Mustansiriyah University Pavement Structural Analysis and Design

College of Engineering 2022-2023

Highway and Transportation Engineering

Lect. 8 Pavement Structural Design

Flexible Pavement Design-Part3

(AASHTOO Method, Design Equations)
Main Sources
- “AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures 1993”, AASHTO, American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, U.S.A., 1993.
- Yaug H. Huang, “Pavement Analysis and Design”, Prentic Hall Inc., U.S.A., 2004.
- Nicholas J. Garber and Lester A. Hoel.”Traffic and Highway Engineering”, Fourth Edition.
- Yoder; E. J. and M. W. Witczak, “Principles of Pavement Design”, A Wiley- Interscience
Publication, John Wiley & Sons Inc., U.S.A., 1975.
- A.T. Papagiannakis and E. A. Masad “Pavement Design and Materials”, 2008, Published by
john Wiley & Sons, Inc.

AASHTO Method,

Design Equations
The original equations were based purely on the results of the AASHO Road Test but
were modified later by theory and experience to take care of sub-grade and climatic
conditions other than those encountered in the Road Test.

Original Equations The following are the basic equations developed from the
AASHO Road Test for flexible pavements (HRB, 1962) :

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Modified Equations For other sub-grade and environmental conditions, Eq.11.33 is

modified to:

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To take local precipitation and drainage conditions into account, Eq.11.32 was
modified to:

Equation 11.34 is the performance equation that gives the allowable number of 18-kip
(80-kN) single-axle load applications Wt18 to cause the reduction of PSI to pt.

If the predicted number of applications W18 = Wt18 the reliability of the design is
only 50%, because all variables in Eq.11.34 are based on mean values.

To achieve a higher level of reliability, W18 must be smaller than Wt18 by a normal
deviate ZR , as shown in Figure 11.24 :

Here, ZR is the normal deviate for a given reliability R, and

So is the standard deviation

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ZR can be determined from Table 10.1 or, more conveniently, from Table 11.15.

Combining Eqs . 11.34 and 1.36 and replacing (4.2 – pt) by PSI yields.

Equation 11.37 is the final design equation for flexible pavements.

Figure 11.25 is a monograph for solving Eq . 11.37.

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Example: (11.10)

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Solution:
As shown by the arrows in Figure 11.25,
Step 1: starting from R = 95%, series of lines are drawn through;
Step 2: S0=0.35;
Step 3: W18=5*106;
Step 4: MR = 5000 Psi
Step 5: PSI=1.9
And finally intersect SN at 5.0, so SN = 5.0.

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The chart is most convenient for determining SN, because the solution of SN
by Eq.11.37 is cumbersome and requires a trial and error process. If W18 is
the unknown to be determined, the use of Eq. 11.37 is more accurate.

Example: (11.11)

Solution
Given R = 95%, from Table 11.15, ZR = -1.645.

From Eq. 11 .37,

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Effective Roadbed Soil Resilient Modulus

The effective roadbed soil resilient modulus MR is an equivalent modulus
that would result in the same damage if seasonal modulus values were
actually used.

in which log C is the sum of all but the last two terms in Eq. 11.37.
Equation 11.38 can be written as:

If WT is the predicted total traffic, the damage ratio, which is a ratio between
predicted and allowable number of load repetitions, can be expressed as

If WT is uniformly distributed over n periods, the cumulative damage ratio is:

Equating Eq. 11.40 to Eq. 11.41 gives:

Equation 11.42 can be used to determine the effective roadbed soil resilient
modulus

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MR in terms of seasonal moduli MRi. Although the coefficient 1.18×108 can

be canceled out to simplify the equation, the AASHTO design guide keeps
the coefficient and defines the relative damage uf as:

Computation of Effective Roadbed Soil Resilient Modulus

Figure 11.26 is a worksheet for estimating effective roadbed soil resilient
modulus, in which Eq. 11.43, together with a vertical scale for graphical
solution of uf, is also shown.

FIGURE 11.2 6
Worksheet for estimating effective roadbed soil resilient modulus (1 psi = 6 .9 kPa)
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A year is divided into a number of periods during which different roadbed soil
resilient moduli are specified. The shortest time period is half a month. These
seasonal moduli can be determined from correlations with soil moisture and
temperature conditions or from nondestructive deflection testing.
In the worksheet, the 12 monthly subgrade moduli used in the DAMA
program for a MAAT of 45°F (7.2°C) and a normal modulus of 4500 psi (31
MPa), as shown in Table 11.10, are used as an example .

The relative damage during each month can be obtained from the vertical
scale or computed from Eq. 11.43; the sum, 25.30, is shown at the bottom.

The average relative damage = 25.30/12 =2.11, which corresponds to an

effective roadbed resilient modulus of 2200 psi (15.2 MPa) .

In the preceding example, there is a large variation in the monthly resilient

modulus. The maximum and minimum values are outside the range of the
vertical scale and must be computed from Eq . 11.43. About 65% of the
damage is done in May alone.
This is the reason that a very low effective modulus, 2200 psi (15.2 MPa), is
obtained, one much lower than the normal modulus, 4500 psi (31.1 MPa).
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Solution
From Table 11-10, at 45oF and Modulus Normal=22500 psi, the marked
subgrade modulus by month are used to compute the uf

Month Subgrade Uf
modulus by
month (103psi)
Dec 22.5 0.009437
Jan 29.4 0.005074
Feb 36.3 0.003111
Mar 43.1 0.002089
Apr 50.0 0.00148
May 15.8 0.021429
Jun 17.1 0.017837
Jul 18.5 0.014861
Aug 19.8 0.012695
Sep 21.2 0.010834
Oct 22.5 0.009437
Nov 22.5 0.009437
Total 0.117719
Average
uf 0.00981

MR =(( 0.00981/(1.18*108))(-1/2.32) = 22127 psi

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Structural Number
Structural number is a function of layer thicknesses, layer coefficients, and
drainage coefficients and can be computed from Eq. 11.35.

Layer Coefficient:
The layer coefficient a, is a measure of the relative ability of a unit thickness
of a given material to function as a structural component of the pavement.
Layer coefficients can be determined from test roads or satellite sections, as
was done in the AASHO Road Test, or from correlations with material
properties, as was shown in Figures 7.13, 7.15, and 7.16.

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It is recommended that the layer coefficient be based on the resilient

modulus, which is a more fundamental material property.

In following the AASHTO design guide, the notation MR, as used herein,
refers only to roadbed soils, whereas El, E2, and E3 apply to the HMA, base,
and subbase, respectively.

Asphalt—Concrete Surface Course.

Figure 11.27 is a chart relating the layer coefficient of a dense-graded HMA
to its resilient modulus at 70°F (21°C).

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Caution should be used in selecting layer coefficients with modulus values

greater than 450,000psi (3.1 GPa), because the use of these larger moduli is
accompanied by increased susceptibility to thermal and fatigue cracking.
The layer coefficient al for the dense-graded HMA used in the AASHO
Road Tests is 0.44, which corresponds to a resilient modulus of 450,000
psi (3.1 GPa).

Untreated and Stabilized Base Courses

Figure 7.15 shows the charts that can be used to estimate the layer
coefficient a2 for untreated, bituminous-treated, and cement-treated base
courses.

In lieu of Figure 7.15a, the following equation can also be used to estimate
a2 for an untreated base course from its resilient modulus E2:

The layer coefficient a2 for the granular base material used in the AASHO
Road Test is 0.14, which corresponds to a base resilient modulus of 30,000
psi (207 GPa).

The resilient modulus of untreated granular materials depends on the stress

state
, as indicated by Eq. 3.8 and rewritten here as:

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Typical values of Kl for base materials range from 3000 to 8000; those of K2
range from 0.5 to 0.7. Values of Kl and K2 for each specific base material
should be determined using AASHTO Method T274.

In the absence of this information, the values shown in Table 11.16 can be
used.

The resilient modulus of the base course is a function not only of Kl and K2,
but also of the stress state. Values for the stress state within the base course
vary with the roadbed soil resilient modulus and with the thickness of the
surface layer.
Typical values of  are shown in Table 11.17. Given K1, K2, and, E2 can be
determined from Eq. 11.45.

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Granular Subbase Course

Figure 7.16 provides the chart that may be used to estimate layer coefficient
a3 of granular subbase courses. The relationship between a3 and E3 can be
expressed as

The layer coefficient a3 for the granular subbase in the AASHO Road
Test is 0.11, which corresponds to a resilient modulus of 15,000 psi (104
MPa).
As with granular base courses, values of Kl and K2 for granular subbase
courses can be determined from the resilient modulus test (AASHTO T274)
or estimated from Table 11.18.

Values of K1, K2,, and E3 for the subbase in the AASHO Road Test are
shown in Table 11.19 .

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Drainage Coefficient
Depending on the quality of drainage and the availability of moisture,
drainage coefficients m2 and m3 should be applied to granular bases and
subbases to modify the layer coefficients, as shown in Eq. 11.35.
At the AASHTO Road Test site, these drainage coefficients are all equal
to 1, as indicated by Eq. 11.32.

Table 11.20 shows the recommended drainage coefficients for untreated

base and subbase materials in flexible pavements. The quality of drainage is
measured by the length of time for water to be removed from bases and
subbases and depends primarily on their permeability. The percentage of
time during which the pavement structure is exposed to moisture levels
approaching saturation depends on the average yearly rainfall and the
prevailing drainage conditions.

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Selection of Layer Thicknesses

Once the design structural number SN for an initial pavement structure is
determined, it is necessary to select a set of thicknesses so that the provided SN, as
computed by
Eq. 11.35 will be greater than the required SN.

Note that Eq. 11.35 does not have a single unique solution. Many combinations of
layer thicknesses are acceptable, so their cost effectiveness along with the
construction and maintenance constraints must be considered to avoid the
possibility of producing an impractical design.
From a cost-effective view point, if the ratio of costs for HMA and granular base
is less than the corresponding ratio of layer coefficients times the drainage
coefficient, then the optimum economical design is to use a minimum base
thickness by increasing the HMA thickness.

Minimum Thickness
It is generally impractical and uneconomical to use layers of material that are less
than some minimum thickness. Furthermore, traffic considerations may dictate the
use of a certain minimum thickness for stability.
Table 11.21 shows the minimum thicknesses of asphalt surface and aggregate
base. Because such minimums depend somewhat on local practices and
conditions, they may be changed if needed.

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General Procedure The procedure for thickness design is usually started

from the top, as shown in Figure 11.28 and described as follows :

1. Using E2 as MR, determine from Figure 11.25 the structural number SN1
required to protect the base, and compute the thickness of layer 1 from

2. Using E3 as MR, determine from Figure 11.25 the structural number SN2
required to protect the subbase, and compute the thickness of layer 2 from

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3. Based on the roadbed soil resilient modulus MR, determine from Figure
11.25 the total structural number SN3 required, and compute the thickness of
layer 3 from

Example 11.12:
Figure 11.29 is a pavement system with the resilient moduli, layer
coefficients, and drainage coefficients as shown. If predicted ESAL=18.6 x
106, R=95%, So=0.35, and PSI=2.1, select thicknesses Dl, D2, and D3.

Solution:
To select D1 (thickness of the first layer),
With MR = E2 = 30,000 psi (207 MPa),
from Figure 11.25, SN1 = 3.2 ;….. ‫الخط االحمر‬

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from Eq. 11.47 ,

Dl  3.2/0.42 = 7.6 in. (193 mm); use D1 = 8 in. (203 mm).

D1 = 8 in  minimum D1 =(4 in) from table 11.21……. OK

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To select D2 (thickness of the second layer),

With MR = E3 = 11,000 psi (76 MPa),
from Figure 11.25, SN2 = 4.5; ……‫الخط االخضر‬
from Eq. 11.48,

D2  (4.5 - 0 .42 x 8) / (0.14 x 1.2) = 6.8 in. (173 mm);

use D2 =7 in. (178 mm).  minimum D2 =(6 in) from table 11.21…… OK

To select D3 (thickness of the third layer),

With MR = 5700 psi (39.3 MPa),
from Figure 11.25, SN3 = 5.6; ……‫الخط االزرق‬
from Eq . 11.49,

D3  (5.6 - 0.42 x 8 - 0.14 x 7 x 1.20) / (0.08 x 1.2) = 11.1 in. (282 mm);
use D3 = 11.5 in. (292 mm) .

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Solution
Pi=4.2, Pt=2.5, So=0.5, ESAL=30000000, R=?
a=0.44 12 in
10000psi
Using AASHTOO Equation
SN1=D1 a1=12*0.44=5.28
Log W18

Log W18 = +9.36 log(5.28+1)-0.2+(Log((4.2-2.5)/(4.2-

1.5))/(0.4+1094/(5.28+1)5.19)+2.32log10000-8.07
Log W18=7.47-0.2-0.42+9.28-8.07=8.06…….> Wt18=114,960,945.6

ZR=(log 3*107 – Log114,960,945.6)/0.5= 1.167

From table 11:15, R=88%

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Solution
Given, ESAL=1.2*106, drainage quality fair (water can be removed from the
subbase within a week), 25% of the time the pavement will be exposed to
moisture levels approaching saturation, D1=minimum, D2=?, D3=?
E1=430000 psi D1
E2= ? psi D2
D3
E3=15000 psi
MR=5500 psi
1. D1=Minimum thickness , from table 11.21….>D1=3 in

2. 
Find SN2, a1, a2 and m2

3. From Figure 7.13……> a1=0.44

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4. from Figure 7.15 (b)……..> a2= 0.18, E2=650000 psi

5. m2=m3=0.8 from Table11.20

6. To find SN2, use Figure 11.25, so we need to find Ro, So, and PSI

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7. From Table 11.14 , Find Ro=85%

8. So is not given, for flexible pavement assume S0 = 0.4

6
9. W18=1.2*10
10. E3=15000 psi (Given)
11. Assume Pi=4.2 and Pt=2.5….>PSI=1.7
12. From Figure 11.25…..> SN2=2.6

13.   ….> 6.5 in

14.  , ….>find SN3 and a3

15. From Figure 7.16…..> a3=0.12

16. From Figure 11.25…..>SN3=3.6

17. 
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Question
Determine the thickness of the pavement courses layers of a principal arterial in a rural
area with R=90% which its supposed layers and the properties of the used materials are
shown in Figure 3. Given, ESAL=3.0*106. Assume S0=0.35, m1=m2=1 and Pt=4.2 and
pi=2.5.
HMA surface E1=500000 psi D1
Untreated base course E2= 20000 psi D2
Sand gravel subbase E3=15000 psi D3
MR=5500 psi
Solution
18. 
Find SN1 and a1
19. From figure 7.13, a1= 0.46

To find SN1, use Figure 11.25, so we need to find Ro, So, and PSI
20. From Table 11.14 , Find Ro=80%-90%......> assume R0=90%

6
21. W18=1.0*10 (Given), E2=15000 psi (Given), PSI=2.0 , So=0.35
(Given)
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22. From Figure 11.25…..> SN1=2.4

23. D1 = 5.2 in…. take D1= 5.5 in

24. D1> min D1 (from table 11.21= 3 in)…..>OK

25. 
Find SN2, a1, a2 and m2
26. from Figure 7.15 (a)……..> a2= 0.10

27. m2=m3 are equal or greater than 1 from Table11.20…..> take m2=1.0

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28. To find SN2, use Figure 11.25,

29. From Figure 11.25…..> SN2=2.9

30.  
31. D2 is less than the minimum D2 from table 11.21…….> then take
D2=minimum = 6 in.
32.  , ….>find SN3 and a3
33. From Figure 7.16…..> a3=0.12

34. From Figure 11.25…..>SN3=4

35. 

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Stage Construction
If the maximum performance period is less than the analysis period, any initial
structure selected will require an overlay to last out the analysis period.

 The thickest recommended initial structure is that corresponding to the maximum

performance period.

 Thinner initial structures, selected for the purpose of life cycle cost analyses, will
result in shorter performance periods and require thicker overlays to last out the
same analysis period.

 The design of the initial structure for stage construction works the same as that for
new construction, except that the reliability must be compounded over all stages.

 If the loss of serviceability is caused by traffic loads alone, the length of the
performance period, which is related to W18, for a given serviceability loss can be
determined from Figure 11.25 or directly from Eq. 11.37.

 However, if the serviceability loss is caused by both traffic loads and the
environmental effects of roadbed swelling and frost heave, the performance
period for a given terminal serviceability can be determined only by an iterative
process, as illustrated by the following example.

Example 11.13:
Given the following design inputs, determine the length of the performance period
required.
Structural number SN=5.0, reliability R = 95%, standard deviation So = 0.35, initial
serviceability po = 4.3, terminal serviceability pt = 2.5, effective roadbed soil resilient
modulus MR = 5000 psi (35 MPa), PSI due to both swelling and frost heave as
shown in Figure 11.23, and traffic versus time relationship as
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Solution:
First, assume Y = 13 years.
From Figure 11.23, PSI due to environmental effects = 0.73; …….‫الخط االحمر‬
PSI due to traffic = 4.3 – 2.5 – 0.73 = 1.07.
From Eq. 11.37 or Figure 11.25, W18 = 1.6 X 106. …….‫الخط االحمر‬
From Eq. 11.51, Y = 5.1 years< 13 years assumed.
13 - 5.1=7.9 > 1year ….Not OK

Next assume Y as the average of 13 and 5.1 years, or 9.0 years.

Y= (13+5.1)/2=9.05….> Assume Y=9.0 years.
From Figure 11.23, PSI due to environmental effects = 0.59; …….‫الخط االخضر‬
PSI due to traffic = 4.3 – 2.5 – 0.59 = 1.21.

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From Eq. 11.37 or Figure 11.25, W18 = 2.1 x 106. …….‫الخط االخضر‬
From Eq. 11.51, Y = 6.5 years.> 9.0 years assumed.
9 – 6.5 = 2.5 > 1 year….Not OK

Finally, assume Y= (9+ 6.5)/2 = 7.7 years.

From Figure 11.23, PSI due to environmental effects =0.52; …….‫الخط االزرق‬
PSI due to traffic = 4.3 – 2.5 – 0.52 = 1.28.
From Eq. 11.37 or Figure 11.25, W18 = 2.4 x 106. …….‫الخط االزرق‬
From Eq. 11.51, Y =7.3< 7.7 years assumed.
7.7 – 7.3 = 0.4 < 1 year…. OK
When the difference between the assumed and calculated values is smaller than 1
year, no more iteration are needed and the average of the two values can be used as
the performance period.
Therefore, the performance period = (7.7 + 7.3)/2 = 7.5 years.

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Example
Flexible pavement is composed of 3 layers, asphalt course, untreated base course and
sub base course.
Analysis period =20 years, 2 stages
P0=4.6, Pt=2.5, psi due to environmental effect =0.33768 (1-e-0.075t)
Growth rate per year=3%,
Number of load repetitions per design years in the first year =2.5 *106
R=90%, E (Asphalt course)=400000 psi
Untreated base course with E=30000 psi
Subbase with E=11000 psi
MR for subgrade soil = 6500 psi (season 1) and 5000 psi (season 2)
m2=m3=1.2
Directional distribution factor (D) =0.5
Lane distribution factor (L)= 0.8
Select the thickness of the three layers.

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Solution:
Loss in serviceabilitypsi due to traffic =4.6-2.5=2.1
psi due to environmental effect =0.33768 (1-e-0.075t) ‫نعوض قيم زمن كما في الجدول التالي‬
psi due to environmental
t
0.33768 (1-e-0.075t)
0 0
5 0.105596
10 0.178171
15 0.228051
20 0.262333

0.3
0.25
Loss in serviciabiliity due to

0.2
enivironmental effect

0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (years)

W18 = 360×C×Y×G×D×L=2.5 ×106 ((1+0.03)t-1)/0.03)×0.5×0.8

=33.335*106 (1.03)t-1)
‫نعوض قيم مختلفة للزمن كما في الجدول التالي‬
t W18
0 0
5 5.3 *106
10 11.46*106
15 18.6*106
20 26.86*106

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30

25
W18 (*1000000) 20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Years)

Rstage=(Roveral)1/2 =(90) ½ = 95%

S0=0.35 (for flexible pavement)

a1= from equation or chart (E=400000 psi) …> a1=0.42

E=30000 psi…..> a2= 0.14

E=11000 psi …..> a3=0.08

Effective roadbed soil MR

MR
5000 0.168
6500 0.309
Average uf 0.2385
Effective MR 5590

At 15 years, W18=18.6*106 and psi due to traffic =4.6-2.5=2.1

MR (for roadbed soil)=5590psi, R=95% and So=0.35
Use chart 11.25 or Eq 11.37 to find SN3…..>SN3=5.6

Because stage construction is applied (two stages), the performance period should be
estimated.
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Assume performance period=13 years

Substitute t=13 in (W18 =33.335*106 (1.03)t-1)) and find W18

W18=16*106

Y= 13.26 years which is greater than the assumed (y=3) by 0.26<1 year
So performance period=13 years
From the above results W18=16*106 at y=13years
And psi due to environmental effect =0.21
psi due to traffic and environmental effect = 2.1-0.21=1.89
From figure 11.25 (or eq11.37), SN1=3.4
D1  3.4/0.42  8.00 in > minimum from table 11.21=3 in
From figure 11.25 (or eq11.37), SN2=4.6
D2  (4.6-8*0.42)/1.2*.14=7.38 in..> minimum OK
D2=7.5 in
From figure 11.25 (or eq11.37), SN3=5.6
D3(5.6-8*0.42-7.5*0.14*1.2)/1.2*0.08=10.2 in..> minimum OK
D3=10.5 in

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