Forensic Science
History and Development of Forensic Science
The history and development of forensic science can be traced back to
ancient civilizations, where rudimentary methods of investigating crimes and
identifying suspects were used. Here is an overview of the key milestones in
the history and development of forensic science:
Ancient Times:
Ancient China: In the 6th century, the book "Hsi Duan Yu" described the use of
fingerprinting for identification.
Ancient Babylon: The Code of Hammurabi (circa 1750 BC) mentioned the concept
of using witnesses and evidence in legal proceedings.
Ancient Greece and Rome:
In ancient Greece, Aristotle wrote about the examination of hair and fibers in
criminal investigations.
Roman physician Galen documented the differences between animal and human
bones.
Middle Ages:
During this period, there was limited scientific advancement in forensic
techniques, and trial by ordeal was a common method of determining guilt or
innocence.
18th and 19th Centuries:
Sir Francis Galton, a British scientist, made significant advancements in the study
of fingerprints.
Mathieu Orfila, a Spanish-born chemist, is considered the father of forensic
toxicology.
Alphonse Bertillon developed the Bertillonage system for criminal identification,
which included anthropometric measurements.
The use of microscopes in forensic analysis became more widespread in the 19th
century.
Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries:
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's fictional detective Sherlock Holmes popularized the idea of
scientific investigation.
The Frye Standard (1923) established the admissibility of scientific evidence in court based
on general acceptance within the scientific community.
20th Century:
The discovery of ABO blood group system by Karl Landsteiner (1901) made blood typing a
valuable tool in forensic investigations.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was established in the United States in 1908, and
it played a significant role in advancing forensic science.
The development of forensic serology, ballistics, and trace evidence analysis became
prominent.
The use of DNA as a forensic tool was pioneered by Sir Alec Jeffreys in the 1980s.
Late 20th Century and Beyond:
DNA profiling and analysis revolutionized forensic science, leading to increased
accuracy in identifying suspects and exonerating the innocent.
The development of forensic databases, such as CODIS (Combined DNA Index
System) in the United States, allowed for the sharing of DNA data among law
enforcement agencies.
Advances in forensic anthropology, entomology, and digital forensics expanded the
scope of forensic investigations.
The growth of forensic science as a multidisciplinary field led to the establishment
of professional organizations and accreditation standards.
Today, forensic science continues to evolve with advances in technology,
genetics, and other scientific disciplines. It plays a crucial role in solving
crimes, identifying human remains, and ensuring justice in legal systems
worldwide. However, it also faces challenges, such as the need for ongoing
research, standardization, and the prevention of errors in forensic analysis.
Introduction
What is Forensic?
Forensic science is the use of science to investigate crime and present
unbiased scientific evidence in court.
The primary goal of forensic science is to provide impartial, objective, and
reliable evidence that can be used in criminal investigations and court cases.
It involves the collection, preservation, examination, and analysis of physical
evidence found at crime scenes or related to legal matters.
Forensic science
Dr. Edmond Locard, became known as the "Sherlock Holmes of France". He
formulated the basic principle of forensic science: "Every contact leaves a
trace", which became known as Locard's exchange principle.
Basic principals of forensic science
The basic principles guide the work of forensic scientists, ensuring that
evidence is collected, analyzed, and presented in a rigorous and objective
manner to assist in the investigation and adjudication of crimes. Adhering to
these principles is crucial for maintaining the integrity and credibility of
forensic science within the criminal justice system.
The principles of forensic science are fundamental guidelines and concepts
that underpin the practice of forensic analysis and investigations. These
principles are crucial for ensuring the reliability and validity of forensic
evidence presented in criminal investigations and court proceedings. Here are
the basic principles of forensic science:
Basic principals of forensic science
Locard's Exchange Principle:
Proposed by Dr. Edmond Locard, this principle states that whenever two objects
come into contact, there will be an exchange of materials between them. In
forensic science, this principle is used to explain the transfer of physical evidence
between a suspect, victim, or crime scene.
Individualization and Identification:
Forensic analysis seeks to establish the individual characteristics of physical
evidence to link it to a specific source. For example, fingerprints, DNA profiles,
and handwriting can be used to uniquely identify individuals.
Basic principals of forensic science
Classification and Comparison:
Physical evidence is often classified into categories or types (e.g., firearms, drugs,
fibers) and compared to known standards to determine similarities or differences.
This helps forensic experts draw conclusions about whether items are connected to
a crime.
Preservation of Evidence:
Proper handling, packaging, and preservation of evidence are critical to
maintaining its integrity. Chain of custody procedures must be followed to ensure
that evidence is not tampered with or contaminated.
Basic principals of forensic science
Documentation and Record-Keeping:
Detailed documentation of the collection, handling, and analysis of evidence is
essential. This includes photographs, notes, reports, and laboratory records.
Accurate records help maintain transparency and credibility.
Quality Assurance:
Forensic laboratories and experts must adhere to strict quality assurance and
quality control measures to ensure the accuracy and reliability of their analyses.
This includes using validated methods, proficiency testing, and regular calibration
of equipment.
Basic principals of forensic science
Expert Testimony:
Forensic scientists are often called upon to testify as expert witnesses in court.
They must present their findings and opinions clearly and impartially. They are also
expected to adhere to ethical standards and avoid bias.
Scientific Method:
Forensic analysis follows the scientific method, which involves forming hypotheses,
conducting experiments or examinations, collecting data, analyzing results, and
drawing conclusions based on evidence. This approach emphasizes objectivity and
the pursuit of truth.
Basic principals of forensic science
Probabilistic Assessment:
Forensic experts often express their findings in terms of probabilities. For
example, DNA analysts may state the likelihood of a match between a suspect's
DNA profile and the DNA found at a crime scene. This helps judges and juries make
informed decisions about the strength of the evidence.
Continual Learning and Advancement:
The field of forensic science is constantly evolving with new technologies,
methods, and research. Forensic professionals must stay up-to-date with
advancements and engage in ongoing education and training.
Contributors to Forensic Science
Forensic science has evolved and advanced over the years thanks to the
contributions of numerous individuals who have made significant
breakthroughs and developments in various forensic disciplines. Here are
some of the notable contributors to the field of forensic science:
Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911):
Studied fingerprints.
Showed that fingerprints are unique and permanent.
Established the basis for fingerprint identification.
Contributors to Forensic Science
Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853):
"Father of Toxicology."
Distinguished between criminal poisoning and natural causes of death.
Major contributions to forensic toxicology.
Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914):
Developed Bertillonage system for criminal identification.
Used anthropometric measurements, photographs, and physical characteristics.
Alec Jeffreys:
Pioneered DNA fingerprinting in the 1980s.
Revolutionized forensic science with precise DNA analysis for individual identification.
Contributors to Forensic Science
Edmond Locard (1877-1966):
Formulated Locard's Exchange Principle.
Stated that there's an exchange of materials when two objects come into contact.
Foundational for trace evidence analysis.
Calvin Goddard (1891-1955):
Forensic ballistics pioneer.
Developed methods for comparing bullets and cartridge cases.
Linked firearms to specific crimes.
Contributors to Forensic Science
Frances Glessner Lee (1878-1962):
"Mother of Forensic Science."
Created detailed crime scene dioramas for training purposes.
Paul L. Kirk (1902-1970):
Made significant contributions to criminalistics.
Expert in trace evidence analysis and crime scene reconstruction.
Dr. Henry C. Lee:
Renowned forensic scientist.
Expert in forensic serology, DNA analysis, and crime scene reconstruction.
Contributors to Forensic Science
Michael Baden:
Forensic pathologist.
Conducted high-profile autopsies and contributed to understanding cause of death.
Sir Bernard Spilsbury (1877-1947):
Early UK forensic pathologist.
Played a role in establishing forensic pathology as a distinct discipline.
Clyde Snow (1928-2014):
Forensic anthropologist.
Identified human remains in mass disasters and war crimes investigations.
Contributors to Forensic Science
Barry Scheck and Peter Neufeld:
Co-founders of the Innocence Project.
Used DNA evidence to free wrongfully convicted individuals.
Advocated for DNA's use in the criminal justice system.
These individuals have made important contributions to forensic science,
helping improve its accuracy and reliability in solving crimes and ensuring
justice in the legal system.
Scope of Forensic Science:
Crime Scene Investigation (CSI):
Collects and preserves physical evidence from crime scenes.
Includes fingerprinting, bloodstain analysis, and trace evidence collection.
Forensic Biology:
Analyzes biological evidence like blood, saliva, hair, and DNA.
Identifies individuals and links them to crimes.
Forensic Chemistry:
Examines chemical substances, such as drugs and toxic substances.
Determines their composition and relevance in criminal cases.
Scope of Forensic Science:
Digital Forensics:
Recovers and analyzes data from electronic devices like computers and
smartphones.
Helps in cybercrime investigations and data recovery.
Forensic Pathology:
Studies the cause and manner of death.
Conducts autopsies to determine how a person died.
Forensic Anthropology:
Examines human skeletal remains.
Aids in identifying unknown bodies and determining age, sex, and trauma.
Scope of Forensic Science:
Forensic Odontology:
Involves dental records and bite mark analysis.
Helps identify individuals and assist in criminal investigations.
Forensic Entomology:
Studies insects found on corpses.
Helps estimate time of death and other vital information.
Forensic Psychology:
Focuses on the behavior and mental state of individuals involved in legal cases.
Assists in profiling and understanding motives.
Scope of Forensic Science:
Forensic Ballistics:
Deals with firearms and ammunition analysis.
Matches bullets, casings, and weapons to crime scenes.
Forensic Document Examination:
Analyzes handwriting, signatures, and document authenticity.
Detects forgery and fraud.
Forensic Toxicology:
Identifies and quantifies drugs, alcohol, and poisons in the body.
Determines their role in deaths and crimes.
Scope of Forensic Science:
Forensic Engineering:
Investigates accidents, fires, and structural failures.
Determines causes and liability.
Forensic Accounting:
Investigates financial irregularities, fraud, and embezzlement.
Assists in white-collar crime cases.
Forensic Art:
Creates facial reconstructions and composite sketches of suspects.
Helps in identifying unknown individuals.
Scope of Forensic Science:
Forensic Linguistics:
Analyzes language and writing style to identify authors.
Useful in threats, ransom notes, and anonymous letters.
Forensic Serology:
Studies bodily fluids like blood, semen, and saliva.
Identifies donors and assists in sexual assault cases.
Forensic Photography:
Documents crime scenes and evidence.
Ensures an accurate record for investigations and court.
Scope of Forensic Science:
Forensic science plays a critical role in solving crimes, identifying suspects,
and providing evidence for legal proceedings. It encompasses a wide range of
specialized fields, each contributing to the pursuit of justice in its own unique
way.
Year of Establishment of Different
Branches of Forensic Science in India
1. Chemical Examiner laboratory- 1849
2. Anthropometric Bureau- 1892
3. Fingerprint Bureau- 1897
4. Department of Explosive- 1898
5. Government Examiner of Questioned Document (GEQD)-1906
6. Serology Department-1910
7. Footprint Section-1915
8. Note Forgery section-1917
Year of Establishment of Different
Branches of Forensic Science in India
9. Ballistics Laboratory-1930
10. Scientific Sections in the Criminal InvestigationDepartment-1936
11. State Forensic Science Laboratory, Calcutta- 1952
12. Central Finger Print Bureau- 1905
13. Central Detective Training School, Calcutta- 1956
14. Central Forensic Science Laboratory, Calcutta- 1957
15. Central Forensic Institute, Calcutta- 1958
Chemical Examiner laboratory
The first Chemical Examiner's Laboratory was established for the
determination of poison at the Madras Presidency, under the Department of
Health, during 1849.
After that, alike laboratories were established at Calcutta in 1853, Agra in
1864, Bombay in 1870 and Lahore to provide scientific support to the criminal
justice delivery system within their limited means.
The neighboring states and Union Territories used to get analytical analysis
support from these laboratories.
Anthropometric Bureau
An attempt of identification of criminals has been made by the Criminal
Investigation Department (CID) by maintaining the records with the help of
Photography of each identified criminal along with a complete sketch of his
appearance
Finally in 1879, Alphonse Bertillon introduced "Anthropometry" for criminal
identification by taking body measurements.
Hence, a 'Bureau of Anthropometric Measurements' was introduced to
maintain the anthropometric records of criminals, was well-known in 1892 at
Calcutta. This system stayed widespread till approximately 1900.
Fingerprint Bureau
William Hershel, a British officer, established that patterns on the fingertips
of an individual not ever altered throughout his lifetime, hence he applied
this knowledge and skill to devise a system of registration of finger or thumb
impressions of native contractors and prisoners for identification.
In 1877, Hershel cannot alter his concepts into practice. He published a book
in 1916, 'The Origin of Fingerprinting' a description of his work.
In 1891, Edward Richard Henry, an Inspector General of Police, introduced the
thumb impression in the record slips containing anthropometric data.
In 1897 he introduced maintenance of duplicate criminal records with the
impression of 10 fingerprints separately.
Fingerprint Bureau
He appointed Khan Bahadur Azizul Haq and Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose
and worked on classification of Fingerprints.Khan Bahadur Azizul Haq gave the
Mathematical formula to addition Henry's idea of arranging slips in 1024
pigeon holes. And Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose extended the system of
Sub- Classification.
Henry approached the government to replace Anthropometric system and it
was approved. Hence, official fingerprint Bureau was started at Calcutta in
1897.
Department of Explosive
The Department of Explosives was established at Nagpur in 1898, when the
first chief inspector was appointed.
Later on 5 regional labs were established at Calcutta, Bombay, Agra, Madras
and Gwalior, beside with 3 sub offices at Shivkashi, Gomia and Asansol were
opened.
Government Examiner of Questioned
Document (GEQD)
As per need, The British Government of Bengal created the post of
Government Handwriting expert of Bengal and appointed Mr. CR Hardless, the
then Superintendent in the A.G.'s office in Bengal, to this designation in 1904.
The hole setup was shifted to Shimla in the year 1906 and was placed under
the control of Director, CID. Mr. S. N. Sen was the first Indian took over the
post of Government Examiner of Questioned Document in 1949.
Serology Department
In 1910, serology department was established in Calcutta.
The head of institute known as imperial serologist to the government of India.
After independence the department was renamed as 'Office of the Serologist
and Chemical Examiner to the Government of India'.
Footprint Section
In 1915, Footprint Unit developed under CID government of Bengal.
SM Edward recorded the instance in his book "Bombay City Police" showing the
use of footmarks police work.
Note Forgery section
A section for detecting forgery in currency notes was recognized under the
CID, Government of Bengal in 1917 to undertake the examination of forged
currency notes.
Likewise, Government Mint and security Printing Units at Nashik also
established their own research laboratory for identifying cases of counterfeit
and forged currency notes.
Ballistics Laboratory
A minor Ballistic Laboratory was established in 1930 along with an arms
expert under the Calcutta Police to deal with the examination of firearms.
Other State CIDS also followed by establishing a small ballistics laboratories to
help the police in the criminal investigation.
Scientific Sections in the Criminal
Investigation Department
During 1936, scientific sections set up under CID in Bengal.
The amenities were produced for investigation of bullets, cartridge cases,
firearms, etc., used for the commencement of crime.
Photography gained importance as an important scientific tool for recording
of results.
State Forensic Science Laboratory
First SFSL in India was established in the year 1952 at Calcutta.
It became fully operational in the year of 1953.
Medico-Legal department of chemical examiner lab shifted here.
In 1955, Physics unit established under SFSL.
In 1957, complete Physics section was established.
Presently, there are 32 SFSL in India
The State Forensic Laboratories exist in the
following States with their year of establishment-
West Bengal, Calcutta- 1952
Maharashtra, Bombay- 1958
Rajasthan, Jaipur- 1959
Tamil Nadu, Madras- 1959
Kerala, Trivandrum- 1961
Orissa, Bhubaneshwar- 1962
Bihar, Patna- 1963
Jammu & Kashmir, Srinagar- 1964
Madhya Pradesh, Sagar- 1964
The State Forensic Laboratories exist in the
following States with their year of establishment-
Assam, Guwahati- 1967
Karnataka, Bangalore- 1967
Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow- 1969
Haryana, Madhuban- 1973
Gujarat, Ahmedabad- 1974
Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad- 1976
Punjab, Chandigarh- 1981
Meghalaya, Shillong- 1986
Himachal Pradesh, Shimla- 1987
Delhi-1993
Central Finger Print Bureau
In 1905, CFPB was established in Shimla on recommendation of Royal prince
commission.
In 1922, the bureau abolished and restarted the functioning in Delhi
underInvestigation Bureau.
In 1956, the fingerprint bureau was shifted to Calcutta under Investigation
Bureau.
In 1973, transferred to Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and in 1986
transferred to NCRB and was again shifted to New Delhi.
Central Detective Training School
CDTS was first established in the year 1956 and was co-located with the CFPB,
Calcutta.
The main Aim of establishment of CDTS was to impart training in scientific
investigation of crimes like drug abuse, terrorism, explosion, Crime against
women, etc. to the trainee from police, Armed forces and Paramilitary
organization.
Police officers from neighboring countries like Nepal, Sri Lanka etc. were also
get training under Colombo plan.
Later CDTS was established at Hyderabad in 1964 and at Chandigarh in 1973.
Central Forensic Science Laboratory
The first CFSL was established at Calcutta during 1957, organized into four
basic disciplines, Forensic Physics, Forensic Chemistry, Forensic Biology and
Ballistics.
For the application of nuclear methods of analysis to criminal investigation,
the Neutron Activation Analysis Unit of CFSL was setup in Calcutta in the year
1970, at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay.
CFSL Hyderabad was established in 1965, with some analytical facilities in the
disciplines of Forensic Physics, Forensic Chemistry and Forensic Biology.
CFSL Chandigarh was initially established in the year 1933 at Lahore and
shifted to Chandigarh in 1961.
CFSL, New Delhi was established in 1997. The laboratory in New Delhi is under
the control of Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI).
Central Forensic Science Laboratory
CFSL, Guwahati was established in 2011.CFSL, Bhopal was established in
2011.CFSL, Pune was established in 2011.
The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), Government of India (GOI) established
CFSL Kolkata Guwahati, Bhopal, Chandigarh, Hyderabad and Pune under the
Directorate of Forensic Science Services (DFSS), New Delhi.
Central Forensic Institute
With the establishment of CDTS and CFSL and GEQD in the same premises
under the control of IB, the whole set up was named as Central Forensic
Institute (CFI), Calcutta..
During 1958, a post of Commandant was generated to look after the whole
operation of all these institutions, which had diverse roles with the common
larger aim of providing suitable scientific responses to the criminal
investigation method and administration in criminal justice in the country.
University of Forensic Science
University of Sagar, M.P, Madras and Patiala, Punjab started the
undergraduate and postgraduate courses in Forensic Science for the first
time.
National Forensic Sciences University (NFSU), formerly Gujarat Forensic
Science University (GFSU) is the world's first Forensic Science University which
was established in the year 2008 and situated in Gandhinagar at Gujrat.
Services of Forensic Science
Forensic science encompasses a wide range of services and disciplines that are
utilized to investigate crimes, analyze evidence, and assist in legal proceedings.
Crime Scene Investigation: Forensic experts are called to crime scenes to collect,
preserve, and analyze physical evidence, such as fingerprints, DNA, hair, fibers, and
other trace materials. They document the scene through photography, sketches, and
notes to reconstruct the events that occurred.
DNA Analysis: DNA testing is a fundamental tool in forensic science. It is used to
identify individuals from biological samples found at crime scenes or on evidence.
DNA analysis can link suspects to victims or establish familial relationships, among
other things.
Fingerprint Analysis: Fingerprint experts examine and compare latent fingerprints
found at crime scenes with known prints from suspects or databases to identify
individuals involved in criminal activities.
Firearms and Ballistics Analysis: Forensic firearm examiners study firearms, bullets,
and spent cartridge cases to determine if a particular weapon was used in a crime
and to match bullets or casings to specific firearms.
Services of Forensic Science
Toxicology: Forensic toxicologists analyze bodily fluids and tissues to identify drugs,
alcohol, or poisons that may have played a role in a person's death or impairment.
Digital Forensics: This branch of forensic science deals with the recovery and analysis of
digital evidence from computers, smartphones, and other electronic devices. It can help
uncover information related to cybercrimes, data breaches, or digital communications
relevant to a case.
Forensic Anthropology: Forensic anthropologists identify and analyze human remains to
establish the identity of unknown individuals, determine the cause of death, and provide
information that may aid in the investigation.
Forensic Entomology: This specialized area uses insect evidence, such as the stage of
development and species of insects found on a body, to estimate the time of death in a
homicide investigation.
Services of Forensic Science
Handwriting and Document Examination: Forensic document examiners analyze handwriting,
signatures, and documents to determine authenticity, identify forgeries, and detect
alterations.
Forensic Psychology: Forensic psychologists assess the mental state of individuals involved in
legal cases, providing insights into their competency to stand trial, mental health issues, or
behavioral analysis of suspects and witnesses.
Forensic Pathology: Forensic pathologists conduct post-mortem examinations (autopsies) on
deceased individuals to determine the cause and manner of death, especially in cases of
suspicious deaths or homicides.
Forensic Odontology: Forensic dentists use dental records and evidence from teeth and bite
marks to identify individuals or provide evidence related to bite mark analysis.