sensors

Review
Distributed Acoustic Sensing for Monitoring Linear
Infrastructures: Current Status and Trends
Hong-Hu Zhu 1,2, * , Wei Liu 1 , Tao Wang 1 , Jing-Wen Su 3 and Bin Shi 1

1 School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
2 Nanjing University High-Tech Institute at Suzhou, Suzhou 215123, China
3 Nanjing Center, China Geological Survey, Nanjing 210016, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-158-9599-6665

Abstract: Linear infrastructures, such as railways, tunnels, and pipelines, play essential roles in eco-
nomic and social development worldwide. However, under the influence of geohazards, earthquakes,
and human activities, linear infrastructures face the potential risk of damage and may not function
properly. Current monitoring systems for linear infrastructures are mainly based on non-contact
detection (InSAR, UAV, GNSS, etc.) and geotechnical instrumentation (extensometers, inclinometers,
tiltmeters, piezometers, etc.) techniques. Regarding monitoring sensitivity, frequency, and coverage,
most of these methods have some shortcomings, which make it difficult to perform the accurate,
real-time, and comprehensive monitoring of linear infrastructures. Distributed acoustic sensing
(DAS) is an emerging sensing technology that has rapidly developed in recent years. Due to its
unique advantages in long-distance, high-density, and real-time monitoring, DAS arrays have shown
broad application prospects in many fields, such as oil and gas exploration, seismic observation, and
subsurface imaging. In the field of linear infrastructure monitoring, DAS has gradually attracted
the attention of researchers and practitioners. In this paper, recent research and the development
activities of applying DAS to monitor different types of linear infrastructures are critically reviewed.
The sensing principles are briefly introduced, as well as the main features. This is followed by a
summary of recent case studies and some critical problems associated with the implementation of
Citation: Zhu, H.-H.; Liu, W.; Wang,
DAS monitoring systems in the field. Finally, the challenges and future trends of this research area
T.; Su, J.-W.; Shi, B. Distributed
are presented.
Acoustic Sensing for Monitoring
Linear Infrastructures: Current Status
and Trends. Sensors 2022, 22, 7550.
Keywords: distributed acoustic sensing (DAS); linear infrastructure; field monitoring; distributed
https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197550 fiber-optic sensing

Academic Editor: Alayn Loayssa

Received: 3 July 2022

Accepted: 28 September 2022 1. Introduction
Published: 5 October 2022 Linear infrastructures, such as railways, highways, pipelines, tunnels, embankments
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral and power transmission lines, are a general type of civil infrastructures with long spans.
with regard to jurisdictional claims in They have the characteristics of long lengths, wide distribution ranges, and long service
published maps and institutional affil- lives and they are widely distributed in complex and changeable natural environments.
iations. They form the backbone of society and play important roles in economic and social de-
velopment. However, due to the influence of geohazards, earthquakes, corrosion, aging,
human activities, and other multiple factors, linear infrastructures face the potential risk of
structural deterioration and damage during their service lives [1]. In the past few decades,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. accidental extraordinary events among linear infrastructures in long-term operations have
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. aroused widespread concern. For instance, water, oil, and gas pipelines have sometimes
This article is an open access article been damaged by nearby earthworks, landslides, and third-party invasions [2,3]; some
distributed under the terms and
dramatic traffic disasters have been caused by rail rust and land subsidence; in some
conditions of the Creative Commons
countries, border protection walls and barriers have been damaged by illegal immigration.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
Therefore, to ensure the safe and reliable operation of linear infrastructures and prevent
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
potential threats in the long run, robust and efficient monitoring systems are required.
4.0/).

Sensors 2022, 22, 7550. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197550 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2022, 22, 7550 2 of 22

The establishment of monitoring and early warning systems for linear infrastructures
is key to ensuring their health conditions and reducing the occurrence of disasters. At
present, linear engineering monitoring mainly relies on manual inspections and field moni-
toring. The former is relatively expensive and intermittent [4]. For the latter, the commonly
used methods are categorized into two types, i.e., remote sensing and contact monitoring
methods. Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) and global navigation satel-
lite systems (GNSS) are two popular remote sensing technologies with millimeter-level
accuracy for displacement monitoring [5,6]. In recent years, unstaffed aerial vehicle (UAV)
photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) have provided effective solutions for
ground surface deformation monitoring with higher accuracy [7]. Although these technolo-
gies can obtain large-scale deformation data, monitoring is periodic and only applicable to
surface deformations. For subsurface monitoring, a series of geotechnical instruments have
been developed, e.g., extensometers, inclinometers, tiltmeters, and piezometers [8]. These
can be installed in boreholes of different depths or directly fixed on linear infrastructures to
carry out performance monitoring. In this way, the automatic and continuous monitoring
of key physical parameters can be enabled, as well as early warnings of abnormal states or
accidents. However, most of the instruments are based on single-point measurements and
struggle to realize long-distance monitoring. For the above reasons, powerful and robust
monitoring technologies for linear infrastructures are urgently needed to provide accurate
and comprehensive measurements in real time.
Distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) is a new type of fiber-optic sensing technology that
has rapidly developed in recent years. It not only has the advantages of ordinary fiber-optic
sensing technologies (e.g., anti-electromagnetic interference, corrosion resistance, slender-
ness, and flexibility) but it can also measure dynamic strains (e.g., vibrations and sound
waves) along fiber paths in a long-distance, fully distributed, and real-time manner [9].
In the past decade, there have been many successful applications of DAS in the field of
geophysical detection, such as vertical seismic profile (VSP) acquisition [10–12], hydraulic
fracturing monitoring [13–15], earthquake observation [16–18], and structural detection
and imaging [19–21]. In the fields of acoustics [22,23] and biology [24,25], DAS has also
shown its powerfulness. With the rapid development of demodulation techniques, the
applications of DAS have gradually extended from land to ocean [26–28], glaciers [29,30],
and volcanoes [31,32].
For linear infrastructures, DAS provides a novel monitoring solution. The large-scale,
long-distance, and real-time sensing capabilities of DAS mean that it has unreplaceable
advantages for field monitoring. In addition, fiber-optic cables have strong environmental
adaptability and can easily collect huge monitoring data along their fiber lengths. Therefore,
DAS can be tailored for monitoring linear infrastructures in complex and harsh environ-
ments. In recent years, researchers and practitioners worldwide have carried out a large
number of field investigations on linear infrastructures using DAS, such as pipeline leakage
monitoring [33,34] and rail track health monitoring [35,36]. Figure 1 briefly shows some
current and potential application scenarios of DAS for monitoring linear infrastructures
and related geohazards.
This paper presents a critical review of the recent developments and applications
of DAS for monitoring linear infrastructures. After a brief introduction to the sensing
principles, the developmental investigations into applying DAS to monitor different types
of linear infrastructures are described in detail. Finally, the major bottlenecks in DAS-based
linear infrastructure monitoring are summarized and the development trends of DAS are
pointed out. This review is expected to provide valuable insights into the application of
DAS for monitoring linear infrastructures and also useful solutions for practitioners and
policymakers in related areas.
Sensors 2022,
Sensors 22,22,
2022, 7550
x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 233 of 22

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Current
Current and
andpotential
potentialapplication
applicationscenarios of DAS
scenarios for for
of DAS monitoring linear
monitoring infrastructures
linear infrastructures
and geohazards. Adapted with permission from Ref. [37]. 2017, MDPI publisher.
and geohazards. Adapted with permission from Ref. [37]. 2017, MDPI publisher.

This paperAcoustic
2. Distributed presents aSensing
critical review
(DAS) of the recent developments and applications of
DAS for monitoring linear
2.1. Sensing Principles infrastructures. After a brief introduction to the sensing prin‐
ciples, the developmental investigations into applying DAS to monitor different types of
DAS is a cutting-edge distributed sensing technology that uses light as the information
linear infrastructures are described in detail. Finally, the major bottlenecks in DAS‐based
carrier and standard telecommunications-grade optical fibers as the sensing medium for
linear infrastructure monitoring are summarized and the development trends of DAS are
seismic
pointedrecords.
out. ThisCommon
review isDAS systems
expected consist valuable
to provide of an interrogation unit
insights into theand a sensingofcable.
application
DAS interrogation units continuously inject short-pulse lasers into cables. When
DAS for monitoring linear infrastructures and also useful solutions for practitioners light
andpasses
through the fiber
policymakers cores of
in related these cables, the incident light is scattered in different directions
areas.
due to spatial variations in the refractive index of the fiber cores and different kinds of
scattered lightAcoustic
2. Distributed are generated,
Sensingas(DAS)
shown in Figure 2. When optical fibers are disturbed
and subjected to strain,
2.1. Sensing Principles temperature, and vibrations, the properties of the scattered light
change (wavelength, light intensity, frequency, etc.). By analyzing certain characteristics
DAS is a cutting‐edge distributed sensing technology that uses light as the infor‐
of scattered light, the changes in various physical parameters (temperature, axial strain,
mation carrier and standard telecommunications‐grade optical fibers as the sensing me‐
and strain rate) can be revealed. DAS interrogators detect Rayleigh backscattered light
dium for seismic records. Common DAS systems consist of an interrogation unit and a
along with the fibers and analyze the phase information of coherent Rayleigh scattered
sensing cable. DAS interrogation units continuously inject short‐pulse lasers into cables.
light to obtain
When light dynamic
passes throughstrain (vibrations,
the fiber acoustic
cores of these cables, waves, etc.) measurements
the incident light is scattered[30],
in as
shown
different directions due to spatial variations in the refractive index of the fiber cores and DAS
in Figure 3. A review of the literature that introduces the sensing principles of
in detail can
different kindsbe of
found in [16].
scattered lightAsare
well as Rayleigh
generated, backscattered
as shown in Figurelight,
2. When Brillouin
opticaland Raman
fibers
scattering
are disturbed and subjected to strain, temperature, and vibrations, the properties of thestrain
light is also generated at every point along the optical fibers. Distributed
sensing
scattered(DSS)
light and
changedistributed
(wavelength,temperature sensing
light intensity, (DTS) can
frequency, beBy
etc.). performed
analyzing using
certainthese
scattering phenomena.
characteristics of scattered light, the changes in various physical parameters (temperature,
axial strain, and strain rate) can be revealed. DAS interrogators detect Rayleigh backscat‐
2.2.
teredSensing Performance
light along with the fibers and analyze the phase information of coherent Rayleigh
In thelight
scattered pastto10 years,
obtain many technological
dynamic companies
strain (vibrations, acoustic and research
waves, institutions have
etc.) measurements
[30], as out
carried shown in Figure
research and3.development
A review of the forliterature that introduces
DAS applications. As wetheall
sensing
know,principles
the interroga-
of DAS
tion unitinisdetail can be found
the sensing “heart” inthat
[16].fundamentally
As well as Rayleigh backscattered
determines light, Brillouin
the sensing performance
and Ramanspatial
(including scattering light is also
resolution, generated
detection at every
distance, point along
response the optical
capability, etc.).fibers.
Table Dis‐
1 briefly
tributed
shows strain
the sensing
basic (DSS) and
parameters distributed
of several temperature
commercially sensing DAS
available (DTS)interrogators.
can be performed
using these scattering phenomena.
Sensors 2022, 22, 7550 4 of 22

Table 1. Comparison of the basic parameters of DAS interrogators.

HDAS
Helios DAS MS-DAS2000 IDAS3 CRI-4400 QuantX
Parameter (Aragon
(Fotech) (Ovlink) (Silixa) (Halliburton) (OptaSense)
Photonics)
Strain sensitivity (ε) 10−9 10−9 10−9 10−9 10−9 10−9
Spatial resolution (m) 10 2 2 1 1 2
Sensors2022,
Sensing
Sensors 2022,
range22,xwithout
22, xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 44 of
of 23
23
70 50 20 50 50 50
repeaters (km)

Figure2.2.
Figure
Figure Scattering
Scattering
2.Scattering spectra ofan
spectra
spectra of an optical
ofoptical fiber.In
an optical
fiber. Inthe
thefigure,
fiber. figure,
In theεεrepresents
represents
figure, strain,TTrepresents
ε represents
strain, represents tem‐
strain, Ttem‐
represents
perature,
perature, VV is
0is the
the original
original light
light wave
wave frequency,
frequency, VV represents
Brepresents the
the Brillouin
Brillouin shift
shift
temperature, V0 is the original light wave frequency, VB represents the Brillouin shift and VR
0 B and
and VVR represents
Rrepresents

theRaman
the Ramanshift.shift.
represents the Raman shift.

Figure3.3.
Figure
Figure 3.Generic
Generic concept
Genericconcept of
conceptof the
ofthe principles
theprinciples ofof
of
principles DAS.
DAS. Reproduced
Reproduced
DAS. with
with
Reproduced permission
permission
with from
from
permission Ref.Ref.
Ref.
from [38].[38]. 2021,
[38].
2021,John
2021, JohnWiley
Wiley&&Sons
Sons
John Wiley & Sons.

2.2.Sensing
2.2. Sensing Performance
It can Performance
be seen from Table 1 that these interrogation units can meet the needs of
In the
large-scale, past
In the past 10 years,
years, many
long-distance,
10 many technological
high-density,
technological and companies and
real-timeand
companies research institutions
detection.
research institutions
They have
havehave
excellent
carried
dynamic
carried out research
outresponse and development
research capabilities
and developmentand can for DAS
for sense applications. As
a wide bandAsofwe
DAS applications. we all know,
vibration
all know, the
waves. interro‐
Therefore,
the interro‐
gation
gation
the unitisisthe
unit
application theofsensing
sensing
DAS in “heart”
“heart” thatof
that
the field fundamentally
fundamentally determines
determines
linear infrastructure thesensing
the sensing
monitoring performance
canperformance
make full use of
(including
(including
its spatial
sensingspatial resolution,
resolution,
performance detection
anddetection distance,
give fulldistance,
play response
response
to its capability,
sensingcapability,
advantages. etc.).Table
etc.). Table11briefly
briefly
shows the basic parameters of several commercially available DAS
shows the basic parameters of several commercially available DAS interrogators. interrogators.

Table1.1.Comparison
Table Comparisonof
ofthe
thebasic
basicparameters
parametersof
ofDAS
DASinterrogators.
interrogators.

HDAS
HDAS HeliosDAS
Helios DAS MS‐DAS2000 IDAS3
MS‐DAS2000 IDAS3 CRI‐4400
CRI‐4400 QuantX
QuantX
Parameter
Parameter (Aragon
(Aragon