8/19/2023

New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology

(AICTE approved and GTU affiliated )

Unit: 1 Introduction to Computer Networks and Internet

SUBJECT CODE:3150710
SEMESTER: 5TH
FACULTY NAME: Prof. Bhaumik Gelani
SUBJECT NAME: Computer Networks
Email id: [email protected]
DEPARETMENT: CSE & IT
Mobile : +91 99092 49440

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Subject Overview

Unit No. Unit Title %

1 Introduction to Computer Networks and Internet 15
2 Application Layer 17
3 Transport Layer 25
4 Network Layer 25
5 The Link layer and Local area networks 18

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Reference Books
Sr. No. Book Name Author Publication
1 Computer Networking- A Top-Down approach, Kurose and Pearson
5th edition Ross
2 Computer Networks- A Top-Down approach, Behrouz Mc Graw Hill
Forouzan
3 Computer Networks (4th edition) Andrew Prentice Hall
Tanenbaum

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Unit: 1
Introduction to Computer Networks and Internet

1. Data Communications
2. Networking & Internet
3. Topologies & Transmission Media (The Network Edge )
4. Switched Networks- Circuit & Packet Switching (The Network Core)
5. OSI Model & TCP/IP Protocol Architecture (Protocols Layers and Their Service Model)
6. Different types of Networking Connecting Devices
7. Delay, Loss & Throughput
8. History of The Computer Network

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1. Data Communications
• Communications:
• Means sharing information
• Local (face to face) or remote (over distance)
• Telecommunication:
• Telephone, telegraph and television
• Means communication at a distance
• Data:
• Refers to information
• Presented in any form Such as Text, Numbers, Images, Audio and Video.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Data communication :
• It is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium (wire cable OR wire less).

• Communication system made up of a combination of hardware and software.

• Effectiveness of data communication system depends on:
• Delivery
• Accuracy
• Timeliness
• Jitter

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Cont..

• Effectiveness of data communication system

• Delivery:
• The system must deliver data to correct destination.
• Data received by the indented user only
• Accuracy :
• The system must deliver data accurately (no change).
• Timeliness:
• The system must deliver data in timely manner, In the same order (video and
audio) & without delay (Real time transmission)
• Jitter:
• Variation in the packet arrival time (uneven quality in the video is the result)

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Transmission Modes
OR
Data Flow

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Cont..

• Simplex (one way street):

• The communication is unidirectional

• Only one device on a link can transmit; the other can only receive

• Use the entire capacity of the channel to send data

• Example: Keyboards, Monitors

Data

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Cont..

• Half-Duplex (one-lane with two-directional traffic)

• Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.

• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.

• The entire capacity of a channel is taken over by the transmitting device.

• Example: Walkie-talkies

Data

Data

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Cont..

• Full-Duplex (Duplex) (two-way street)

• Both stations can transmit and receive at same time.
• Signals going in either direction sharing the capacity of the link.
• Sharing can occur in two ways:
• Link has two physically separate transmission paths
• One for sending and the other for receiving.
• The capacity of the channel is divided between signals travelling in both
directions
• Example: Telephone network

Data

Data

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Basis for Comparison Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

Direction of Two-directional, one at Two-directional,

Unidirectional
Communication a time simultaneously

Sender can send and Sender can send and

Sender can only send
Send / Receive receive data, but one a receive data
data
time simultaneously

Worst performing mode Best performing mode

Performance Better than Simplex
of transmission of transmission

Example Keyboard and monitor Walkie-talkie Telephone

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Physical Structures
• Type of connection:
• Network: Two or more devices connected through links

• Link: Communication pathway that transfers data from one device two another

• Two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. Two
possible types:

• Point-to-Point

• Multipoint

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Point-to-Point:

• Dedicated link between two devices

• Entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices
• Use an actual length of wire or cable
• Other options, such as microwave or satellite is possible
• Example: Television remote control

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Cont..

• Multipoint (multidrop):

• More than two devices share a single link

• Capacity is shared

• Channel is shared either spatially or temporally

• Spatially shared: if devices use link at same time

• Timeshare: if users must take turns

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Cont..
• Client –Server Network:
• Client:
• Request servers for a task.
• Generally called desktop PCs or workstations.
• Server:
• Receive requests from the clients.
• Process and response them.
• E.g. Web Browser / Server, Email Server.

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2. Networking & Internet

• Networks: A set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links.

• Node : computer, printer

• Computer Network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other
to share information and resources.

• A Computer Network is a set of devices connected through links.

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Cont..

• Types of Computer Network:

• Computer networks can be categories by their size as well as their purpose.
• The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area.

• Some of the different networks based on size are:

1. LAN –Local Area Network
2. MAN –Metropolitan Area Network
3. WAN –Wide Area Network

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Cont..

• LAN –Local Area Network

Stands form Local Area Network
A network that connects a
Meaning group of computers in a
small geographical area.

Ownership of Private
Network
Design and Easy
maintenance
Cost Low
Network Size Small
Speed Fastest
Range 1 to 10 km

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• MAN –Metropolitan Area Network

Stands form Metropolitan Area
Network
It covers relatively large
Meaning region such as cities,
towns.
Ownership of Private or Public
Network
Design and Difficult
maintenance
Cost High
Network Size Larger
Speed Slower
Range 10 to 100 km

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Cont..

• WAN –Wide Area Network

Stands form Wide Area Network
It spans large locality and
Meaning connects countries
together. Example
Internet.
Ownership of Network Private or Public
Design and Difficult
maintenance
Cost Higher
Network Size Largest
Speed Slowest
Range Beyond 100 km

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

BASIS OF
COMPARISON LAN MAN WAN

Stands form Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Network Wide Area Network
A network that connects a It covers relatively large It spans large locality and
Meaning group of computers in a region such as cities, towns. connects countries
small geographical area. together. Example
Internet.

Ownership of Network Private Private or Public Private or Public

Design and Easy Difficult Difficult
maintenance
Cost Low High Higher
Network Size Small Larger Largest
Speed Fastest Slower Slowest
Range 1 to 10 km 10 to 100 km Beyond 100 km

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Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

• Advantages of Computer Network:

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• Applications of Computer Network:

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

• Internet:
• The full form of the internet is an interconnected network.
• The internet is a type of world-wide computer network.

• The internet is the collection of infinite numbers of connected computers that are
spread across the world.

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Cont..

• The different ways in which one can connect to the Internet are discussed below in
brief:

• Dial-Up:
• In such connections, users are required to link their phone line to a computer to
access the Internet.

• Under this connection, the user cannot make or receive phone calls through tier
home phone service

• Broadband:
• Provided either through cable or phone companies, Broadband is a high-speed
internet connection which is widely used today

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Wireless Connection:
• Wi-fi and Mobile service providers fall under this category.
• Internet connectivity is made via radio waves and the Internet can be connected
anywhere, irrespective of the location.
• Given below are a few examples of wireless connection:
• Wi-fi: Wireless Fidelity or wi-fi allows high-speed internet connectivity without
the use of wires
• Mobile Phones: All smartphones are now equipped with an option for Internet
connectivity which can be availed using Internet vouchers and packs. No external
connection or wire is required for these
• Satellite: Where broadband connections are unavailable, satellites are used for
wireless Internet connectivity
• Integrated Services Digital Network: ISDN allows users to sent audio or video
data using telephone lines

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Cont..

• Internet Connection Protocols

• Protocols are a set of rules that help in governing the way in which any particular
body or technology works.
• Internet Connection Protocols can be divided into three major types:
• TCP/IP Network Model: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet
Protocol (IP) are the most widely used protocols for connecting networks. It
divides any message into a series of packets which are sent from source to
destination
• File Transfer Protocol: Program files, multimedia files, text files, documents,
etc. can be transferred from one device to another, using FTP
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol: Used for transferring a hypertext from one
device to two or more devices. HTML tags are used for creating links and these
links may be in the form of text or images

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari Unit – 1

3. Topologies & Transmission Media

• Topology:

• Topology described the actual layout of network transmission media.

• Network topology is the arrangement of the various components (Links, Nodes,

Printer etc.) of a computer network.

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Cont..

• Types Network Topology:

1. Bus Topology

2. Ring Topology

3. Tree Topology

4. Star Topology

5. Mesh Topology

6. Hybrid Topology

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Bus Topology:
• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a
single cable known as a backbone cable.

• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected
to the backbone cable.

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Cont..

• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network.

• All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been
addressed or not.

• The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.

• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.

• The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Advantages of Bus topology:

• Low-cost cable:
• In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing
through a hub.

• Moderate data speeds:

• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support upto 10 Mbps.

• Limited failure:
• A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

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Cont..

• Disadvantages of Bus topology:

• Extensive cabling:
• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
• Difficult troubleshooting:
• It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults.
• If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all
the nodes.
• Signal interference:
• If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the
nodes collide with each other.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

• Ring Topology:
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
• The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the
next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.

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Cont..
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing:
• It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to another
node.
• Token:
• It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Advantages of Ring topology:

• Network Management:
• Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the network
down.
• Cost:
• Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.
• Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
• Reliable:
• It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.

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Cont..

• Disadvantages of Ring topology:

• Difficult troubleshooting:

• It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults.

• Failure:

• The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.

• Delay:

• Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes.

• Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

• Star Topology:

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Cont..

• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the
central hub, switch or a central computer.

• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the
server are known as clients.

• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.

• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.

• Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

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Cont..

 Advantages of Star topology:

 Network control:
 Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology.
 Limited failure:
 As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore
failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
 Easily expandable:
 It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the
hub.
 Cost effective:
 Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

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Cont..

 Disadvantages of Star topology:

 A Central point of failure:

 If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes will not be
able to communicate with each other.

 Cable:

 Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of

routing is required.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

• Mesh Topology:
• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.

• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.

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Cont..

• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point
of communication.

• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.

• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures
are a critical concern.

• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

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Cont..

• Advantages of Mesh topology:

• Reliable:
• The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.

• Fast Communication:
• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Easier Reconfiguration:
• Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other
devices.

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Cont..

• Disadvantages of Mesh topology:

• Cost:

• A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router

and more transmission media than other topologies.

• Management:

• Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

• Tree Topology:
• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.

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Cont..

• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each
other in hierarchical fashion.

• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.

• There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms
a parent-child hierarchy.

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Cont..

• Advantages of Tree topology:

• Easily expandable:
• We can add the new device to the existing network.
• Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
• Error detection:
• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
• Limited failure:
• The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
• Point-to-point wiring:
• It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

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Cont..

• Disadvantages of Tree topology:

• Difficult troubleshooting:

• If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.

• High cost:

• Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.

• Failure:

• A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will
damage the overall network.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

• Hybrid Topology:
• A hybrid topology is a kind of network topology that is a combination of two or more
network topologies, such as mesh topology, bus topology, and ring topology.

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Cont..

• Its usage and choice are dependent on its deployments and requirements like the
performance of the desired network, and the number of computers, their location.

• However, a variety of technologies are needed for its physical implementation, and it
offers a complex structure.

• Also, it includes an advantage as increasing flexibility; it can increase fault tolerance, and
allows new basic topologies to be added or removed easily.

• The hybrid topology is more useful when you need to fulfill diversity in Computer
Network.

• In this topology, all network sections can include the configuration of different Network
Topology.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

The Network Edge

• The Network Edge:
• Computers and other devices are connected at the edge (end) of the network.

• These computers are known as hosts or end systems. Router is known as edge router.

• Search results, e-mail, Web pages, and videos reside in large data centers.

1) Access Networks

2) Physical Media

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Cont..

1. Access Networks:
• example, Google has
30–50 data centers,
with many having more
than one hundred
thousand servers.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

2. Transmission Media
(Physical Media )
• Transmission Media:
• Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from
the sender to the receiver.
• Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.

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Cont..

• Physical media (Transmission Media) fall into two categories:

1. Guided Media
2. Unguided Media.

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Cont..

• Guided media:
• Guided media, the waves are guided along a solid medium.

• Guided media are those that provide a wired-channel from one device to another.

• Three Guided media commonly used for data transmission are:

1.Twisted Pair Cable 2. Coaxial Cable 3.Fiber Optic Cable

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Cont..

• Twisted Pair Cable:

• Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.

• A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.

• Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.

• The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

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Cont..

• Types of Twisted pair:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

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Cont..

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

• An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication.
• Ordinary telephone wired.
• Less expensive.
• Weak immunity against noise & interferences.
• Most used in two categories: Cat-3 & Cat-5.

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Cont..

• Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

• It is cheap.

• Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.

• It can be used for high-speed LAN.

• Disadvantage of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

• This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

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Cont..

• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

• A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that
allows the higher transmission rate.

• An extra metallic shield on each pair.

• Relatively more expensive.

• Better performance than UTP.

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Cont..

• Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

• The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
• An installation of STP is easy.
• It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
• It has a higher attenuation.
• It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
• Disadvantage of Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
• It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
• It has a higher attenuation rate.

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Cont..

• Coaxial Cable:
• Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media.
• Outer conductor is braided shield.
• Inner conductor is solid metal.
• Separated by insulating material.
• Used in television, long distance telephone transmission.
• High bandwidth and excellent noise immunity.

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Cont..

• Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

• The data can be transmitted at high speed.

• It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.

• It provides higher bandwidth.

• Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

• It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

• If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

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Cont..

• Fiber Optic Cable:

• Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.

• Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used to send
the data by pulses of light.

• Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

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Cont..

• Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable:

• Faster speed
• Used Longer distances
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference.

• Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable:

• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost

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Cont..

• Unguided media:
• Unguided media, the waves propagate in the atmosphere and in outer space.

• Unguided media transmit electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor,

This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
1. Radio wave
2. Micro wave
3. Infrared Wave

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Cont..

• Radio wave
• Highly regulated

• Omnidirectional antennas

• Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television,
and paging systems

• Penetrate through walls

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Cont..

• Micro Wave:
• Use directional antennas-point to point line of sight communications

• Used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks

• Higher frequency ranges can not efficiently penetrate walls

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Cont..

• Infrared Wave:
• Infrared signals can be used for short-range
communication in a closed area using line-of-sight
propagation

• Used on Televisions, DVDs, and stereos all use

infrared communication.

• Cheap, Easy to build but they do not pass through

solid objects

• Relatively directional

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Difference Between Guided and Unguided Media

BASIS FOR
GUIDED MEDIA UNGUIDED MEDIA
COMPARISON
Basic The signal requires a physical The signal is broadcasted through
path for transmission. air or sometimes water.
Alternative name It is called wired communication It is called wireless
or bounded transmission media. communication or unbounded
transmission media.
Direction It provides direction to signal for It does not provide any direction.
travelling.
Types Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable Radio wave, microwave and
and fibre optic cable. infrared.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari Unit – 1

4. The Network Core

(Switched Networks Circuit & Packet Switching )

• Defines the connection of different network segments together and process to transmit
data packets across the network.

• There are two fundamental approaches to moving data through a network of links and
switches: Switched
Networks
• Circuit switching.

• Packet switching. Circuit-Switched Packet-Switched

Networks Networks

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Cont..

• Circuit switching:
• Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender
and receiver.

• In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path
will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.

• Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.

• A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.

• In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a
request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to
ensure the availability of the dedicated path.

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Cont..

• After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.

• Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.

• Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

• Circuit-Switched Networks

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Cont..

• Communication via circuit switching involves three phases:

1.Circuit Establishment
2.Data Transfer
3.Circuit Disconnect

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Cont..

• Network resources (e.g., bandwidth) divided into “pieces”

• Pieces allocated to calls

• Resource piece idle if not used by owning call (no sharing)

• Dividing link bandwidth into “pieces”

• Frequency division

• Time division

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Cont..

• Packet Switching Network:

• The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but
it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.

• The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.

• Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.

• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.

• All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

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Cont..
• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
• If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be
sent.
• Packet Switching:

• There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

• Datagram Packet switching
• Virtual Circuit Switching

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Cont..
• Datagram Packet switching:
• It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram.
• Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
• The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
• Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.

• Virtual Circuit Switching:

• Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
• In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
• Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between
sender and receiver.
• In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

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Cont..

• In following diagram, A and B are the sender

and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the
nodes.
• Call request and call accept packets are used
to establish a connection between the sender
and receiver.
• When a route is established, data will be
transferred.
• After transmission of data, an
acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver
that the message has been received.
• If the user wants to terminate the connection, Virtual Circuit Switching
a clear signal is sent for the termination.

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BASIS FOR
CIRCUIT SWITCHING PACKET SWITCHING
COMPARISON
Orientation Connection oriented. Connectionless.
Purpose Initially designed for Voice Initially designed for Data Transmission.
communication.
Inflexible, because once a path is set Flexible, because a route is created for
Flexibility all parts of a transmission follows the each packet to travel to the destination.
same path.
Order Message is received in the order, sent Packets of a message are received out of
from the source. order and assembled at the destination.
Circuit switching can be achieved Packet Switching has two approaches
Technology using two technologies, either Space Datagram Approach and Virtual
/Approach Division Switching or Time-Division Circuit Approach.
Switching.
Layers Circuit Switching is implemented at Packet Switching is implemented at
Physical Layer. Network Layer.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari Unit – 1

• Example:

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5. OSI Model

• Protocols Layers
• A protocol is a set of rules and formats that manages all aspects of data communication.
• Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating.
• A protocol is necessary for any function that requires cooperation between peers
• A simple protocol
• send file as a series of packets
• send a checksum
• receiver sends OK or not-OK message
• sender waits for OK message

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Cont..

• OSI Model
• International Organization for Standards (ISO) prescribes a standard to connect open
systems
• Open System Interconnect (OSI)
• A system that implements open protocols is called an open system
• A set of protocols is open if protocol details are publicly available.
• Layering
• There is a information-hiding (abstraction) and achieving good performance.
• We have broken a complex problem into smaller, simpler pieces.
• Each layer provides a clean abstraction to the layer above.

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Cont..

• Seven layers of the OSI model

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Cont..

• The interaction between layers in the OSI model:

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Cont..

• Physical layer
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node)
to the next.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Data link layer

• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.

• Groups of bits its called Frame.

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Cont..

• Network layer
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source
host to the destination host.

• Groups of Frame its called Packets.

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Cont..

• Transport layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another.

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Cont..

• Session layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

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Cont..

• Presentation layer
• The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
• Data translation ,compression and encryption.
• Encrypt data to hide it.
• Compress data from last message to small no of messages.

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Cont..
• Application layer
• The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
• Login password checking, file transfer are some of the application.
• Provide direct access to network device.
• Interface between user and system.
• Examples: File transfer, Emails, www

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari Unit – 1

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture.

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Cont..

• Protocols Used TCP/IP:

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Cont..
1&2. Host – to – Network Layer
• Lowest Layer in model.

• Combination of Physical and Data-link Layer.

• The host has to connect to the network using some protocol, so it can send IP packets
over it.

• Protocol may vary based on host or network.

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Cont..

3. Network layer
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source
host to the destination host.

• Groups of Frame its called Packets.

• Network layer protocols :
• IP
• ICMP
• ARP
• RARP.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• IP ( Internetwork Protocol):
• IP is transmission mechanism used. It is connectionless and unreliable protocol.
packets in the IP layer called datagram.

• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):

• ICMP used to handle, control and error message in the IP layer.

• ARP ( Address Resolution Protocol ):

• ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when the IP address is known
• RARP ( Reverse Address Resolution Protocol ):
• RARP is used to find the IP Address of the node when its physical address is known.

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Cont..

4. Transport layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another.

• Transport layer protocols :

• TCP

• UDP

• Both Protocols Use Port to Port Communication

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Cont..

• TCP ( Transmission Control Protocol ) :

• TCP provides full transport layer to applications.
• It is Connection oriented protocol .
• The packet in this layer is called segment.
• TCP provides error control, flow control, multiplexing.
• UDP ( User Datagram Protocol ) :
• UDP is Connectionless protocol.
• The packet produces by UDP is called User Datagram.
• UDP provides only multiplexing

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Cont..

5. Application layer
• The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
• Login password checking, file transfer are some of the application.
• Interface between user and system.
• Examples: File transfer, Emails, www
• Application layer protocols :
• SMTP
• FTP
• SNMP
• TELNET

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• SMTP ( Simple Mail Transfer Protocol ) :

• SMTP supports E-mail on the internet. SMTP is use Mailing.
• FTP ( File Transfer protocol ):
• FTP is provided for copy file form one computer to another computer.
• To copy file some problem must occurs to solved by FTP
• SNMP ( Simple Network Management Protocol ) :
• SNMP provides a set of fundamental operations for monitoring and maintaining
devices in internet.

• TELNET ( Terminal Network ) :

• TELNET is a general purpose Client – Server application program, TELNET is use
Remote access login .

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Differences : OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

BASIS FOR OSI Model TCP/IP Model
COMPARISON
Stands For Open System Interconnection Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol
Approach Vertical Approach. Horizontal Approach.
Presentation Layer Presents absents
and Session Layer
Transport Layer Connection Oriented. Connection Oriented and Connection
less.
Network Layer Connection Oriented and Connection Connection less.
less.
Protocol Independent. Dependent.

Number Of Layers 7 layers 5 layers

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

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Differences : TCP (Connection Oriented) and UDP (Connection Less)

BASIS FOR
TCP UDP
COMPARISON
Expands to Transmission Control Protocol User Datagram Protocol
Connection Type Connection Oriented Connection Less
Speed Slow Fast
Reliability Highly Reliable Unreliable
Header Size 20 Bytes 8 Bytes
Data interface to the Stream-based Message-based
application
Meaning TCP establishes a connection between the UDP sends the data directly to the
computers before transmitting the data destination computer without checking
whether the system is ready to receive or
not
Overheads low Very low
Applications and FTP, Telnet, SMTP, IMAP etcetera. DNS, BOOTP, DHCP, TFTP etcetera.
protocols

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

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6. Different types of Networking Connecting Devices

• Different types of Networking Connecting Devices are:

• Repeater
• Hub
• Switch
• Bridge
• Router
• Gateways

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Connecting Devices and the OSI Model

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Repeater:
• A repeater operates at the physical layer.
• Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too
weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over
the same network.

• An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal.
• When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the
original strength.

• It is a 2 port device.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

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Cont..
Hub:
• A hub is basically a multiport repeater.
• A hub works at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model.
• A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches.
• Types of Hub
• Active Hub :-
• These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can clean , boost and
relay the signal along the network.
• These are used to extend maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub :-
• These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power supply from
active hub.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

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Cont..

Bridge:

• A bridge operates at data link layer.

• A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC
addresses of source and destination.

• It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.

• It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

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Cont..

Switch :

• Switch is data link layer device.

• A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance.

• Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as
it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to
correct port only.

• In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains
same.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

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Cont..

Routers:

• Router is mainly a Network Layer device.

• A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.

• Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically updating
routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets.

• Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

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Cont..

Gateway:
• Gateway is mainly used All seven Layer in OSI Model.
• A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together that may
work upon different networking models.

• They basically works as the messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it,
and transfer it to another system.

• Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

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7. Delay, Loss & Throughput

• Delay:
• As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to the sub sequent
node (host or router) along this path, the packet suffers from several
types of delays at each node along the path.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Loss:
• Packet loss describes lost packets of data not reaching their destination after
being transmitted across a network.
• Packet loss occurs when network congestion, hardware issues, software bugs,
and a number of other factors cause dropped packets during data
transmission.
• Throughput:
• The instantaneous throughput at any instant of time is the rate (in bits/sec) at
which Host B is receiving the file.
• The average throughput of the file is F/T bits/sec, where the file consists of F
bits and the transfer time is T (in seconds).

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Cont..

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Cont..

• Processing Delay
• The time required to examine the packet sheared and determine where
to direct the packet.
• To check bit level error.
• Determine output link.
• Delay in terms of microseconds.

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Cont..

• Queuing Delay
• A time to waits at output link for transmission.
• Depends on congestion level of router.
• If queue empty then delay will be zero.
• If queue full–heavy traffic then delay will be long.
• Delay in terms of microsecond to millisecond.

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Cont..

• Transmission Delay
• An amount of time required for the router to transmit the packet.
• Its depends on packet length(L) and transmission rate(R) of link.

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Cont..

• Propagation Delay
• A time required to propagate from the beginning of the link to router
B.
• Depends on the length of physical medium(d) link and propagation
speed(s) of link.
• Delay in terms of millisecond.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari Unit – 1

9. History of The Computer Network

• 1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
• In 1969,a network called ARPANET (advanced research project agency) was created. For
transmission lines of 56kb dedicated line.
• In 1970, DECNET (digital electronic corporation network) was created. For proper trait design.
• 1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
• In 1977-83, ETHERNET was created . Network capacity10Mhz. Support token ring topology.
• 1980-1990: New protocols, a proliferation of networks
• In 1981, a network called TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet protocol) was created. To
support LAN and WAN. Which lead to the beginning of INTERNET.
• In 1980’s , GIGA BYTE network was created. To support applications such as FTP, SMTP, HTTP,
POP3, IMAP4.
• 1990, 2000’s: Commercialization, the Web, new apps

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Cont..

Botnet

• The words "robot" and "network" together give rise to the term Botnet.
• Botnet refers to a network of hijacked internet-connected devices that are
installed with malicious codes known as malware.

• Each of these infected devices is known as Bots, and a hacker/cybercriminal

known as the "Bot herder" remotely controls them.

• A bot is also called a zombie, and a botnet is referred to as a zombie army.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..
• Botnet:

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Cont..

• Botnet Work:

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Stage 1 - Prepare and Expose

• At this stage, the bad actor figures out the vulnerability to introduce into the
user’s device.

• The vulnerability hunting takes place in the website, human behavior, and
application. By doing so, the hacker prepares a set-up to lure the target to get
exposed to malware, knowingly or unknowingly.

• Most commonly, hackers figure out the vulnerabilities in websites and the
software.

• Additionally, malware is delivered via emails or random messages.

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Cont..

• Stage 2 - Infecting the user via malware

• The next action that the botnet performs is activating the malware so that the
end-user is infected and has compromised security.

• The process of infecting the device usually takes place via the Trojan virus or
social engineering method.

• Some attackers adopt a more hostile approach and deploy drive-by-download

techniques to infect the device.

• Using all these methods, attackers corrupt the targeted device with botnet
malware.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Stage 3 - Controlling the targeted devices

• The last stage of botnet working methodology is gaining control over each
device.

• Hackers systematize the involved infected machines in the botnet and design
a methodology to manage them remotely.

• In general, around thousands of devices are controlled in the process via a

huge zombie network.

• Once the stage is successfully completed, the bad actor is able to gain admin-
like access to the targeted devices or computers.

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Cont..
• Denial of Service (DoS):

• DoS stands for Denial of Service.

• A DoS attack is an attempt to make a system or server unavailable for legitimate

users and, finally, to take the service down.

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• It’s a type of attack that Web servers cannot respond – meaning they won’t
be able to serve HTTP requests.

• So, users can’t visit web pages hosted on them.

• Hackers achieve this By capturing the resources of the web server by

issuing many connections all at once.

• DoS attacks main objective:

• Crash Services
• Block Services.

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Cont..

• Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attacks:

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• A Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) attack happens when a hacker Introduces

himself between a user and a website.

• This kind of attack comes in several forms.

• For example, a fake banking website may be used to capture financial login
information. The fake site is “in the middle” between the user and the actual
bank website.

• Attackers have many different reasons and methods for using a MITM attack.

• Typically, they’re trying to steal something, like credit card numbers or user
login credentials.

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Cont..

• Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks:

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..

• Distributed Network Attacks are often referred to as Distributed Denial of Service

(DDoS) attacks.

• This type of attack takes advantage of the specific capacity limits that apply to any
network resources – such as the infrastructure that enables a company’s website.

• The DDoS attack will send multiple requests to the attacked web resource – with the aim
of exceeding the website’s capacity to handle multiple requests… and prevent the website
from functioning correctly.
• Typical targets for DDoS attacks include:
• Internet shopping sites and Online casinos
• Any business or organization that depends on providing online services

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Cont..
QUESTIONS
1. What is Computer Network? Write Applications , Advantages & Disadvantages of
Computer Network.
2. What is Topology? List out and Explain various network topology.
3. Explain Types of Computer Network. OR Q. Explain LAN, MAN and WAN.
4. List hardware required for server.
5. Explain Transmission modes (Simplex, half-duplex, Full-duplex).
6. Explain Wired media. OR Q. Explain Twisted -pair, Coaxial and Fiber Optics cable.
7. Explain Unguided media. OR Q. Explain Radio waves, Micro waves and Infrared.
8. Explain Switched Networks. OR Q. Explain Circuit & Packet Switching
9. Explain OSI Reference Model with Diagram. (Brief Description of Each Layer).
10.Explain TCP/IP Reference Model with Diagram. (Brief Description of Each Layer).

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

Cont..
11. Explain TCP/IP Reference Model with Diagram. (Brief Description of Each Layer).
12. Explain Physical Structures. OR Q. Explain Type of connection.
13. List and explain Different types of Networking Connecting Devices.
14. Explain Delay, Loss & Throughput.
15. Write a short note: Botnet.
16. Difference Between:
1. Simplex, Half Duplex, and Full Duplex
2. Synchronous Transmission and Asynchronous Transmission
3. Serial Transmission and Parallel Transmission
4. LAN, MAN and WAN
5. Wired Media and Wireless Media. (Guided and Unguided Media)
6. Circuit & Packet Switching
7. OSI and TCP/IP
8. TCP and UDP

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Subject Overview

Unit No. Unit Title %

1 Introduction to Computer Networks and Internet 15
2 Application Layer 17
3 Transport Layer 25
4 Network Layer 25
5 The Link layer and Local area networks 18

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani & Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology

(AICTE approved and GTU affiliated )

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani

Email id: [email protected]
Mobile : +91 99092 49440

Prof. Bhaumik Gelani

&
Unit – 1
Prof. Shilpi Tiwari

73