Unit II Ch-3

Electromagnetic Theory
• Contents
• Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory
• Maxwell’s equations
• Work done by the electromagnetic field
• Poynting’s theorem
• Momentum, Angular momentum in
electromagnetic fields,
• Electromagnetic waves: the wave equation, plane
electromagnetic waves,
• Energy carried by electromagnetic waves
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 VECTOR CALCULUS
• The electric field , magnetic induction ,
magnetic intensity , electric displacement ,
electrical current density , magnetic vector
potential etc. are, in general, functions of position and
time. These are vector fields.
• Scalar quantities such as electric potential, electric
charge density, electromagnetic energy density etc.
are also function of position and time. They are
known of as fields.

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Time Derivative of a Vector Field

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Del operator represented by symbol ∇ and expressed as

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= i + j + k in Cartesian coordinates
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z

It is is a vector differential operator and not a vector quantity.

It can operate on any function in three different ways and the result
depends on the manner in which it operates upon the function.

∇ϕ Gradient of a scalar function

∇⋅F Divergence of a vector function
∇×F Divergence of a vector function
All represent the first derivatives
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 Gradient of a Scalar Field
• Gradient is a differential operator by means of
which we can associate a vector field with a
scalar field.
• Let V(x, y, z) be a scalar point function depending
on the three Cartesian coordinates in space.
• • Suppose ∂V/ ∂x, ∂V/ ∂y and ∂V/ ∂z be the
partial derivatives along the three perpendicular
axes respectively.
• • grad V = i (∂V/ ∂x) + j (∂V/ ∂y) + k( ∂V/ ∂z)
• where = i (∂/ ∂x) + j (∂/ ∂y) + k( ∂/ ∂z)

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Gradient tells you how much something changes as you move from one point to
another (such as the pressure in a stream). The gradient always points in the
direction of the maximum rate of change in a field

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 For Example
• Intensity of electric field E,( a vector
• quantity) is the gradient of potential V(a
• scalar quantity) with negative sign i.e.,
• E = -grad V
• The negative sign indicates that the direction
of field intensity is opposite to the direction of
increase of potential

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 Divergence of a Vector Field
• The divergence of a vector field at any point is
defined as“ the amount of flux per unit
volume diverging from that point.”

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Divergence of a Vector Field

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 Physical & Geometric Significance of
Divergence
• Physical & Geometric Significance At a given point, it
measures, how much the vector function F spreads out from
unit volume over a closed surface.

The divergence of current density J gives the

amount of charge flowing per unit volume
per second from small element of closed
surface around that point.
div J =0 , indicates medium is of free charges

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Positive Divergence at a point ∇ ⋅ F= + ve
If vector field F is Spreading out from a point or
P
vector strength increases after passing through a
P
point, then that point acts as a “Source”. Point P acts as Source

Negative Divergence at point

∇ ⋅ F= − ve
If vector field F is Contracting into a point or
vector strength decreases after passing through N
a point, then that point acts as a “Sink”. N
Point N acts as Sink
Incompressible fluid or Solenoid field
When the amount of fluid (or flux) entering &
leaving is same (there is no source or sink)
the field is called Incompressible or Solenoid.
It represents a field with zero divergence ∇⋅F=0 17
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Curl of a Vector Field

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Physical & Geometric Significance of Curl
•Physical & Geometric Significance It measures how much
the vector function Fis curling around a point in a unit area in
3D space. Its magnitude is equal to the maximum rotation of
functionF/area. It points along the axis of rotation, i.e
perpendicular to the area.

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The direction of curl vector is given by right hand thumb rule.

For a vector field rotating anticlockwise,

the Curl vector is pointing out of the page

For a vector field rotating clockwise,

the Curl vector is pointing into of the page

A vector field whose curl is zero is called an Irrotational vector field

∇ × F=0
e.g. electrostatic field is an irrotational field∇ × E= 0

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Successive Operation of the operator

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Successive Operation of the operator

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Divergence of Curl of a Vector Field

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Divergence of Curl of a Vector Field

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 Gauss Divergence Theorem
• The volume integral of divergence of a vector A
over a given volume V is equal to the surface
integral of the vector over a closed area
enclosing the volume.

• This theorem relates volume integral to surface

integral

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 Stokes Theorem
• The surface integral of the curl of a vector field
A over a given surface area S is equal to the line
integral of the vector along the boundary C of
the area

• For a closed surface C=0. Hence surface integral

of the curl of a vector over a closed surface
vanishes.

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Electric Polarization

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Electric Displacement Vector

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Electric Flux

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Gauss’ Law in Electrostatic

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Gauss’ Law in Differential form

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Magnetic Intensity (H) and Magnetic
Induction (B)

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Gauss’ Law in magnetism

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Ampere’s Circuital law

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Ampere’s Law in Differential form

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Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic
induction

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Differential form of Faraday’s Law

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Equation of Continuity

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Displacement Current

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Displacement Current

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Displacement current
Maxwell realized the need to modify Ampere’s law and introduced
the concept of Displacement current. Maxwell postulated that
during the process of charging/discharging of a capacitor, the
changing electric field, within the gap between the plates of a
capacitor, is equivalent to a current called the displacement
current. Thus the cause of displacement current is the changing
electric field.
𝜕E
Id=  A
𝜕t
𝜕D
Id = A
𝜕t
𝜕D
Displacement current density Jd =
𝜕t
It flows in the circuit as long as long as the electric field is changing.
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 Modified Ampere’s law
𝜕D
𝓁
H ⋅ 𝑑𝓁= 𝑠
Jc + ⋅ daIntegral form
𝜕𝑡
To transform in differential form, applying Stoke’s theorem on LHS
𝜕D
∇ × H=Jc + Differential form
𝜕t

It summarizes Ampere’s law for time varying currents (modified

Ampere’s law). It states that “it is not only the current (I) in the
conductor that produces a magnetic field, but a time varying
electric field can also produces a magnetic field”.
It relates
magnetic field strength
Hwith electric flux density
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D
Modification of Ampere’s circuital law

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Distinction between displacement
current and conduction current

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Maxwell’s Equations

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 Maxwell’s Equations
Equation (1) is the differential form of Gauss‟ law of electrostatics.
• Equation (2) is the differential form of Gauss‟ law of magnetism.
• Equation (3) is the differential form of Faraday‟s law of
electromagnetic induction.

• Equation (4) is the generalized form of Ampere‟s circuital law.

• Equations (2) and (3) have the same form in vacuum and medium.
They are also unaffected by the presence of free charges or
currents. They are usually called the constraint equation for electric
and magnetic fields.
• Equations (1) and (4) depend upon the presence of free charges
and currents and also the medium.
• Equations (1) and (2) are called steady state equations as they do
not involve time dependent fields.

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Maxwell’s Equations in terms of E and B

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Maxwell’s Equations in terms of E and B

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Maxwell’s Equations in terms of E and B

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Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

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 Physical Significance of Maxwell’s
Equation

• (i) Maxwell equations incorporate all the laws of

electromagnetism.
• (ii) Maxwell equations lead to the existence of
electromagnetic waves.
• (iii) Maxwell equations are consistent with the special
theory of relativity.
• (iv) Maxwell equations are used to describe the classical
electromagnetic field as well as the quantum theory of
interaction of charged particles electromagnetic field.
• (v) Maxwell equations provided a unified description of the
electric and magnetic phenomena which were treated
independently.

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 Propagation of EM wave

When the charge & current sources varies with time, the electric &
magnetic field become interconnected. The bilateral coupling b/n
them produces electromagnetic wave which is capable of travelling
through free space and material media. The time variation of
magnetic field induces an electric field and time variation of
electric field in turn induces a magnetic field. Thus electromagnetic
fields can exist independently, without electric charges & currents.
The continuous inter-conversion of the fields propagates in space
known as electromagnetic waves. The generation of EM-Wave does
not require any medium and they propagate through space entirely
on their own. 54
Electromagnetic Waves

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Transverse nature of elecromagnetic wave

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Mutual orthogonality of E, B and k

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Relative magnitudes of E and B

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 Phase relation between E and B

• In an electromagnetic wave electric and

magnetic field are in phase.
• Either electric field or magnetic field can be
used to describe the electromagnetic wave.

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Electromagnetic Energy Density

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Poynting Vector

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Poynting Theorem

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Poynting Vector & Intensity of electromagnetic wave

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Propagation of plane EM-Wave in dielectric medium
In a dielectric medium D =E and H = B/
charge density ρ = 0 and current density J𝑐 = 0.
Hence Maxwell’s equations in dielectric medium
∇⋅E=0 (1)
∇⋅B=0 (2)
𝜕B
∇ × E= − (3)
𝜕t

𝜕E
∇ × B= 0 +   (4)
𝜕𝑡
To decouple them, applying Curl on both sides.
 𝜕
In eq.(3) ∇ ∇ × E = − ∇×B
𝜕t
2 𝜕
∇ ∇⋅E − E=− ∇×B
𝜕t
from 1st Maxwell eq. ∇ ⋅ E = 0
𝜕E
from 4th Maxwell eq. ∇ × B = 
𝜕t

2 𝜕 𝜕E
0− E=−  
𝜕t 𝜕t

2 𝜕2 E
 E =  2 (5)
𝜕t
Similarly applying curl on eq. (4) gives
2 𝜕2 B
 B =  2 (6)
𝜕t
In wave mechanics the classical 3D wave equation is given by
2 1 𝜕2 f
 f= 2 2 (7)
𝓿 𝜕t

The field vectors E&Bin eq. (6 & 7) have a form similar to the
wave equation (7). Comparing eq. 5, 6 with 7 shows that the field
vectorsE&B propagates as wave in dielectric medium with velocity
𝓋
1 1 1
𝓋= = , where c=
 μ0 0 μr r μ0 0
c c
𝓋= =
μr r η
since μr >1 and εr >1, 𝓿<c The velocity of EM Wave in a
dielectric medium is always less than the velocity in free space
In dielectric medium:𝐷= 𝐸&𝐻 = 𝐵/
2π
 Propagation vector k = k is Real
λ
1 E
 E and H are in phase: B= k × E , B = is real, const
𝓋 𝓋
 Wave impedance (ohms) is a real quantity;
E 𝜇𝜔 𝜇 ∘ 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑟
Z= = = 𝜇𝓋 = = 376.6 = 𝑍∘
H 𝑘 𝜀∘ 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑟

 Electric & magnetic energy density is shared equally,

UE = UB so that electromagnetic energy density
UEB = ε E2
 PoyntingVector in free space,
S = 𝓋 εE 2 k = 𝓋(UEB ) k 77
 Tutorialt-2

Displacement current & Maxwell’s equations

𝜕B 𝜕D
1) Starting with Maxwell’s eqs. 𝛻 × E = − &𝛻 × H=Jc + respectively. Show
𝜕t 𝜕t
that 𝛻 ⋅ B=0 &𝛻 ⋅ D=ρ
2) Show that equation of continuity is contained in Maxwell’s equations
3) Determine the conduction & displacement current densities in a material having
conductivity of 10−4 S/m and relative permittivity εr =2.25. the electric field in
the material is E=5×10−6 Sin(9×109t)V/m
4) The conduction current density in a lossy dielectric is Jc=0.02sin(109t) Amp/m2.
Find the displacement current density if σ = 103 mho/m; εr=6.5 &εₒ=8.8 ×10-12
coul2/nt-m2

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 Assignment-2

Poynting vector & Electromagnetic waves

1. The EM Wave intensity received on the surface of the Earth from the sun is
found to be 1.33 kW/m2. Find the Amplitude of electric field vector associated
with sunlight as received on Earth surface. Assume sun’s light to be
monochromatic (λ=6000Å).
Ans: E∘=E√2=1000 Volt/m; B∘=B√2= 2.73 Amp/m
2. Show that in a given volume, the energy of em-wave is equally shared between
electric & magnetic field
3. Show that the field E & H for EM-Wave travelling in free space are always in
phase
4. If earth receives 2 Cal min-1cm-2 solar energy, what are the amplitudes of E & B
field of radiation? Ans: E∘ = 1027 Volt/m & B∘ = 2.7
Amp/m
5. The relative permeability of distilled water is 81. Calculate refractive index &
velocity of light in it. 79