Transmission Lines

STANDING WAVE
For A Loss-Less Line (or Low-Loss High Frequency Line)

=0,  = 0 + j, Z0 = L / C → Real

When a reflected wave exists, the incident and reflected waves interfere (combine) to produce
a standing-wave pattern along the line.

The voltage at any point on the line (z < 0) is given by

V (z) = V+ e–jz + V– e+jz = V+ e–jz + LV+ e+jz

and has a magnitude given by |V (z)| = |V+ e–jz (1 + L e+2jz)| = |V+|| (1 + L e+2jz)|

At z = –l, |V (l)| = |V+ ||(1 + L e–2jl)|

where l = –z is the positive distance measured from the load toward the generator, as in Fig.

Let L = ej where  = |L| = magnitude of reflection coefficient

 = phase of reflection coefficient at the load (z = 0)

For loss-less line,  everywhere along the line is same. Hence, in general  = |(l)| = |L|

| V ( l ) |=| V + || (1 +  Le−2 jl ) |=| V + || (1 + e j (− 2l ) |

=| V + |{[1 +  cos ( − 2l )]2 + [ sin ( − 2l )]2}1/ 2
=| V + |{1 + 2 cos 2 ( − 2l ) + 2 cos ( − 2l ) + 2 sin 2 ( − 2l )}1/ 2
=| V + |{1 + 2 + 2 cos ( − 2l )}1/ 2 =| V + |{(1 + ) 2 − 2[1 − cos ( − 2l )]}1/ 2
=| V + |{(1 + ) 2 − 4 sin 2 ( / 2 − l )}1/ 2 =| V + |{(1 + ) 2 − 4 sin 2 (l −  / 2)}1/ 2

|V + |
| I ( l ) |= | (1 −  L e −2 jl ) |=| V + | Y0 | (1 − e j ( −2l ) |
Z0
=| V + | Y0{[1 −  cos ( − 2l )]2 + [ sin ( − 2l )]2 }1/ 2
=| V + | Y0{1 + 2 cos 2 ( − 2 l ) − 2 cos ( − 2 l ) +  2 sin 2 ( − 2 l )}1/ 2
=| V + | Y0{1 + 2 − 2 cos ( − 2 l )}1/ 2 =| V + | Y0{(1 − ) 2 + 2[1 − cos ( − 2 l )]}1/ 2
=| V + | Y0{(1 − ) 2 + 4 sin 2 ( / 2 − l )}1/ 2 =| V + | Y0{(1 − ) 2 + 4 sin 2 (l −  / 2)}1/ 2

Y0 = 1 / Z0 = Characteristic admittance
Class Note by Santanu Das 1
 Transmission Lines

Thus, |V (l)| = |V+| {(1 + )2 – 4 sin2 (l – /2)}1/2

|I (l)| = |V+| Y0{(1 – )2 + 4 sin2 (l – /2)}1/2

It should be noted that since the current reflection coefficient LI = – L = –ej= (–)ej
| I | may be obtained from | V | by replacing  by (–).

➢ Voltage waves
|V (l)| = |V+| {(1 + )2 – 4 sin2 (l – /2)}1/2

This equation shows that |V| oscillates back and forth (moves up and down) between
maximum values of
|V (l)|max = |V+| (1 + ) when (l – /2) = n

and minimum values |V (l)|min = |V+| (1 – ) when (l – /2) = n  /2

where n is an integer, i.e. n = 0, 1, 2, 3………

Then |V (l)|max = |V+| (1 + ) = |V+| + |V+| = |V+| + |V–|

V − |V − |
|V (l)|min = |V | (1 – ) = |V | – |V | = |V | – |V |
+ + + + –
as  = + = + =|  L |=| ( l ) |
V |V |
These results state that
voltage maxima occur when the incident & reflected waves add in phase (|V+| + |V–|),
voltage minima occur when they add 1800 out of phase (|V+| – |V–|)

➢ Current waves
|I (l)| = |V+| Y0{(1 – )2 + 4 sin2 (l – /2)}1/2

Also | I | oscillates back and forth between

maximum values of |I (l)|max = |V+| Y0 (1 + ) when (l – /2) = n  /2

and minimum values |I (l)|min = |V+| Y0 (1 – ) when (l – /2) = n

Class Note by Santanu Das 2

 Transmission Lines

Again |I (l)|max = |V+| Y0 (1 + ) = |I+| + |I+| = |I+| + |I–|

|I (l)|min = |V+| Y0 (1 – ) = |I+| – |I+| = |I+| – |I–|

I− j I− | I− |
since +
= − L = − e and +
= + =| − L |=| −e j |= +
I I |I |
These results state that
current maxima occur when the incident and reflected waves add in phase (|I+| + |I–|)
current minima occur when they add 1800 out of phase (|I+| – |I–|)

From the above discussions also note that

Voltage maxima (|V(l)|max) and Current minima (|I(l)|min) points (positions) are the same
along the line.
Similarly, at the positions of Voltage minimum (|V(l)|min), Current maximum
(|I(l)|max) occurs.

Illustration
• ZL = 3Z0 (RL > R0)
ZL − Z0
L = = 0.5
ZL + Z0

For voltage Maximum value |V (l)|max = |V+| (1 + ) = 1.5 |V+|

= 1.5  Magnitude of incident voltage

minimum value |V (l)|min = |V+| (1 – ) = 0.5 |V+|

For current |I (l)|max = |V+| Y0 (1 + ) = 1.5 |V+| Y0

|I (l)|min = |V+| Y0 (1 – ) = 0.5 |V+| Y0

Class Note by Santanu Das 3

 Transmission Lines

For resistive load and RL > R0, first voltage maximum and first current minimum occur
exactly at the position of the load.

• ZL = Z0 / 3 (RL < R0)

L = (ZL – Z0)/( ZL + Z0) = –0.5,
 = |L| = 0.5

For voltage |V (l)|max = |V+| (1 + ) = 1.5 |V+|

|V (l)|min = |V+| (1 – ) = 0.5 |V+|

For current |I (l)|max = |V+| Y0 (1 + ) = 1.5 |V+| Y0

|I (l)|min = |V+| Y0 (1 – ) = 0.5 |V+| Y0

The pattern remains the same as in the case of ZL = 3Z0

For resistive load and RL > R0, first voltage minimum and first current maximum will occur
at the load position.

Class Note by Santanu Das 4

 Transmission Lines

Standing-Wave Ratio (SWR)

Definition : The ratio of maximum line voltage to minimum line voltage is called the Voltage
Standing-Wave Ratio (VSWR).

Thus, VSWR
| V ( l ) |max | V + | (1 + ) | V + | + | V − |
S= = =
| V ( l ) |min | V + | (1 − ) | V + | − | V − |
(1 + )
=
(1 − )

For loss-less line  everywhere along the line is same. In general,  = |L| = |(l)| = ||
Hence, the value of VSWR is the same all along the line.

1 +  1+ |  |
 S= =
1 −  1− |  |

Definition : The ratio of maximum line current to minimum line current is called the Current
Standing-Wave Ratio (ISWR).
| I ( l ) |max | I + | (1 + ) | I + | + | I − |
ISWR = = =
| I ( l ) |min | I + | (1 − ) | I + | − | I − |
1 +  1+ |  |
= =
1 −  1− |  |

 ISWR = VSWR

1+  S −1
So, S= or =
1−  S +1

From Standing wave pattern, Vmax = |V+| (1 + )

Vmin = |V+| (1 – )

| V+ |
Imax =| V + | Y0 (1 + ) = (1 + )
Z0
+ | V+ |
Imin =| V | Y0 (1 − ) = (1 − )
Z0

Vmax Vmin
Therefore, Imax = and Imin =
Z0 Z0

Vmax Vmin
or, Z0 = and Z0 =
Imax Imin

However, in general V/I=Z

Class Note by Santanu Das 5

 Transmission Lines

Since voltage maxima (|V(l)|max) and current minima (|I(l)|min) points (positions) are the
same along the line, hence
V | V + | (1 + ) (1 + ) (1 + )
Zmax = max = + = = Z0
Imin | V | Y0 (1 − ) Y0 (1 − ) (1 − )
= Z0  S = Z0  VSWR

Zmax
Therefore, Normalized Zmax = = S = VSWR
Z0

Since at the positions of voltage minimum (|V(l)|min), current maximum (|I(l)|max) occurs,
hence
V | V + | (1 − ) (1 − ) (1 − )
Zmin = min = + = = Z0
Imax | V | Y0 (1 + ) Y0 (1 + ) (1 + )
Z0 Z0
= =
S VSWR

Zmin 1 1
Therefore, Normalized Zmin = = =
Z0 S VSWR

1 Ymin
Thus, S = Zmax = = Ymin where Ymin =
Zmin Y0

Zmax & Zmin → Both are real quantities as VSWR is real (considering Z0 real).

Illustration : Consider a lossless line with characteristic impedance of Z0 = 50 . Assume that

the line is terminated in a pure resistive load ZL = 100  and the voltage at the load is 100 V
(rms). Draw standing wave pattern.

ZL − Z0 1
= =
ZL + Z0 3

Vmax = |V+| (1 + ) = 100  |V+| = 75 V

Vmin = |V+| (1 – ) = 50 V

Imax = |V+| Y0 (1 + ) = 2A & Imin = |V+| Y0 (1 – ) = 1A

Vmax Vmin
or, Imax = =2 A & Imin = =1 A
Z0 Z0

For resistive load and ZL > Z0 (100  > 50 ),

first voltage maximum and first current minimum occur exactly at the position of
the load.

Note from the figure that conditions on the line repeat themselves every half wavelength.
Class Note by Santanu Das 6