Introduction to Geography: People,

Places, and Environment

CGEO106 — Week 3
Landforms
Learning Outcomes (1 of 2)

+ Define tectonic plates, and list the different kinds of plate

boundaries with examples.
+ Describe the processes that cause vertical movements of
Earth's crust.
« Describe the processes of weathering.
« List the different types of mass movements and describe
how they operate.
« Describe the features of a meandering stream channel.
Learning Outcomes (2 of 2)

» Describe the effects of changing sediment inputs on

stream channels.
« Describe the major features of glaciated landscapes.

« Describe the ways in which wave action shapes

coastlines.

+ List the major environmental hazards associated with

geologic activity, and describe their spatial distributions.
Geomorphology

+ Study of landforms and processes that create them

Lithosphere
Rocks and soil
Surface landforms
Plains
Mountains and hills
Valleys
Landform Processes

+ Endogenic: internal forces beneath or at Earth’s surface

— Mountain building
— Earthquakes
— Volcanoes
« Exogenic: external forces
— Chemical
— Erosion, water, wind
— Transport
Plate Tectonics

+ Fixed Earth theory: continents and oceans fixed in place

* Pangaea hypothesis
«Alfred Wegener (1900s)
« Supercontinent
+ Plate tectonics theory: accepted from 1960s
 Past Plate Movements

ANTARCTICA /~
(b) 135 million years ago

Aus ; I
ANTARCTICA _ ANTARCTICA _
(c) 65 million years ago (d) Present

Long Description:
The images exhibit the positions of the continental plates at different periods.
Two hundred million years ago, all continental plates were connected, forming
the supercontinent known as Pangaea. Then, about 135 million years ago, the
land began to drift apart, breaking into two large continents. The drift was
towards the direction of the west and the equator, as exhibited by the arrow
marks. About 65 million years ago, the landmasses continued to drift in the
same direction, breaking apart into the continents of North America, South
America, Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia, and the subcontinent of India. The
continents are further divided and give us the continents that exist today.
Earth’s Moving Crust

= Earth's crust is thin and rigid.

* Mantle, beneath the crust, very thick fluid
« Tectonic plates
— Pieces of Earth’s rigid crust
Plate movement
Earthquakes
Volcanoes
Mountain building
Earthquakes (1 of 2)

+ Sudden movements of the Earth's crust

* Happen daily, most too small to feel
 Earth’s Tectonic Plates

Mid-ocean ridge

Long Description:
The diagram depicts the earth's tectonic plates. There are two types of the
earth's crust, Oceanic crust in the left portion and continental crust in the right.
A mid-ocean ridge is formed by the convection currents that rise in the mantle
beneath the oceanic crust and create magma where two tectonic plates meet
at a divergent boundary. Two trenches are formed on the floor of the ocean.

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 Locations of Earthquakes

Long Description 1:
The world map depicts the locations of earthquakes with plate movements,
zones and boundaries. The North American plate, South American plate,
Pacific plate moves towards the north-west, the Nazca plate, African plate,
moves towards the north-east. The Indo Australian plate moves towards the
north, the Eurasian plate moves towards the east-south, and the Antarctic
plate moves towards the south. A subduction zone covers the South American
plate and North American plate in the west and completely covers the
Caribbean plate and Scotia plate. Below the Eurasian plate and above the
African plate the subduction zone makes a border, completely covering the
Philippine plate and Bismarck plate and west of the Pacific plate. Towards the
west, the Pacific plate and Juan de Fuca plate have divergent plate
boundaries that separate them from North American Plate, the Cocos plate,
Nazca plate, and South American plate. A divergent plate boundary separates
the North American plate, South American plate, Caribbean plate, Scotia plate,
and Antarctic plate from the African plate, and the Eurasian plate. Towards the
South, the Antarctic plate has divergent plate boundaries that separate it from
all other plates.

Long Description 2:
The world map depicts the locations of earthquakes epicenters, volcanos,

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midocean ridges and major oceanic trenches. A zone that covers the South
American plate and the North American plate in the west has major
earthquake epicenters and volcanoes. Below the Eurasian plate and above the
African and Arabian plates, the zone has major earthquake epicenters. The
boundaries of the Philippine plate, the Bismarck plate, and the western
borders of the Pacific plate have major earthquake epicenters and volcanoes.
Towards the west, the Pacific plate and Juan de Fuca plate have principal
midocean ridges that separate them from the North American plate, the Cocos
plate, the Nazca plate, and the South American plate. The principal midocean
ridges separate the North American plate, the South American plate, the
Caribbean plate, the Scotia plate, and the Antarctic plate from the African
plate, and the Eurasian plate. Towards the south, the Antarctic plate has
principal midocean ridges that separate it from all other plates. The major
oceanic trenches are intimated on the east part of the Scotia plate, west of the
South American plate, north of the Indo Australian plate and west and south of
the Pacific plate.

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 Earthquakes (2 of 2)

« Focus: place of actual movement

«= Epicenter: surface directly above focus
« Seismograph: recording device for seismic waves
« Richter scale (1935)
+ Seismic waves: recordable vibrations

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 Earthquake Focus and Epicenter

Long Description:
The image depicts the epicenter and the earthquake focus. Japan's continental
landmass shares a large portion of the North American plate, a part of the
Eurasian plate, and a portion of the Philippine plate. In the first section, a
massive 8.9 magnitude earthquake occurred near the Japan Trench, the
junction of the westward-moving Pacific Plate and the North American plate.
The earthquake epicenter is a few miles away from Sendai, Fukushima, and
Honshu city in Japan. A sectional diagram shows depiction of an earthquake.
The place inside the earth from which the earthquake originates is labeled as
focus and the epicenter is parallel to the focus. Some waves move away from
the focus of the earthquake, are labeled as wave fronts.

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Volcanoes

+ Magma: molten rock

+ Lava: molten rock reaching Earth’s surface
* Volcano: surface vent for lava
« Magma may flow over the surface, forming a plain of
volcanic rock, or it may build up to form a mountain.

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Volcano Types

+ Shield volcanoes
— Runny lava
— Basalt rock
— Mauna Loa, Hawaii
— Sedate
« Composite cone volcanoes
— Explosive
— Ash, pyroclasts, sulfurous gas
— Krakatau in Indonesia

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 Shield Volcano

Long Description:
The diagram depicts the activity of a shield volcano. Two types of eruptions
take place. One erupts on the volcano's flank, labeled as Flunk eruption, and
the other erupts at the volcano's ridge, which is labeled as Summit caldera.

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 Composite Volcano

Long Description:
The image depicts a composite volcano. Hot molten lava emerges from the
earth’s crust onto the ridge of the earth, forming a crater from where the lava
flows out onto the earth's surface. Due to the eruption, several pyroclastic
layers were formed.

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Plate Boundaries (1 of 2)

» Divergent: plates spreading apart

— Seafloor spreading
— Rift valleys in Africa
« Convergent: plates pushing together
— Dense plates dive below
— Volcanic eruptions
« Transform: plates grinding past each other
— San Andreas Fault, California

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 Plate Boundaries (2 of 2)

Divergent plate boundary Convergent plate boundary Transform plate boundary

Spreading ocean ridge Fault line

(a) (b) (©)

Long Description:
Image (a) exhibits two plates moving apart, resulting in an upwelling of
material from the mantle which creates a spreading ocean ridge. Image (b)
exhibits two plates moving towards each other, causing one of the slabs of the
lithosphere to be consumed into the mantle as it descends beneath the
overriding plate, resulting in the creation of a trench. Image (c) exhibits that
plates slide past each other, resulting in the formation of a fault line.

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Vertical Movements

+ The crust moves vertically as well as horizontally.

— Material can be forced downward.
— Material can be forced upward to form mountains.
« Crust floats on the underlying mantle.
* |sostatic adjustments
— Glacial rebound

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Rock Formation

* Igneous
— Cooled molten crustal material
— Basalt, granite
« Sedimentary
— High pressure and cementing materials
— Sandstone, shale, limestone
* Metamorphic
— Rocks compacted by heat, pressure
— Marble from limestone, slate from shale

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 Rock Types and the Rock Cycle

Long Description:
The image displays three basic types of rocks, namely igneous rock,
sedimentary rock, metamorphic rock, and the rock cycle. The rock cycle
moves in a clockwise direction. After weathering and erosion, igneous rocks
transform into sedimentary rocks. These sedimentary rocks are subjected to
heat and pressure, and due to compaction, form metamorphic rocks. Again,
these metamorphic rocks, after cooling of molten rocks, lead to igneous rocks
and so on.

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Minerals

+ Natural substances that comprise rocks

+ Two types:
— Sima
= Denser rocks
= Silicon, magnesium, iron minerals
— Sial
= Less dense
= Silicon and aluminum

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Distribution of Materials

» Crustal movement
«Continental shields
* Mining districts

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Faults

» Fractures in Earth’s crust from stress

* Three types:
— Normal
= Divergent plate boundary
= Stretching
— Reverse
= Convergent plate boundary
= Compressed rock
= Appalachian Mountains, Wasatch Range,
Himalayas
— Thrust: horizontal movement

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Example of a Fault

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Rocks and Landforms

+ Geologic features influence landform development in

three ways:
— Movement of the crust along faults
— Structural landforms: Weak rocks are moved more
rapidly than resistant rocks.
— Differences in minerals contained in the rocks affect
soil characteristics.

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 Example of Rocks and Landforms

More resistant rocks

Less resistant rocks

Long Description:
The image illustrates the movement of rocks in two different layers under the
earth's crust. The rocks that move in the hilly area are labeled as more
resistant rocks, and rocks that move in the plain area are labeled as less
resistant rocks.

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Slopes and Streams

» Exogenic processes reshape the Earth’s crust into new

landforms in two steps:
— Weathering: Rocks are broken down into smaller
pieces.
— Transport: Rock pieces are transported by gravity,
water, wind, or ice.

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Weathering

» Process of breaking rock into pieces

«First step in formation of soil

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Two Types of Weathering

+ Chemical weathering: process of breaking down rock by

Exposure to air and water
Acids released by decaying vegetation
— Oxidation
— Leaching
— Decomposition of calcium carbonate
+ Mechanical weathering: process of breaking down rocks
by physical forces

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Examples of Weathering

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Moving Weathered Material

+ Once rocks are weathered, they are transported.

« Mass movements: movement of material under the pull of
gravity
« Surface erosion: occurs when material is moved by water
or wind

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 Mass Movement of Weathered
Material
+ Slow, gradual movement near the surface; soil creep
+ Dramatic movements such as rock slides, landslides, and
mudflows

Long Description:
The image represents gradual movements near the surface of the soil. Some
layers under the soil bend towards the slope. That surface area is labeled as
the "zone of creep." Above that, there are three trees whose trunks are curved.
There is a broken retaining wall near the electricity posts. The posts are bent
toward the slope. A snail zoomed by.

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Surface Erosion Due to Rainfall

+ The most common form of surface erosion is caused by

rainfall.
+ Water that does not infiltrate runs off the surface.
— Picks up particles as it travels
« Small channels that transport water and particles are
called rills.
+ Stream channels develop.
— Can form ravines, valleys, and canyons

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Rills and Sediment Transport

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Stream Drainage

+ Streams collect water from two sources:

— Groundwater
— Overland flow
» Drainage basin: area drained by a river and its tributaries
« Discharge: volume of water carried per unit time
« Drainage density: combined length of all of the stream
channels in a basin divided by the area of the basin

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 Runoff and Streams

wl

Long Description:
The image depicts four stages of runoff in streams. In the first stage, the
stream drainage basin is formed by runoff from the stream. In the second
stage, the drainage basin is labeled. In the third stage, stream channels are
formed along with numerous basins. In the fourth stage, the large drainage
system, which directly connects the runoff from the streams to the stream
channel.

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 Floodplain (1 of 2)

+ Nearly level surface at the valley bottom through which a

river flows

Long Description:
The picture of a single river with regular sinuous curves and an oxbow
connected to the river channel at its one end. The curve shore is labeled as A,
and the shore of the oxbow is labeled as B.

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Floodplain (2 of 2)

+ Shaped by meanders: changes in direction

« Erosion from side where current is swifter
« Deposition on side where current is slower
« Grade
+ Stable condition
* Eroded material
« Deposited material

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 Features of a Meandering Channel

Long Description:
The image depicts a single river with regular sinuous curves. The river has two
pools with eroding banks on both sides. It has two depositional point bars on
the other side of both pools. Riffles are labeled on both ends and middle of the
river.

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Stream Gradient

+ Changes in gradient
» Steeperin upper reaches—more erosion
« Gentler gradient in lower reaches—more deposition
«Alluvial fans
* Deltas
« Concave profile

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 Stream Profile

Steep gradient

Long Description:
The illustration shows a hilly area with a sloping place. where a stream with
two heads emerges from the mountain and flows down to the ocean. The
slope of the mountain is labeled as a steep gradient, and the part of the stream
on the ground is labeled as a gentle gradient. The entrance of the stream into
the ocean is labeled as the mouth.

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 Stream Erosion

Long Description:
The image illustrates an immersed portion of a stream where erosion takes
place through the deposition of sand particles. The head of the flow is labeled
as input, and the end is labeled as output.

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Human Activity and Erosion

+ Sharply increases amount of sediment in streams

* Major contributors:
— Deforestation
— Agricultural development
— Urban development

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Ice, Wind, and Waves

+ In some parts of the world, running water is a less

powerful erosional agent.
+ Other erosional agents:
— Ice
— Wind
— Waves

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Glaciers

* Rivers of ice flowing from colder to warmer regions

+ Two types:
— Alpine
— Continental
* Move sediment to form moraines
— Terminal moraines
— Lateral moraines
— Medial moraines

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 Landforms of Alpine Glaciation

Accumulation zone Lateral

Snow line moraine
Medial
moraine
: ributary glglacier
Crevasses
Melting and
I
Meltwater
evaporation streal
eam
Outwash plain

A
Terminal
moraines

Long Description:
The image illustrates the landforms of Alpine glaciations. The formation
includes an accumulation zone, snow line, tributary glacier, lateral moraine,
crevasses, and melting and evaporation. These formations are on glacier ice,
which is above the bedrock. There is a melt water stream, and three terminal
moraines on the outwash plain.

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 Glacial Retreat

Long Description:
The map depicts the glacial retreat. The retreats are in the years 1913, 1929,
1931, 1953, 1964, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, and 2011. In 2005, it
retreated to the secondary tributary, and in 20086, it retreated to the primary
tributary.

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Impact of Past Continental
Glaciations
« Soils: thin, with bedrock readily visible
« Transported large amounts of material to new locations
» Depositional features dominate
— Moraines
— Outwash deposits of sand and gravel
» Transportation routes
— Meltwater channels as river valleys
— Routes for canals

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 Extent of Continental Glaciation
in Last Ice Age

Long Description:
The image illustrates a globe which represents the extension of the continental
glaciations in the last ice age. The glaciations cover much of North America up
to the Arctic Ocean, as well as parts of South America, Europe, and Asia, as
well as all of Antarctica.

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 Features of Glaciated Landscapes
Unglaciated topography

Region during maximum glaciation

Long Description:
The image represents three different forms of glaciated landscapes. The first
form is an unglaciated topography of hills with trees and water flowing through
a V-shaped valley. The second form illustrates a region during maximum
glaciations. The melted glacier from the hills flows as the main glacier in the V-
shaped valley whose shape changes to a u-shape. The third form exhibits a
glaciated topography with little flow of water and bare hills.

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Wind Erosion (1 of 2)

«Significant shaper of landforms in

— Deserts
— Farmland
— Coastal zones
« Carries great quantity of fine-grained sediment
— Sand
— Silt
» Loess: deposits of windblown material

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Wind Erosion (2 of 2)

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Waves

+ Winds blow across the water surface, transferring energy

and generating waves.
« Waves are a form of energy traveling horizontally along
the boundary between water and air.
« The speed of a wave is affected by its wavelength.

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Tsunami Waves (1 of 2)

= Tsunami: long wave caused by underwater earthquake

At coast the speed slows.
* Wave height increases.
+ Breaking wave releases erosive energy on beach.

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 Tsunami Waves (2 of 2)
2011 Honshu Tsunami Impact on Crescent City, CA

, Water elevation (meters)

&
°

9 10 n 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time following earthquake (hours)

Long Description 1:
Two images of a graph, and a map. The graph represents the 2011 Honshu
Tsunami impact on Crescent City. The vertical axis exhibits water elevation in
meters, and the horizontal axis represents time following an earthquake in
hours. The waves are under negative 2.25, and 3.0. The time following the
wave is from 10 to 20 hours.

Long Description 2:
The map represents the amplitude in centimeters of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100,
120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, and 240.

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Longshore Current (1 of 2)

+ When waves break, their energy pushes the water parallel

to the shore, creating the longshore current.
+ Carries sediment through longshore transport.
+ Creates distinctive erosional and depositional features
— Beaches, spits, and barrier islands

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 Longshore Current (2 of 2)
Path of sand
particles

Long Description:
The image represents the seashore. It illustrates the movement of the long
shore current and the sand grains in the same direction towards the left.
Between the sand grains and the long shore current, there is a path for the
sand particles.

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 Coastal Deposits

Long Description:
Three pictures represent coastal deposits. The first picture evokes a beach.
The second image depicts how the waves enter the beach and cause it to spit.
The third picture illustrates two barrier islands with an inlet between them.

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 Sea Level Change and Erosion

+ Continuing to rise as seawater volume increases from

glacial melting
+ Causes increased erosion as waves break closer to shore

Long Description:
Two photographs of the same shore in two different years. In July 2010, the
shore had a settled town with a beach. In November 2012, the sea covered
the beach and made its way to the other side through the middle of the town.

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 Human Impact on Coastal Erosion

Original
shoreline

Breakwater

Long Description:
The image represents the seacoast. It exhibits erosion deposition towards the
water extending from the original shoreline, and both sides of the erosion are
labelled as "groin." There is a harbor entrance in the water, and both sides of
the entrance are labelled as "jetty." The sand movement is shown towards the
entrance. Longshore currents drift towards the direction of sand. There is a
breakwater at the front of the entrance to the water.

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Environmental Hazards (1 of 2)

« Can be rapid
— Volcanic eruption, hurricanes, landslides
* Can be gradual
— Continual erosion, deterioration of human-made
structures
* Human activity can destabilize landforms, increasing risk
to those living near them.

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Environmental Hazards (2 of 2)

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Chapter Summary

Plate Tectonics
— Endogenic and exogenic processes
Slopes and Streams
— Weathering and transport
* Ice, Wind and Waves
* The Dynamic Earth

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