Unit II

Definition : Uniform continuity

Let f : S→T be a function from on metric space (S, ds) to
another (T, dT). Then ‘f’ is said to be uniformly continuous on a
subset A of S if the following condition holds.
“For every ∈>0 there exists a 𝛿 >0 (depending only on ∈) such that
if x ∈ A and p∈ A then, ds(f(x), f(p)) < ∈ whenever ds(x, p)< 𝛿”.

Note :

Continuity is defined at a point where as uniform continuity is

defined on a set.
Hence we say continuity of a function is a local property
where as uniform continuity of a function is a global property.
Examples:
Consider f : (0,1] →R defined by
f(x) = 1/x
The function f is continuous on A = (0,1] but the function is not
uniformly continuous
Let ϵ = 0. Let 0< δ <1
Take x= δ and p= δ/11
then |x-p| = |δ - δ/11|
= δ10 /11 < δ
 And | f(x) – f(p)| = | 1/x – 1/p|
= | 1/δ– 11/δ|
= 1/δ | -10 |
= 10/δ > 10
Hence for these two points we always have | f(x) – f(p) | > 10
Hence f is not uniformly continuous.
Consider f : (0,1] → R defined by
f(x) = x²
f is uniformly continuous on A(0,1]
| f(x) – f(p) | = | x² - p²|
= | (x-p) (x+p) |
< | x+p | | x-p |
< 2 | x-p | as x,p ∈ (0,1]
If x+p < δ then f(x) – f(p) < 2δ.
Hence if 𝜀 is given take δ = 𝜀 / 2, so that |x-p| < δ

 | f(x) - f(p) | < ∈

Thus f is uniformly continuous on A.

Note :

If the above function is defined on R, instead of (0,1] then F

is not uniformly continuous on R.
 Note:

Uniform continuity on A ⇒ continuity on A

Uniform continuity and compact sets

Theorem: (Heine)

Let f : S→T be a function from one metric space (S, dS) to

another (T, dT). Let A be a compact subset of S and assume
that f is continuous on A. Then f is uniformly continuous on A.

Proof:

Let ϵ > 0 be given. Then each point ‘a’ in A such that

dT (f(x), f(a)) < 𝜀/2 whenever x∈BS (a,r) ∩ A --------------(1)

consider the collection of open balls Bs (a, r/2 ) each with

radius r/2. These balls cover A and since A is compact, a
finite number of these also cover A.

𝑟𝑘
∴ A ⊆ ⋃𝑚
𝑘=1 𝐵𝑠 (𝑎𝑘 , ) ------(2)
2

In any ball of twice the radius B ( a k, rk ) by (1) we have.

dT(f(x), f(ak)) < 𝜀/2 whenever x∈Bs (ak , rk) ∩ A ----------(3)

Let δ = min {r1/2, r2/2,.................……r m/2}
Let x, p∈A ∃ ds(x,p) < δ ------------------------(4)
 Then ∃ a ball B(ak, rk/2) containing x from (2)
using (3) we have,
dT (f(x), f(ak)) < 𝜀/ 2 ----------------------------(5)
by the triangle inequality we have,
dS (p,ak) ≤ dS (p,x) + dS (x, ak)
< δ + rk/2
= rk/2 + rk/2 (defn of δ)
= rk
⇒ p∈BS(ak , rk) ∩ A
⇒ dT (f(p), f(ak)) ≤ 𝜀/2 by (3)
Once again by triangle inequality,
dT (f(x), f(p)) ≤ dT ( f(x), f(ak)) + dT (f(ak), f(p))
< 𝜀 /2 + 𝜀 /2
=𝜀 [using (3) and (2)]
Hence the proof.
Fixed point theorem for contractions:
Definition: Fixed point
Let (s,d) be a metric space be a function into itself. A point p
in S is called a fixed point of r, If F(p) = p.

Definition: Contraction mapping

The function f: S→S is called a contract of S. If there is a
positive number α<1 [called a contraction constant]
Such that, d[f(x), f(y)] ≤ α d(x,y) for all x,y in S

Result:
A contraction mapping of any metric space S is
uniformly continuous on S.
Suppose f: S→S is contraction mapping then ∃ 0<α<1 such
that d [ f(x), f(y) ] ≤ d (x,y)
thus give 𝜀>0, ∃ δ = 𝜀 /α such that
d (x,y) < δ ⇒ d (f(x), f(y)) ≤ α. d (x,y) ⇒< α . 𝜀 /α

= 𝜀 for every (x,y) in S

⇒ f is uniformly continuous on S.

Theorem:
Fixed point theorem:
A contraction of a complete metric space S, is a unique fixed
point p.
Proof:

First let us prove that a contraction f : S→S a complete

metric space S has almost a fixed point.
Let p and p' be a two fixed points.

Then d[ f(p), f(p')] ≤ α d (p,p') since f is a contraction.

⇒ d (p,p') ≤ α d (p,p')
⇒ d (p,p') = 0
p = p'
Hence the contraction f can be atmost one fixed point.

A contraction has exactly one fixed point. Take any point x in

S and consider sequence x, f(x), f(f(x)), f(f(f(x))),

Let p0 = x
p1 = f(p0)
 p2 = f(f(x)) = f(p1)
.
.
.
.
.
pn+1 = f(pn) n= 0, 1, 2, 3,………. ----(1)
Then {pn} is a sequence.

To prove {pn} converges to fixed point of f.

First let us prove {pn} is a Cauchy sequence.

d (pn+1, pn) = d {f(pn), f(pn-1)}

≤α d (pn,pn-1) -------------------------------(2)
Now d(pn,pn+1) ≤ α d (pn-1, pn-2) using (1)
d (pn-1, pn-2) ≤ α d (pn-2, pn-3)

by repeatedly using (2) we have,

d (pn, pn+1) ≤ αn d (p0 , p1)
= c αn (where c=d (p0, p1)
Now, let m>n
d (pm, pn) ≤ d (pn, pn+1) + d (pn+1, pn+2) +…+d (pm-1, pm)
by triangle inequality,
= ∑𝑚−1
𝑘=𝑛 d (pk, pk+1)

≤ ∑𝑚−1
𝑘=𝑛 αk

= c ∑𝑚−1
𝑘=𝑛 αk
 = c ( αn + αn+1 + αn+2 +…+ αn-1)
= c αn ( 1+ α + α2 +………………….+ αm-n )
= c αn ( 1- αm+n) / 1-α
< c αn / 1-α
→0 as αn →0 (when n→∞)
⟹ {pn} is a Cauchy sequence.
But S is a complete metric space. So that sequence {pn}
converges in S.
Let {pn} → p
Now by continuity of f
f (p) = f ( lim pn)
𝑛→∞

= lim f(pn)
𝑛→∞

= lim pn+1 = p
𝑛→∞

Thus f(p) = p and so p is a fixed point of f.

Hence the proof.
Discontinuous of real valued functions:
Right hand limit of F:
Let f be defined on an interval (a,b). Assume c ∈ [a,b]. If f(x) →A,
as x→c through values greater than c then, A is the right hand
limit of f at c.
Notation:
 lim f(x) = A
𝑥→𝑐

The right hand limit A is also denoted by f (c+). In the 𝜀, 𝛿

definition of right hand limit.
For over, 𝜀 > 0, there is a δ >0 such that
|f(x) – f(c+)| < 𝜀 whenever c < x < c+ δ < b
Note:
For the above case, f need not be defined at point c itself.

Continuous from the right:

If f is defined at c and if f(c+) = f(c), we say that f is continuous
from the right at c.
Left hand limit of f:
Let f be defined on an interval (a,b).
Assume c ∈ (a, b]
If f(x) → A as x→ c through the values less than c, then A is the
left hand limit of f at c and lim f(x) = A
𝑥→𝑐

The left hand limit A is denoted by f (c-)

the 𝜀, 𝛿 definition of left hand limit of f.
For 𝜀>0, ∃ 𝛿>0, ∋ | f(x) – f (c-) | < 𝜀 whenever a<c- 𝛿<x<c
Continuous from the left:
If f is defined at c and if f(c-) = f(c), we say f is continuous from the
left at c.
Note:
If a<c<b then f is continuous at c if and only if
f(c) = f(c+)=f(c-)
Example:
Let f : R→R be defined by
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
f (x) = {
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
Then f is not continuous

f is not continuous at 0 because

f(0) = 2, f (0+) = 2, f(0-) = 1
but f is continuous from the right

since f(0) = f(0+)

Discontinuity of f:
If f is not continuous at c, then c is discontinuous at c. In this case
one of the following conditions is satisfied.
(a) Either f(c+) or f(c-) does not exist
 (b) Both f(c+) and f (c-) exist but have different values
[ irremovable discontinuity ]
(c) Both f(c+) and f (c-) exist and f(c+) = f(c-) ≠ f(c)
[ Removable discontinuity ]
In case (c),the point c is a removable discontinuity, since the
discontinuity could be removed by redefining f at c to have f (c+) =
f (c-).
In case (a) and (b), we call c is a irremovable discontinuity because
the discontinuity cannot be removed by redefining at c.
Definition:
Let f be defined on a closed interval [a, b]. f(c+) and f(c-) both exist
at some interior point c, then
(a) f(c) – f(c-) is called the left hand jump of f at c.
(b) f (c+) – f(c) is called the right hand jump of f at c.
(c) f (c+) – f(c-) is called the jump of f at c.
If any one of these three numbers is non-zero, then c is called jump
discontinuity of f.
In the previous example
Left hand jump of f at 0 is,
f(0) – f(0-) = 2-1 =1
Right hand jump of f(0+) – f(0) = 2-2 = 0
Jump f (0+) – f(0-) = 2-1 =1
Jump at end-points of an interval:
Let f be defined on (a, b). Then for the end points only one sided
jumps are considered.
At a, the right hand jump at a, f (a+) – f (a)

At b the left hand jump at b, f(b) – f(b-)

Example:
(i) Let f : ℝ → ℝ by
f (x) = x/ |x| , if x≠0
f (0) = A
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
(i.e) f(x) = {
−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
f (0) = A

Then f (0) = A; f(0+) = 1 and f(0-) = -1

Jump of f at 0 = f (0+) – f (0-)
= 1 – (-1)
=2≠0
∴ f has jump discontinuity at 0
Left hand jump of f at 0= f(0) – f(0-)
= A – (-1)
= A+1
Right hand jump of f at 0 = f (0+) – f (0)
= 1-A
Example:
Removable discontinuity
Let f : R→R be defined by
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
f (x) = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0

Here, f(0) = 0, f(0+) = 1 , f(0-) = 1

f has removable jump discontinuity at 0,
f can be made continuous by redefining f at 0 as f(0) = 1
(i.e) f (x) =1 , for all x.
(iii) Irremovable discontinuity :
Example:

f : R→R be defined by
f(x) = 1/x , x≠0

f(0) = A
f (0+) = +∞

f (0-) = -∞
(i.e) f (0+) and f (0-) do not exist.
∴ f has irremovable discontinuity at 0.
(iv) f : R→R
1
sin 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
f (x) = { 𝑥
𝐴 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
f has irremovable discontinuity at 0.

neither f(0+) nor f(0-) exists.

(v) f: R→R defined by
1
x sin 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
f (x) = { 𝑥
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0

f has a removable jump discontinuity at 0.

f(0) = 1, f (0+) = 0, f (0-) = 0
 MONOTONIC FUNCTIONS
Definition: Monotonic increasing (or non decreasing)
Let f be a real valued function defined on a subset S of ℝ . Then f
is said to be increasing on S if for every pair of points x and y in S
x < y ⇒ f(x) ≤ f(y)
If x < y ⇒ f(x) < f(y), then f is said to be strictly increasing on S.

Definition: Monotonic decreasing (or non increasing)

Let f be a real valued function defined on a subset S of ℝ. Then f is
said to be decreasing (or non increasing) on S,if for every pair of
points x and y in S
x < y ⇒ f(x) ≥ f(y)
If x<y ⇒ f(x) > f(y), then f is said to be strictly decreasing on S.

Definition: Monotonic functions

A function is called monotonic on S if it is increasing on S or
decreasing on S.
Result:
If f is an increasing function then -f is an decreasing function.
Proof:
Let f be increasing on S.
Then x<y ⇒ f(x) ≤ f(y) ∀ x, y ∈ S
⇒ −f(x) ≥ − f(y) ∀ x, y ∈ S

Thus x<y ⇒ (-f) (x) ≥ (-f) (y) ∀ x, y ∈ S

 (i.e) -f is a decreasing function on S.

Examples:
Let f : ℝ → ℝ be defined by
f (x) = 3x
then f is increasing on ℝ.

-2 < -1
f (-2) = -6
f (-1) = -3
-6 < -3

Consider,
g : ℝ → ℝ defined by
g(x) = 1/x
g is a decreasing
function on R.
Theorem:
If f is increasing on [a, b], then f (c+) and f (c-) both exist for each
c in (a, b) and we have
f (c-) ≤ f (c) ≤ f (c+)

At the end points we have

f(a) ≤ f(a+) and f(b-) ≤ f(b)
Proof :
Let A = { f(x): a<x<c}
Since f is increasing A is bounded above by f(c).
∴ A has a supremum.
Let ∝ = sup A.
Then ∝ ≤ f(c) (1)
To prove f(c) exists and f(c-) = ∝
To prove for every 𝜀>0, there is a 𝛿>0, such that

c – 𝛿 < x < c ⇒ | f(x) - ∝ | < 𝜀

Since 𝛼 =supA, by “Approximation Property” of supremum which
satisfy
“ If S is a non-empty set of real numbers with 𝑏 = sup 𝑆, then for
every 𝑎 < 𝑏 there is some 𝑥 in S such that
𝑎<𝑥≤𝑏
We have 𝑓(𝑥₁) in A such that
 𝛼 − 𝜀 < 𝑓(𝑥₁) ≤ 𝛼 where 𝑥₁ < 𝑐
Since 𝑓 is increasing for every 𝑥 in (𝑥1 , 𝑐) we have,
𝑥₁ < 𝑥, 𝑠𝑜 𝑓(𝑥₁) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥)

⇒𝛼 − 𝜀 < 𝑓(𝑥₁) ≤ 𝛼 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴

⇒|𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝛼 | < 𝜀

𝑥₁ < 𝑥 < 𝑐 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝛼 | < 𝜀

Thus 𝑐 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑐 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝛼 | < 𝜀
Hence 𝑓(𝑐 -) exists and 𝑓(𝑐 -)= 𝛼 where 𝛿 = 𝑐
Similarly, there exists 𝐵 = {𝑓(𝑥 ): 𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝑏} and for every 𝜀 > 0,
there is a 𝛿 >0 such that
𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝑐+ 𝛿 ⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝛽 | < 𝜀
(i.e) 𝑓(𝑐 +) exists and 𝑓(𝑐 +)= 𝛽

At the end points,

If 𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑎−) does not exists and

𝑓(𝑎) ≤ 𝑓(𝑎+)
If 𝑐 = 𝑏 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑏+)does not exist for 𝑓 𝑜𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏] and
𝑓(𝑏−) ≤ 𝑓(𝑏)

Hence the proof

Note:
Monotonic function on compact intervals always have right and
left hand limits.
Theorem:
Let 𝑓 be strictly increasing on a set S in ℝ. Then 𝑓-1 exists and
is strictly increasing on 𝑓(𝑆).

Proof:
Let 𝑓 be strictly increasing on S. then
𝑥 < 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑦)
(i.e) different elements have different images
⇒ 𝑓 is 1-1 on S

⇒𝑓-1 exists on 𝑓(𝑆)

Claim: 𝑓-1 :𝑓(𝑆) → 𝑆 is strictly increasing

Let 𝑦₁ < 𝑦₂ , where 𝑦₁𝑦₂ ∈ 𝑓(𝑆)
Then 𝑦₁ = 𝑓(𝑥₁) and 𝑦₂ = 𝑓(𝑥₂)

Since 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 1 − 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑥 1 , 𝑥₂ ∈ 𝑆

𝑥₁ = 𝑓-1 (𝑦₁) & 𝑥₂ = 𝑓-1 (𝑦₂)

Suppose 𝑓-1 (𝑦₁) > 𝑓-1 (𝑦₂)

⇒𝑥₁ > 𝑥₂

⇒ 𝑓( 𝑥₁) > 𝑓(𝑥₂)

⇒𝑦₁ > 𝑦₂

which is contradiction as 𝑦₁ < 𝑦₂

∴𝑓-1 (𝑦₁) < 𝑓-1 (𝑦₂)

 𝑦₁ < 𝑦₂ ⇒ 𝑓-1 (𝑦₁) < 𝑓-1 (𝑦₂) ∀ 𝑦 1 , 𝑦₂ ∈ 𝑓(𝑆)

Hence 𝑓-1 is strictly increasing on 𝑓(𝑆)

Theorem:

Let 𝑓 be strictly increasing and continuous on a compact

interval [𝑎, 𝑏] . Then 𝑓-1 is continuous and strictly increasing on the
interval [𝑓 (𝑎 ), 𝑓(𝑏)].

Proof:

By previous theorem, “𝑓 is strictly increasing on [𝑎, 𝑏] .

𝑓-1 exists and is strictly increasing on [𝑓 (𝑎 ), 𝑓(𝑏)].

By theorem,

Let 𝑓 ∶ 𝑆 → 𝑇 be a function from one metric space (𝑆, 𝑑 s) is

another (T,dT). Let 𝑓 be 1-1. If S is compact and 𝑓 is continuous
on S. Then 𝑓-1 is continuous on 𝑓(𝑆). We have

𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] ⇒ 𝑓-1 is continuous on

[𝑓 (𝑎 ), 𝑓(𝑏)].

Hence the proof

DIFFERENTIATION
Definition: Difference of Quotient
Let 𝑓 be defined on an open interval(𝑎, 𝑏). Then for two
distinct points 𝑥 and 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) we can form the quotient
𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
𝑥−𝑐
This is called Difference Quotient
Definition: Derivative of 𝒇 (Differentiability of 𝒇 )
Let 𝑓 be defined on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) and let 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) then
𝑓 is said to be differentiable at 𝑐 whenever the limit
𝑓(𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
lim exists
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

The limit, denoted by 𝑓′(𝑐), is called the derivative of 𝑓 and 𝑐

𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
𝑓′(𝑐 ) = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

Successive of Derivatives
𝑓′ is called the first derivative of 𝑓. The second derivative of 𝑓
is 𝑓′′ at 𝑐 and is defined by
𝑓′(𝑥) −𝑓′(𝑐)
𝑓′′(𝑐 ) = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

The successive derivatives of 𝑓 are defined similarly and the nth

derivative is denoted by 𝑓(n)

Notation:
𝑑𝑦
𝑓′(𝑐 ) = |x=c = 𝐷𝑓(𝑐 ) = 𝑦′(𝑐) all denote the first
𝑑𝑥
derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑐

Theorem:
If 𝑓 is defined on (𝑎, 𝑏) and differentiable at a point c in (𝑎, 𝑏),
then there is a function 𝑓* (depending on 𝑓 and on 𝑐) which is
continuous at c and which satisfies the equation
𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) ……(1)
for all 𝑥 is (𝑎, 𝑏) , with 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 ) = 𝑓′(𝑐). Conversely, if there is a
function 𝑓 ∗, continuous at 𝑐, which satisfies (1), then 𝑓 is
differentiable at c and 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 )
Proof:
Let 𝑓 be differentiable at c . Define 𝑓 ∗ on (𝑎, 𝑏) by
𝑓(𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐
𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) = { 𝑥−𝑐
𝑓′(𝑐 ) 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐
This satisfies the equation
𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑐 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) and
𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) = 𝑓′(𝑐 )
Now to prove 𝑓 ∗ is continuous at c
(i.e) To prove: As 𝑥 → 𝑐 , 𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) = 𝑓′(𝑐 )
𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
As 𝑥 → 𝑐 , 𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) = lim = 𝑓′(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

= 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐)
Thus 𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) → 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐)

⇒𝑓 ∗ is continuous at c.

Conversely,
Let there exist a function 𝑓 ∗ on (𝑎, 𝑏) continuous at c and
which satisfies
𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) ……………..(1)

To prove, 𝑓 is differentiable at c and

 𝑓′(𝑐 ) = 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐)
Divide (1) throughout by 𝑥 − 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
= 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐)
𝑥−𝑐

Taking limit on both sides

𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
lim = lim 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

= 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) … … … … … (2)
As 𝑓 ∗ is continuous at c, 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) exist. LHS of (2) exist. (i.e) 𝑓 is
differentiable at c. And
𝑓(𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
𝑓′(𝑐) = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

⇒ 𝑓 ′(𝑐 ) = 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 ) 𝑏𝑦( 2)

Hence proved

Theorem:
If 𝑓 is differentiable at c then 𝑓 is continuous at c.
Proof:
Let 𝑓 be differentiable at c. Then the by previous theorem,

there exist a function 𝑓 ∗ continuous at c and it satisfies

𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑐 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) … … … … … . (1)
As 𝑥 → 𝑐, (1) ⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑐 ) → 0
⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) → 𝑓(𝑐)
Thus 𝑥 → 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) → 𝑓(𝑐)
That is, 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑐.

Algebra of Derivatives
Theorem:
Assume 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are defined on (𝑎, 𝑏) and differentiable at c.
Then 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓. 𝑔 are also differentiable at c. This is also
true of 𝑓 ⁄ 𝑔 if 𝑔(𝑐 ) ≠ 0. the derivatives at c are given by the
following formula.
(i) (𝑓 ± 𝑔)′(𝑐 ) = 𝑓′(𝑐) ± 𝑔′(𝑐)
(ii) (𝑓. 𝑔)′ (𝑐 ) = 𝑓(𝑐 )𝑔′(𝑐 ) + 𝑔 (𝑐 )𝑓 ′ (𝑐 )
𝑓 𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓′ (𝑐 )−𝑓(𝑐)𝑔′(𝑐)
(iii) ( ⁄𝑔 ) ′(𝑐 ) = provided 𝑔(𝑐) ≠ 0
𝑔 (𝑐 )2

Proof:
(𝑓+𝑔)(𝑥) −(𝑓+𝑔)(𝑐)
(i) (𝑓 + 𝑔)′(𝑐 ) = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥 −𝑐
(𝑓 (𝑥) +𝑔(𝑥) )−(𝑓 (𝑐 )+𝑔(𝑐) )
= lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐) 𝑔 (𝑥) −𝑔(𝑐)

= lim [ + ]
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐) 𝑔(𝑥) −𝑔(𝑐)

= lim + lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

= 𝑓′(𝑐 ) + 𝑔′(𝑐)
Thus if 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are differentiable at c, then (𝑓 + 𝑔) is differentiable
at c and
(𝑓 + 𝑔)′(𝑐 ) = 𝑓′(𝑐 ) + 𝑔′(𝑐)
Similarly, (𝑓 − 𝑔) is differentiable at c and
(𝑓 − 𝑔)′(𝑐 ) = 𝑓′(𝑐 ) − 𝑔′(𝑐)

(ii) Since 𝑓 is differentiable at c, by theorem, we have

𝑓 ∗ is continuous (i.e) lim 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑓*(c)
𝑥→𝑐

satisfying 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 ) ∀ 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 (𝑎, 𝑏) … . . (2)

And 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑐 ) … … … … … … . (3)
Since 𝑔 is differentiable at c, there exists a function 𝑔∗ continuous
at c

(i.e) [ lim 𝑔∗ (𝑐 ) = 𝑔′(𝑐)] … … … … … . (4)

𝑥→𝑐

satisfying 𝑔(𝑥 ) − 𝑔 (𝑐 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑐 )𝑔∗ (𝑥 ) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) … … … … (5)

and
𝑔∗ (𝑐 ) = 𝑔′ (𝑐 ) … … … … … (6)
𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) = (𝑓(𝑐 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑐))(𝑔(𝑐 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑐 )𝑔∗ (𝑥))
= 𝑓 ( 𝑐 ) 𝑔 ( 𝑐 ) + ( 𝑥 − 𝑐 ) 𝑓 ( 𝑐 ) 𝑔∗ ( 𝑥 ) + ( 𝑥 −
𝑐 )𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑐)2𝑔 ∗ (𝑥 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑐)
𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑐 )𝑔(𝑐 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑐 )[𝑓(𝑐 )𝑔∗ (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑐)] +
(𝑥 − 𝑐)2𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 )𝑔∗ (𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)𝑔(𝑐)
lim = lim 𝑓(𝑐) 𝑔∗ (𝑥 ) + lim 𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) +
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑔 ∗ (𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 )
𝑥→𝑐

= 𝑓 (𝑐 ) lim 𝑔 ∗ (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑐 ) lim 𝑔 ∗ (𝑥 ) + 0

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

= 𝑓 (𝑐 )𝑔∗ (𝑐 ) + 𝑔 (𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) 𝑏𝑦 (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (4)

 = 𝑓 (𝑐 )𝑔′(𝑐 ) + 𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓′(𝑐 ) 𝑏𝑦( 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (6)
(𝑓𝑔) (𝑥) −(𝑓𝑔)(𝑐)
lim = 𝑓 (𝑐 )𝑔′(𝑐 ) + 𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓 ′ (𝑐) … … … … … . (7)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

Since the R.H.S of (7) exists, the limit on L.H.S also exists

∴ 𝑓𝑔 is differentiable and
(𝑓𝑔)′(𝑐 ) = 𝑓(𝑐 )𝑔′(𝑐 ) + 𝑔 (𝑐 )𝑓′(𝑐)
𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑐 ) 𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓 (𝑐 )𝑔(𝑥)
(iii) − =
𝑔 (𝑥 ) 𝑔 (𝑐 ) 𝑔 (𝑥) 𝑔(𝑐)

𝑔 (𝑐 )[𝑓(𝑐 )+ (𝑥−𝑐 )𝑓∗ (𝑥)]−𝑓(𝑐) [𝑔 (𝑐 )+(𝑥−𝑐 )𝑔∗ (𝑥) ]

= [𝑔 (𝑐 )+(𝑥−𝑐 )𝑔∗ (𝑥)]𝑔(𝑐)

𝑔 (𝑐 )𝑓(𝑐 )+(𝑥−𝑐 )𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥) −𝑓 (𝑐 )𝑔(𝑐 )−(𝑥−𝑐 )𝑓(𝑐)𝑔 ∗ (𝑥)

= 2
(𝑔(𝑐 )) +(𝑥−𝑐 )𝑔(𝑐 )𝑔 ∗ (𝑥)

(𝑥−𝑐) [𝑔 (𝑐 )𝑓∗ (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)𝑔∗ (𝑥)]

= 2
(𝑔(𝑐 )) +(𝑥−𝑐 )𝑔(𝑐 )𝑔∗ (𝑥)

𝑓 𝑓
( ⁄𝑔)𝑥−( ⁄𝑔)𝑐 𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥)−𝑓(𝑐)𝑔 ∗ (𝑥)
lim = lim 2
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 (𝑔(𝑐 )) +(𝑥−𝑐 )𝑔(𝑐 )𝑔∗ (𝑥)

𝑓 𝑓
( ⁄𝑔)𝑥−( ⁄𝑔)𝑐 𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥)−𝑓(𝑐 )𝑔 ∗ (𝑥)
lim = lim 2
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 (𝑔(𝑐 )) +(𝑥−𝑐 )𝑔(𝑐 )𝑔∗ (𝑥)

lim 𝑔 (𝑐 )𝑓∗ (𝑥) −𝑓 (𝑐 )𝑔∗ (𝑥)

= 𝑥→𝑐
2
lim [ (𝑔(𝑐 )) +(𝑥−𝑐 )𝑔(𝑐 )𝑔 ∗ (𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑐

𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 )−𝑓(𝑐 )𝑔 ∗ (𝑐)

=
𝑔 (𝑐 )2 +0

𝑔(𝑐 )𝑓′ (𝑐 )−𝑓 (𝑐 )𝑔′(𝑐)

= … … … … … . . (8)
𝑔 (𝑐 )2

𝑓 𝑔 (𝑐 )𝑓′(𝑐 )−𝑓(𝑐)𝑔′(𝑐)
⇒( ⁄𝑔) ′(𝑐 ) =
𝑔 (𝑐 )2
 R.H.S of (8) exist

∴ the limit on the L.H.S exists

𝑓
(i.e) the function ( ⁄𝑔) is differentiable and

𝑓 𝑔 (𝑐 )𝑓′(𝑐 )−𝑓(𝑐)𝑔′(𝑐)
( ⁄𝑔) ′(𝑐 ) = if 𝑔(𝑐) ≠ 0
𝑔 (𝑐 )2

Results:
(i) Derivative of a constant function is zero.
Let 𝑓 ∶ (𝑎, 𝑏) → ℝ. Defined by 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑚 (𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐) 𝑚−𝑚
lim = lim =0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 0

Since 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) is arbitrary, 𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)

(ii) Let 𝑓 ∶ (𝑎, 𝑏) → ℝ by defined by 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥
Let 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) be arbitrary
𝑓(𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐) 𝑥−𝑐
lim = lim =1
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

⇒ 𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 1

Thus 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 1

(iii) Let 𝑓 ∶ (𝑎, 𝑏) → ℝ by defined by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2

= 𝑥. 𝑥
 = 𝑓₁(𝑥) + 𝑓₂(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = (𝑓₁𝑓₂)′𝑥
= 𝑓₁(𝑥)𝑓₂′(𝑥) + 𝑓₁′(𝑥)𝑓₂(𝑥)
= 𝑥. 1 + 𝑥. 1
𝑓′(𝑥) = 2𝑥
Thus 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥

(i) Let 𝑓 ∶ (𝑎, 𝑏) → ℝ by defined by 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3

= 𝑥 2. 𝑥
= 𝑓₁(𝑥) + 𝑓₂(𝑥)

𝑓′(𝑥 ) = (𝑓₁𝑓₂)′𝑥
= 𝑓₁(𝑥)𝑓₂′(𝑥) + 𝑓₁′(𝑥)𝑓₂(𝑥)
= 𝑥 2 . 1 + 2𝑥. 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2

Thus 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 ⇒ 𝑓’(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2

Thus, we see that every polynomial has a derivative everywhere in
ℝ and every rational function has derivative wherever it is defined.
 Chain Rule
Theorem:
Let 𝑓 be defined on an open interval S, let g be defined on
𝑓(𝑆) and consider the composite function 𝑔ₒ𝑓 defined on S by the
equation
(𝑔ₒ𝑓 )(𝑥 ) = 𝑔 [𝑓(𝑥)]

Assume there is a point c in S such that 𝑓(𝑐) is an interior point of

𝑓(𝑆). If 𝑓 is differentiable at c and if g is differentiable at 𝑓(𝑐) , then
𝑔ₒ𝑓 is differentiable at c and we have
(𝑔ₒ𝑓 )′ (𝑐 ) = 𝑔′[𝑓 (𝑐 )]𝑓′(𝑐)

Proof:
Since 𝑓 is differentiable at c, there exists a function 𝑓
continuous at c ………………(1)
satisfying 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑐 )(𝑥 ) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 … … … … . (2)
And 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 ) = 𝑓′(𝑥) ……………………….....(3)
Since g is differentiable at 𝑓(𝑐), there exists a function g*
continuous at 𝑓(𝑐 ).

Satisfying 𝑔 (𝑦) − 𝑔 (𝑓 (𝑐 )) = (𝑦 − 𝑓 (𝑐 ))𝑔∗ (𝑦) … … … … … … . . (4)

And 𝑔 ∗ 𝑓(𝑐 ) = 𝑔′ (𝑓 (𝑐 )) … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (5)

Choose 𝑥 in S such that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑦

Then (5) becomes

𝑔 (𝑓(𝑥)) − 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑐 )) = (𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑐 ))𝑔∗ 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ))

 = (𝑥 − 𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 )𝑔∗ (𝑓(𝑥 ))
𝑔 (𝑓(𝑥) )−𝑔 (𝑓(𝑐 ))
= 𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 )𝑔∗ (𝑓 (𝑥 )) … … … … . (6)
𝑥−𝑐

Since 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 is continuous at c. 𝑔∗ ₒ𝑓 is continuous at c

As 𝑥 → 𝑐, 𝑔∗ (𝑓(𝑥 )) → 𝑔∗ (𝑓(𝑐 ) = 𝑔′ (𝑓 (𝑐 )) … … … … … … … . . (7)

Taking limit on both sides on eqn 6 we have

𝑔 (𝑓(𝑥) )−𝑔 (𝑓(𝑐 ))
lim = lim 𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 )𝑔∗ (𝑓 (𝑥 ))
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

= 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 )𝑔∗ (𝑓 (𝑐 ))

𝑓′(𝑐 )𝑔(𝑓′(𝑐 ))

Since R.H.S exist, the limit on L.H.S exist

Thus (𝑔ₒ𝑓) is differentiable at c and

(𝑔ₒ𝑓 )′ (𝑐 ) = 𝑔′[𝑓 (𝑐 )]𝑓′(𝑐)

One sided derivatives and infinite derivatives

Definition: Right hand derivative and Left hand derivative

Let 𝑓 defined on a closed interval S and assume that 𝑓 is

continuous at the point c in S. Then 𝑓 is said to have a right hand
derivative at 𝑐. If the right hand limit

𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑐)
lim
𝑥→𝑐+ 𝑥−𝑐
exists as a finite value (or) if the limit is +∞ (𝑜𝑟) − ∞. This limit will
be denoted by 𝑓₊′(𝑐)
 𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
𝑓₊′(𝑐 ) = lim
𝑥→𝑐+ 𝑥−𝑐

𝑓 is said to have the left hand derivative and c is the left hand
limit if
𝑓(𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
lim
𝑥→𝑐₋ 𝑥−𝑐

exists as a finite value (or) if the limit is +∞ (𝑜𝑟) − ∞. This limit will
be denoted by 𝑓₋′(𝑐)
𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
𝑓₋′(𝑐) = lim
𝑥→𝑐₋ 𝑥−𝑐

Infinite derivatives:

If c is an interior point of S. Then

𝑓′(𝑐 ) = ∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑓₊′(𝑐) = ∞ = 𝑓₋′(𝑐)

Similarly, 𝑓′(𝑐 ) = −∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑓₊′(𝑐 ) = −∞ = 𝑓₋′(𝑐)

Note:

Thus 𝑓 has a derivative (finite or infinite) at an interior point c.

iff

𝑓₊′(𝑐 ) = 𝑓₋′(𝑐 ) = 𝑓′(𝑐)

Functions with non-zero derivative

Theorem:

Let 𝑓 be defined on a open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) and assume that for

some c in (𝑎, 𝑏) we have𝑓 ′ (𝑐 ) > 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = +∞. Then there is a
one-ball 𝐵(𝑐 ) subset of (𝑎, 𝑏) in which

𝑓 (𝑥 ) > 𝑓 (𝑐 ) 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑓 (𝑥 ) < 𝑓 (𝑐 ) 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑐

Proof:

Let 𝑓′(𝑐) be finite and positive. Since 𝑓 is differentiable at c,

there exist a function 𝑓 ∗ such that

𝑓 ∗ continuous at c

satisfying 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) ∀ 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 → 1

𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 ) = 𝑓′(𝑐 ) > 0

𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) > 0 ⇒ 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) ≠ 0

Thus 𝑓 ∗ is continuous at c and 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) ≠ 0

By sign preserving property

“ Let 𝑓 be defined on a interval S in ℝ. Assume that 𝑓 is

continuous at point c in S and that 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) ≠ 0 then there exist a
open ball 𝐵(𝑐, 𝛿) such that 𝑓(𝑥) has the same sign as 𝑓(𝑐) in
𝐵(𝑐, 𝛿) ∩ 𝑆”

There exists an open ball 𝐵(𝑐) ⊆ (𝑎, 𝑏)

such that 𝑓 ∗ (𝑥) has the same sign as 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) for every 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝐵(𝑐)

Since 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 ) > 0 ⇒ 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 ) > 0

𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
>0
𝑥−𝑐

⇒𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑐 ) and 𝑥 − 𝑐

⇒(𝑥 − 𝑐 ) > 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑐 ) > 0 and

(𝑥 − 𝑐 ) < 0 ⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑐 ) < 0

𝑥 < 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 𝑓(𝑐) and

𝑥 < 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 𝑓(𝑐)

Suppose, 𝑓′(𝑐 ) = +∞
𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
Then lim →∞
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

(i.e) there is an one-ball 𝐵(𝑐). Which

𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
>1>0 𝑥≠𝑐
𝑥−𝑐

By the same argument of this above

𝑥 < 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 𝑓(𝑐) and

𝑥 > 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 𝑓(𝑐)

Theorem:

Let 𝑓 be defined on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) and assume that

for some c in open interval (𝑎, 𝑏),with 𝑓′(𝑐 ) < 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑐 ) =
−∞. Then there is an one-ball 𝐵(𝑐) ⊆ (𝑎, 𝑏) in which
 𝑥 < 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 𝑓(𝑐 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) < 𝑓(𝑐)

Proof:

Let 𝑓′(𝑐) be finite and 𝑓′(𝑐 ) < 0. Since 𝑓 is differentiable at

c, there exist a function 𝑓 ∗ such that

𝑓 ∗ is continuous at c

satisfying 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑐 )𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) ∀ 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑆

𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) = 𝑓′(𝑐 ) < 0

𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) < 0𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) ≠ 0

Thus 𝑓 ∗ is continuous at c and 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) ≠ 0. By the sign preserving

property of continuous function there exist an open ball 𝐵(𝑐) ⊆
(𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓 ∗ (𝑥) has the same sign as 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐) for every
𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝐵(𝑐).

Since 𝑓 ∗ (𝑐 ) < 0 ⇒ 𝑓 ∗ (𝑥 ) < 0

𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
<0
𝑥−𝑐

𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑐 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 − 𝑐 have opposite signs

Thus 𝑥 − 𝑐 > 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑐 ) < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑥 − 𝑐 < 0 ⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑐 ) > 0

(i.e) 𝑥 > 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 𝑓(𝑐 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑥 < 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) > 𝑓 (𝑐 )

𝑓′(𝑐 ) = −∞ there is a one ball in which

 𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑓(𝑐)
< 1 < 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐
𝑥−𝑐

By the same argument above

𝑥 > 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) < 𝑓 (𝑐 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) > 𝑓(𝑐 )

Zero Derivatives and Local Extrema

Definition: Local maximum and Local minimum

Let 𝑓 be a real valued function defined on a subset S of a metric

space M. Assume 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆. Then 𝑓 is said to have a local maximum
at a if there is a ball 𝐵(𝑎) such that

𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≤ 𝑓 (𝑎 ) ∀ 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝐵(𝑎) ∩ 𝑆

If 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≥ 𝑓(𝑎 ) ∀𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝐵(𝑎 ) ∩ 𝑆,then 𝑓 is said to have a local

minimum at a.

Note:

A local maximum at a is the absolute maximum of 𝑓 on the

subset 𝐵(𝑎 ) ∩ 𝑆. If 𝑓 has an absolute maximum at ‘a’, then ‘a’ is
also a local maximum. However, 𝑓 can have local maxima at
several points in S without having an absolute maximum on the
whole set S.

Example:

Consider 𝑓 ∶ ℝ → ℝ defined 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3

The function 𝑓 has neither absolute maximum nor absolute
minimum in ℝ

Consider the interval 𝑆 = [1,2] 𝑖𝑛 𝑆. The local minimum is

𝑓(1) = 1. The local maximum is 𝑓(2) = 8.

Theorem:

Let 𝑓 be defined on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) and assume that 𝑓

has a local maximum or local minimum at an interior point c of
(𝑎, 𝑏). If 𝑓 has a derivative (finite or infinite) at c, then 𝑓′(𝑐 ) = 0

Proof:

Let 𝑓′(𝑐 ) be +ve or +∞.

Then by theorem, “Let 𝑓 be defined on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏)

and assume that for some c in open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) we have

𝑓′(𝑐 ) > 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑓′(𝑐 ) = +∞ then there exist a one ball

𝐵(𝑐) ⊆ (𝑎, 𝑏) in which

𝑥 > 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 𝑓(𝑐 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 < 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 𝑓(𝑐)"

𝑓 cannot have a local maximum or local minimum at c . If 𝑓 (𝑐 ) <

0 𝑜𝑟 − ∞ then by theorem ,

“Let 𝑓 be defined on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) and assume that for

some c in open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) we have 𝑓′(𝑐 ) < 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑓′(𝑐 ) = −∞
then there exist a one ball 𝐵(𝑐) ⊆ (𝑎, 𝑏) in which

𝑥 > 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 𝑓(𝑐 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 < 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 𝑓(𝑐)"

𝑓 cannot have a local maximum or local minimum at c. But, by
hypothesis, the derivative of 𝑓 at c exists

∴ 𝑓′(𝑐 ) = 0

Hence the proof

Note:

(i) Converse of the theorem is not true. Consider 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ

defined by

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3

𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2

𝑓′(0) = 0

But 𝑓 has neither local maximum nor local minimum at x=0

(ii) In the statement of previous theorem

Derivative of 𝑓 exist at c is important. For, consider

𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined 𝑏𝑦𝑓 (𝑥 ) = |𝑥 |. This function attains it minima at
zero. But the function is not differentiable at 𝑥 = 0. Note that this
𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 but not differentiable at 𝑥 = 0

(iii) The fact that c is an interior point of (𝑎, 𝑏)𝑖𝑛 the statement of
above theorem is important.