electrons = number of protons = 11.

 Mass number: - The number of protons and neutrons combine

to give us the mass number of an atom.
 It is represented using the letter ‘A.’
 As both protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus of an
atom, they are together called nucleons.
 For example, an atom of carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
Thus, its mass number is 12.
 While the number of protons remains the same in all atoms of an
element, the number of neutrons can vary. Thus, atoms of the
same element can have different mass numbers, and these are
called isotopes.
 The weight of an electron is almost negligible. Thus, the atomic
mass of an atom is almost the same as its mass number.

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ISOTOPES: - Isotopes are variants of a particular element with
different numbers of neutrons. For example, the two isotopes of
Uranium are, 23592 U and 23992 U. Here that the number of protons is
the same in both the isotopes, but they contain 143 and 147 neutrons,
respectively.
ISOBAR: -Isobars are elements that have the same number of
nucleons (sum of protons and neutrons). The series of elements with
40 Mass numbers serve as a good example; 4016S, 4017Cl, 4018Ar, 4019K,
and 4020Ca. The nucleus of all the above-mentioned elements contains
the same number of particles in the nucleus but contain varying
numbers of protons and neutrons.
ISOTONE: -Isotones are atoms that have the same neutron number
but different proton number. For example, 3616S, 3717Cl, 3818Ar, 3919K,
and 4020Ca are all isotones of 20 since they all contain 20 neutrons.

Define Rutherford Atomic Model

Rutherford Atomic Model – The plum pudding model given by J. J.
Thomson failed to explain certain experimental results associated
with the atomic structure of elements. Ernest Rutherford, a British
scientist conducted an experiment and based on the observations of
this experiment, he explained the atomic structure of elements and
proposed Rutherford’s Atomic Model.

Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment

Rutherford conducted an experiment by bombarding a thin sheet of
gold with α-particles and then studied the trajectory of these particles
after their interaction with the gold foil.
Rutherford, in his experiment, directed high energy streams of α-
particles from a radioactive source at a thin sheet (100 nm thickness)
of gold. In order to study the deflection caused to the α-particles, he
placed a fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around the thin gold foil.
Rutherford made certain observations that contradicted Thomson’s
atomic model.

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Observations of Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment
The observations made by Rutherford led him to conclude that:

1. A major fraction of the α-particles bombarded towards the gold

sheet passed through the sheet without any deflection, and
hence most of the space in an atom is empty.
2. Some of the α-particles were deflected by the gold sheet by very
small angles, and hence the positive charge in an atom is not
uniformly distributed. The positive charge in an atom is
concentrated in a very small volume.
3. Very few of the α-particles were deflected back, that is only a
few α-particles had nearly 180o angle of deflection. So,
the volume occupied by the positively charged particles in an
atom is very small as compared to the total volume of an
atom.

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Rutherford Atomic Model
Based on the above observations and conclusions, Rutherford
proposed the atomic structure of elements. According to the
Rutherford atomic model:
1. The positive charge and most of the mass of an atom is
concentrated in an extremely small volume. He called this
region of the atom as a nucleus.
2. Rutherford’s model proposed that the negatively charged
electrons surround the nucleus of an atom. He also claimed that
the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around it with
very high speed in circular paths. He named these circular paths
as orbits.
3. Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a densely
concentrated mass of positively charged particles are held
together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction.

Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model

Although the Rutherford atomic model was based on experimental
observations, it failed to explain certain things.

 Rutherford proposed that the electrons revolve around the

nucleus in fixed paths called orbits. According to Maxwell,
accelerated charged particles emit electromagnetic radiations
and hence an electron revolving around the nucleus should emit
electromagnetic radiation. This radiation would carry energy
from the motion of the electron which would come at the cost of
shrinking of orbits. Ultimately the electrons would collapse in
the nucleus. Calculations have shown that as per the Rutherford
model, an electron would collapse into the nucleus in less than
10-8 seconds. So, the Rutherford model was not in accordance
with Maxwell’s theory and could not explain the stability of
an atom.

 One of the drawbacks of the Rutherford model was also that

he did not say anything about the arrangement of electrons
in an atom which made his theory incomplete.
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What is Bohr’s Model of an Atom?
The Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1915. It
came into existence with the modification of Rutherford’s model of
an atom. Rutherford’s model introduced the nuclear model of an
atom, in which he explained that a nucleus (positively charged) is
surrounded by negatively charged electrons.

Introduction to the Bohr Model

Bohr theory modified the atomic structure model by explaining that
electrons move in fixed orbitals (shells) and not anywhere in between
and he also explained that each orbit (shell) has a fixed energy.
Rutherford explained the nucleus of an atom and Bohr modified that
model into electrons and their energy levels.
Bohr’s model consists of a small nucleus (positively charged)
surrounded by negative electrons moving around the nucleus in orbits.
Bohr found that an electron located away from the nucleus has more
energy, and the electron which is closer to nucleus has less energy

Postulates of Bohr’s Model of an Atom

 In an atom, electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the
positively charged nucleus in a definite circular path called
orbits or shells.
 Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and these circular orbits
are known as orbital shells.
 The energy levels are represented by an integer (n=1, 2, 3…)
known as the quantum number. This range of quantum number
starts from nucleus side with n=1 having the lowest energy
level. The orbits n=1, 2, 3, 4… are assigned as K, L, M, N….
shells and when an electron attain the lowest energy level, it is
said to be in the ground state.
 The electrons in an atom move from a lower energy level to a
higher energy level by gaining the required energy and an

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 electron moves from a higher energy level to lower energy level
by losing energy.

Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an Atom

 Bohr’s model of an atom failed to explain the Zeeman Effect
(effect of magnetic field on the spectra of atoms).
 It also failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field
on the spectra of atoms).
 It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
 It could not explain the spectra obtained from larger atoms.

What are Atomic Orbitals?

Atomic orbitals are mathematical functions that provide insight into
the wave nature of electrons (or pairs of electrons) that exist around
the nuclei of atoms. In the fields of quantum mechanics and atomic
theory, these mathematical functions are often employed in order to
determine the probability of finding an electron (belonging to an
atom) in a specific region around the nucleus of the atom.
It is important to note that the term ‘atomic orbital’ can also be used
to refer to the physical space or physical region around an atom’s
nucleus in which the probability of a specific electron being present is
maximum. The presence of an electron in such a region is predicted
by the mathematical form of the atomic orbital.
It is important to note that the characteristics of each atomic orbital
are dependent upon the values of the following quantum numbers:

What are Quantum Numbers?

The set of numbers used to describe the position and energy of the
electron in an atom are called quantum numbers.

 The principal quantum number (denoted by the symbol ‘n’)

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  The azimuthal quantum number, also known as the orbital
angular momentum quantum number (denoted by the symbol
‘l’)
 The magnetic quantum number (denoted by the symbol ‘ml’)

Furthermore, it can be noted that each atomic orbital can hold a

maximum of two electrons. In completely occupied atomic orbitals,
i.e., the atomic orbitals containing two electrons, each of the electrons
has an equal and opposite spin when compared to the other. Insight
into the electron spin is provided by the value of the spin quantum
number, which is denoted by the symbol ‘ms’. Thus, insight into any
electron residing in any atomic orbital in a given atom can be
obtained by determining the values of the four quantum numbers that
describe it, namely the principal quantum number, the azimuthal
quantum number, the magnetic quantum number, and the electron
spin quantum number.

Principal Quantum Number

 Principal quantum numbers are denoted by the symbol ‘n’.

They designate the principal electron shell of the atom. Since
the most probable distance between the nucleus and the
electrons is described by it, a larger value of the principal
quantum number implies a greater distance between the electron
and the nucleus (which, in turn, implies a greater atomic size).
 The value of the principal quantum number can be any integer
with a positive value that is equal to or greater than one. The
value n=1 denotes the innermost electron shell of an atom,
which corresponds to the lowest energy state (or the ground
state) of an electron.
 Thus, it can be understood that the principal quantum number, n,
cannot have a negative value or be equal to zero because it is not
possible for an atom to have a negative value or no value for a
principal shell.

Azimuthal Quantum Number (Orbital Angular Momentum

Quantum Number)

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  The azimuthal (or orbital angular momentum) quantum number
describes the shape of a given orbital. It is denoted by the
symbol ‘l’ and its value is equal to the total number of angular
nodes in the orbital.
 A value of the azimuthal quantum number can indicate either an
s, p, d, or f subshell which vary in shape. This value depends on
(and is capped by) the value of the principal quantum number,
i.e. the value of the azimuthal quantum number ranges between
0 and (n-1).
 For example, if n =3, the azimuthal quantum number can take
on the following values – 0,1, and 2. When l=0, the resulting
subshell is an ‘s’ subshell. Similarly, when l=1 and l=2, the
resulting subshells are ‘p’ and ‘d’ subshells (respectively).
Therefore, when n=3, the three possible subshells are 3s, 3p, and
3d.

Magnetic Quantum Number

The total number of orbitals in a subshell and the orientation of these
orbitals are determined by the magnetic quantum number. It is
denoted by the symbol ‘ml’.
The value of the magnetic quantum number is dependent on the value
of the azimuthal (or orbital angular momentum) quantum number. For
a given value of l, the value of ml ranges between the interval -l to +l.
Therefore, it indirectly depends on the value of n.
For example, if n = 4 and l = 3 in an atom, the possible values of the
magnetic quantum number are -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, and +3.
The total number of orbitals in a given subshell is a function of the ‘l’
value of that orbital. It is given by the formula (2l + 1). For example,
the ‘3d’ subshell (n=3, l=2) contains 5 orbitals (2*2 + 1). Each orbital
can accommodate 2 electrons. Therefore, the 3d subshell can hold a
total of 10 electrons.

Electron Spin Quantum Number

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  The electron spin quantum number is independent of the values
of n, l, and ml. The value of this number gives insight into the
direction in which the electron is spinning, and is denoted by the
symbol ms.
 The value of ms offers insight into the direction in which the
electron is spinning. The possible values of the electron spin
quantum number are +½ and -½.
 The positive value of ms implies an upward spin on the electron
which is also called ‘spin up’ and is denoted by the symbol ↑. If
ms has a negative value, the electron in question is said to have a
downward spin, or a ‘spin down’, which is given by the symbol
↓.

Table of All Possible Atomic Orbitals where the Value of ‘n’ Ranges
from 0 to 5

Value of the Possible Values of the Names of all the

Principal Azimuthal Quantum Possible Atomic
Quantum Number (l) Orbitals for the
Number (n) Given Value of
‘n’

1  l = 0 (s orbital)  The 1s
orbital

2  l = 0 (s orbital)  The 2s
 l = 1 (p orbital) orbital
 The 2p
orbital

3  l = 0 (s orbital)  The 3s
 l = 1 (p orbital) orbital
 l = 2 (d orbital)  The 3p
orbital

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  The 3d
orbital

4  l = 0 (s orbital)  The 4s
 l = 1 (p orbital) orbital
 l = 2 (d orbital)  The 4p
 l = 3 (f orbital) orbital
 The 4d
orbital
 The 4f
orbital

5  l = 0 (s orbital)  The 5s
 l = 1 (p orbital) orbital
 l = 2 (d orbital)  The 5p
 l = 3 (f orbital) orbital
 l = 4 (g orbital)  The 5d
orbital
 The 5f
orbital
 The 5g
orbital
According to the quantum atomic model, an atom can have many
possible numbers of orbitals. These orbitals can be categorized on the
basis of their size, shape or orientation.

The Shape of s Orbitals

 The boundary surface diagram for the s orbital looks like a
sphere having the nucleus as its centre which in two dimensions
can be seen as a circle.
 Hence, we can say that s-orbitals are spherically symmetric
having the probability of finding the electron at a given distance
equal in all the directions.

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  The size of the s orbital is also found to increase with the
increase in the value of the principal quantum number (n),
thus, 4s > 3s> 2s > 1s.

The Shape of p Orbitals

 Each p orbital consists of two sections better known as lobes

which lie on either side of the plane passing through the nucleus.
 The three p orbitals differ in the way the lobes are oriented
whereas they are identical in terms of size, shape, and energy.
 As the lobes lie along one of the x, y or z-axes, these three
orbitals are given the designations 2px, 2py, and 2pz. Thus, we
can say that there are three p orbitals whose axes are mutually
perpendicular.
 Similar to s orbitals the size, and energy of p orbitals increase
with an increase in the principal quantum number (4p > 3p >
2p).

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It is important to note that electrons are filled into these orbitals in
compliance with several rules such as the Aufbau principle, the Pauli
exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
It states that electrons are filled into atomic orbitals in the increasing
order of orbital energy level. According to the Aufbau principle, the
available atomic orbitals with the lowest energy levels are occupied
before those with higher energy levels.

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According to the Aufbau principle, electrons first occupy those
orbitals whose energy is the lowest. This implies that the electrons
enter the orbitals having higher energies only when orbitals with
lower energies have been completely filled.

The order in which the energy of orbitals increases can be determined

with the help of the (n+l) rule, where the sum of the principal and
azimuthal quantum numbers determines the energy level of the
orbital.

Lower (n+l) values correspond to lower orbital energies. If two

orbitals share equal (n+l) values, the orbital with the lower n value is
said to have lower energy associated with it.

The order in which the orbitals are filled with electrons is: 1s, 2s, 2p,
3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, and so on

PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

The Pauli exclusion principle states that in a single atom, no two

electrons will have an identical set or the same quantum numbers (n,
l, ml, and ms). To put it in simple terms, every electron should have or
be in its own unique state (singlet state). There are two salient rules
that the Pauli exclusion principle follows:
 Only two electrons can occupy the same orbital.
 The two electrons that are present in the same orbital must have
opposite

HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY

Hund’s rule states that: The orbitals of a given subshell are first
filled singly, and then the pairing of electrons in each orbital begins.
In other words, electron pairing will not occur in any orbital until all
accessible orbitals off of it contain at least one electron each.
According to Hund’s Rule:
 Each orbital in the sub level is single-occupied before any
orbital is double-occupied.
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  All electrons in a single occupancy orbital have the same
spin in order to maximize overall spin.
An electron will not pair with another electron in a half-filled orbital
since it can fill all of its orbitals with equivalent energy. The atoms in
the ground state have a large number of unpaired electrons. When two
electrons collide, they behave similarly to two magnets. Before they
must pair up, the electrons attempt to separate from one another.

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BY NILOFER EQBAL