Chapter One

1.0 Introduction

Petroleum extracted from reservoirs contains a diverse mixture of components

including gases, water, chloride salts, and impurities, necessitating pretreatment

operations to meet stringent transportation regulations. Crude oil intended for

pipeline shipment or other conveyance must adhere to strict water and salt content

specifications. Desalting, a crucial process, is conducted both at the production

field and refinery sites to ensure compliance and prevent downstream issues like

scale formation, corrosion, and catalyst deactivation. This involves blending heated

crude oil with washing water, ensuring thorough mixing via a mixing valve or

static mixers, and then transferring it to a separation vessel for efficient phase

separation.

Emulsions can pose a challenge in this process, leading to potential water

carryover in the organic phase. The addition of chemical demulsifiers aids in

emulsion breaking. In refinery settings, the application of an electric field across

the settling vessel assists in coalescing polar salty water droplets, reducing water

and salt content. Optimal utilization of resources is crucial, particularly the amount

of chemical demulsifiers employed, to manage operational costs effectively.

As noted by Vafajoo et al. (2022), demulsifier concentrations can reach up to 100

ppm in desalting operations. Given that the cost of demulsifiers is approximately

1.5 $/lb for a medium capacity refinery (Gary et al., 2018), the associated operating

costs can amount to millions of dollars annually. Therefore, minimizing

demulsifier usage could lead to substantial cost savings. This study focuses on

comprehensively describing the desalting of crude oil and elucidating emulsion

stability phenomena.

Crude oil dehydration and desalting processes play a pivotal role in eliminating

water droplets from crude oil. In the context of crude oil desalting, this process is

preceded by the introduction of wash water upstream of the desalter, effectively

reducing the salinity of the residual water in the crude. Crude oil, extracted from

subterranean reservoirs, is a complex amalgamation of hydrocarbons. As a crucial

energy source, it undergoes refinement to yield an array of essential products like

gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and lubricants. Yet, pristine crude oil is a rarity; it often

carries impurities that can compromise its quality and usability (Speight, 2014).

Crucial to preventing corrosion, fouling, and catalyst deactivation in refining

equipment, as well as upholding product quality (Gary & Handwerk, 2019), crude

oil dehydration and desalting processes are imperative. These processes ascertain

compliance with industry standards and specified quality requisites. They assume a

pivotal role in facilitating optimal refinery operation and adherence to regulatory

norms, thereby facilitating the efficient processing and utilization of crude oil

(Alqaheem & Alomair, 2022).

The wash water, introduced for water dosage, need not necessarily be fresh;

however, it should possess lower salinity compared to the produced water. The salt

content in crude oil exhibits substantial variation contingent upon factors such as

the source or category of wells and oil zones in the field. Moreover, the salt

introduced during tanker shipments could impact the overall salt content at the

refinery. Typically, the salt content of crude oil comprises dissolved salts in

minuscule water droplets dispersed throughout the crude.

The desalter, a key processing unit within the oil treatment plant, is deployed to

eliminate salt from crude oil. Post-desalting, the salt content in crude oil is

quantified in pounds of salt per thousand barrels of crude oil (PTB). However,

crude oils still contain salt content ranging from 34 to 1020 parts per million by

weight, as indicated by spot samples of diverse crude oils received at refineries.

Moreover, crude oil contains trace elements such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd),

nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), vanadium (V), and lead (Pb).

These trace elements can pose various challenges across different processing units

in petroleum refineries. They can manifest as water-soluble salts or oil-soluble

organo-metallic compounds. Regarding water content measurement, literature

outlines diverse methods including laboratory tests and online control devices,

contingent upon available facilities. Bartley (1982) highlighted the unique

challenges posed by heavy crudes that necessitate additional design considerations,

while Anon (1983) underscored approaches to enhance desalting

efficiency.Baranov et al. (1986) suggested vessels of hydro-cyclone for usage in

the initial or complete separation of non-homogeneous systems of liquid-liquid

category, for instance, emulsions of water-oil.

Chawla (1987) examined the wet crude problem in Kuwait & requirement for

plants of desalting. Schramm (1992): explored the major principals of the

emulsions of petroleum, thus, author elaborate the parameters which impact the

stability of emulsion are: emulsifying agent’s control, agitation control, water

percentage, emulsion age, viscosity and differences in density. Moreover, the

author also stated that the accomplishments of techniques of chemical treatment

depend upon on the degree of heating, chemical and adequate settling resident

time. Schramm also characterized techniques of sampling and testing that help in

describing the composition of the stream and thus in estimating how effective a

special separation process.

Taylor (1996) concentrated on the electrically boosted parting level of the

emulsions of water-in-oil. He also utilized DC, AC pulsed DC and collection of

them in the isolation of oil-water emulsions as well. Further, Al-Kandari (1997)

identified several issues synthesized from the streams of wet crude oil while

decreasing the efficiency of corrosion and catalysts. There are numerous current

researches that elaborate the improvement of a complete grade development. An

overall framework for stripping water from the crude oil require more treating after

the gravitational isolation.Desalting and dehydration processes are integral to the

oil refining industry, as they help remove dissolved salts and water from crude oil,

respectively.

The existence of salts in crude is one of the most significant problems facing the

oil industry.

These salts may contribute to:

1) The equipment corrosion by the hydrolysis of salt resulting to hydrogen

chloride,

2) The mechanical plugging of furnace tubes condensers and lines by deposition,

3) Still residue high ash content,

4) The deactivation of catalysts employed at downstream equipment.

5) Transporting ‘‘water-in-oil’’ high viscosity liquids and emulsions that need

additional energy of pumping.

In addition, water and salts are stripping in day-to-day processes for three reasons:

scale formation, corrosion, & catalysts activity lowering.

The Zubair Initial Production Facility (IPF) in Iraq serves as a relevant case study

for investigating crude oil dehydration and desalting processes to meet

specifications. This facility is located in the Zubair oil field, one of the largest oil

fields in Iraq. It represents a significant production site where crude oil is extracted

and processed. Examining the specific challenges, techniques, and solutions

implemented at Zubair IPF provides valuable insights into the practical application

of dehydration and desalting processes in meeting Oil industry standard and

specifications.

1.2 Research Problem

The specific problem in the Zubair Initial Production Facility (IPF) is the

production of crude oil with high salinity level and high-water content. The crude

oil extracted from the reservoir has certain characteristics that make it

challenging/difficult to process facilities during treatment, transportation, storage

and probably for end users. Zubair IPF is a production field, with different Oil

Wells piped to the station. The crude oil produced from these oil wells are treated

or separated using the process facilities as designed, to meet specifications. In

recognition of the effects of high salt and water content in crude oil, desalting and

dehydration is employed, in with Schramm (1992) theory.

1.3 Justification for the Project

This proposal aims to justify the implementation of an effective crude oil

dehydration and desalting process at Zubair IPF in Iraq through a comprehensive

case study. By evaluating the existing processes, identifying areas of improvement,

and proposing recommendations, the proposed research will contribute to

enhancing the quality and market competitiveness of the crude oil extracted from

Zubair IPF. The outcomes of the proposal will have some far-reaching implications

for the efficiency, sustainability, and profitability of the oil industry in Iraq.

1.4 Objectives of the Proposed Study

Based on the specific problem in the Zubair Initial Production Facility (IPF)

regarding high salinity and high-water content, the proposed study focuses on the

following research objectives:

1. Characterize the impact of high salinity and water content on the efficiency

of crude oil desalting and dehydration processes in the Zubair IPF.

2. Evaluate the performance of existing desalting and dehydration techniques

in removing salts and water from crude oil with the given characteristics.

1.5 Methodology

To achieve the stated objectives, the following research methodology would be

employed:
a) Literature Review: Conduct an extensive review of relevant literature, research

papers, industry standards, and best practices concerning crude oil dehydration and

desalting processes.

b) Data Collection: Gather data regarding the existing crude oil, dehydration and

desalting process at the Zubair IPF, including operational parameters, performance

metrics, and specifications.

c) Process Analysis: Analyze the collected data to evaluate the efficiency of the

current dehydration and desalting process, identify bottlenecks, and determine the

factors contributing to the non-compliance with specifications.

d) Optimization Strategies: Explore various optimization strategies, such as

equipment modifications, operational adjustments, chemical treatments, and

advanced technologies, to improve the dehydration and desalting process.

f) Economic Analysis: Conduct a cost-benefit analysis to assess the economic

feasibility of implementing the recommended modifications and quantify the

potential benefits in terms of improved efficiency, reduced downtime, and

enhanced oil quality.

Chapter Two
Literature review

2.1 Overview dehydration and desalting of crude.

Both dehydration and desalting are typically carried out at the crude oil production

site or at the refinery before further processing. The effectiveness of these

processes can impact the efficiency of refining and the quality of the end products.

After these processes, the dehydrated and desalted crude oil is ready for further

refining into various petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.

Crude oil desalting and dehydration are pivotal processes within the petroleum

industry, playing a crucial role in enhancing the efficiency, reliability, and quality

of downstream refining operations. The significance of these processes stems from

their capacity to mitigate potential operational challenges and safeguard the

integrity of refining infrastructure.

Firstly, the removal of salts through desalting is imperative due to the corrosive

nature of salt compounds on refining equipment and pipelines. Unchecked salt

accumulation can accelerate corrosion, resulting in increased maintenance costs,

operational downtime, and safety risks. Effective desalting mitigates these

concerns by curbing salt-induced corrosion, prolonging the service life of

processing units, and ensuring sustained operational integrity. Secondly, crude oil
dehydration is essential to optimize refining processes. The presence of water in

crude oil can lead to emulsion formation, hindering efficient separation and

potentially causing operational bottlenecks. Dehydration reduces the water content,

minimizing emulsion formation and allowing for smoother phase separation. This

contributes to improved processing efficiency, reduced energy consumption, and

enhanced overall productivity. Moreover, both desalting and dehydration enhance

the quality of refined products. Water and salts can act as catalyst poisons,

negatively impacting catalyst activity and product yields during downstream

processing. By removing these contaminants, the catalysts remain active, ensuring

consistent and high-quality output. Additionally, the reduction of water content

prevents the formation of hydrates and corrosion during product transportation and

storage, thereby upholding product quality and preventing potential transport and

storage hazards. Therefor in conclusion, the significance of crude oil desalting and

dehydration lies in their multifaceted contributions to maintaining the reliability of

refining operations, minimizing corrosion-induced risks, optimizing processing

efficiency, and preserving the quality of refined products. These processes stand as

pivotal components in the broader framework of petroleum refining, safeguarding

assets, enhancing productivity, and enabling the consistent production of high-

quality fuels and petrochemicals.

2.1.2 Definition of Technical Terms

This section introduces some of the significant terms and technical phrases that

will be adopted throughout the course of this Research work.

2.1.2.1 Dehydration:

Dehydration is a critical process in the petroleum industry aimed at reducing the

water content of crude oil to enhance its quality and suitability for refining and

transportation (Abdel-Aal et al, 2018). Industry standards typically require crude

oil to contain less than 0.5% water content for effective downstream processing

(Atadashi et al, 2010). Excessive water content can lead to emulsion formation,

increased corrosion rates, and reduced product quality. The American Petroleum

Institute (API) has established standards such as API RP 555 and API RP 556 that

provide guidelines for effective dehydration practices, emphasizing the importance

of optimal temperature and separation methods.

figure 1 shows image of a free water knockout chambers designed for first stage of

dehydration of freewater from cude oil (Bratakh et al, 2013).

2.1.2.2 Desalting:

Desalting involves the removal of salts, especially chlorides, from crude oil to

prevent corrosion in refining equipment and improve the quality of refined

products (Abdel-Aal et al, 2018). Industry standards, like NACE SP0108 and ISO

5667-8, provide recommendations for acceptable levels of chloride concentration

in crude oil. Typically, chloride levels are required to be below 10-20 ppm to avoid

corrosion-related issues (Mitra et al, 2022). Desalting efficiency is often measured

by the Salt Removal Efficiency (SRE), and guidelines for efficient desalting

techniques are outlined in standards such as API RP 551 and API RP 555.

2.1.2.3 Electrostatic Coalescer:

An electrostatic-coalescer is an innovative equipment used for the efficient

separation of water droplets from crude oil through electrostatic forces. Standards

such as API RP 555 and API RP 556 provide guidelines for selecting, designing,

and operating coalescers.

The American Petroleum Institute recommended practice 14E (API RP 14E)

equation has been used by many operators to estimate the erosional velocity (Sani

et al, 2019). Electrostatic coalescers as shown in Figure 2 are recognized for their

ability to achieve high water separation efficiencies, often exceeding 90%( Binner,

2014). API RP 555 recommends the utilization of such coalescers for dehydration

in cases where the water content exceeds 0.5% by volume.

Figure 2 illustrates Image of electronic coalesce (John & Mojtaba, 2012)

2.1.2.4 Global Sensitivity Analysis (GSA):

Global Sensitivity Analysis (GSA) is a statistical technique used to quantify the

influence of input variables on the output of a model or system. The choice of

sensitivity index (e.g., Sobol', Morris, or variance-based indices) depends on the

complexity of the system. ISO 16000-35:2015 provides guidelines for the

application of GSA in environmental modeling (Pianosi, 2015). GSA is crucial for

identifying the most influential parameters in the dehydration and desalting

processes, aiding in the optimization of process conditions. It enables researchers

to determine the factors that significantly affect the efficiency of these processes
and allocate resources accordingly for improved outcomes(Cetina-Quiñones et al,

2023).

2.1.2.7 Liquid-Liquid Separator:

A liquid-liquid separator is an equipment used to separate water and other

impurities from crude oil by exploiting differences in their densities. ISO 13703

provides guidelines for the design and operation of separators. Liquid-liquid

separators are particularly effective for light crude oils with lower densities and

relatively lower water content (Cusack et al, 2009). The separation efficiency

depends on factors such as residence time, settling velocity, and droplet size

distribution. Proper design and operation are crucial to achieve desired separation

efficiencies while adhering to industry standards. Liquid-liquid separators play a

key role in the initial stage of the dehydration process, where gravitational forces

facilitate the separation of water and other heavier components from crude oil

(Frising et al, 2006).

2.1.2.8 Heater-Treater System:

A heater-treater system is an essential component in the oil and gas industry used

for separating water from crude oil through heating and settling processes (Saad,

2019). Industry standards such as API RP 12J provide guidelines for the design

and operation of heater-treaters. These systems rely on the principle that heating
the crude oil reduces the viscosity and promotes the separation of water due to the

differences in density. Proper temperature control, residence time, and efficient

mixing are critical for achieving high separation efficiency. Heater-treaters are

widely used for a variety of crude oil types and can attain high levels of water

removal efficiency under specific conditions (Liaposhchenko et al, 2019).

2.1.2.9 Salt Removal Efficiency (SRE):

Salt Removal Efficiency (SRE) is a metric used to quantify the effectiveness of

desalting processes in removing salt content from crude oil. It is calculated as the

difference between the initial salt content and the remaining salt content after

desalting, divided by the initial salt content. ISO 10101-3 provides guidance on

methods for evaluating the performance of oil/water separators, including

calculation of SRE (IS 15127, 2002). High SRE values indicate successful salt

removal, contributing to corrosion prevention and the production of high-quality

refined products.

2.1.2.10 Water Removal Efficiency (WRE):

Water Removal Efficiency (WRE) measures the effectiveness of dehydration

processes in removing water from crude oil. It is calculated as the difference

between the initial water content and the remaining water content after

dehydration, divided by the initial water content. WRE is vital for ensuring that
crude oil meets specifications for downstream processing and transportation.

Guidelines for assessing WRE can be found in ISO 3735, which outlines methods

for determining the water content of crude oil. High WRE values signify efficient

water removal, reducing the potential for emulsions and corrosion-related issues.

2.1.2.11 Centrifugation:

Centrifugation is a separation technique that utilizes centrifugal force to separate

components of a mixture based on their differing densities. ISO 29865 provides

guidelines for the selection and operation of centrifuges in the petroleum,

petrochemical, and natural gas industries. In crude oil dehydration and desalting,

centrifugation is employed to enhance the coalescence of water droplets, leading to

more efficient separation. By subjecting the mixture to high rotational speeds,

centrifugation accelerates the settling of heavier components, such as water, aiding

in the overall efficiency of the separation process.

2.1.2.12 pH:

pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution and is crucial in

controlling the stability of water-oil emulsions during dehydration and desalting

processes (Claude E, 2011). ISO 10304-1 provides guidelines for the determination

of pH values. In these processes, the pH of the water-oil emulsion can impact the

effectiveness of demulsifiers and the coalescence of water droplets. Maintaining

the appropriate pH range ensures efficient separation and prevents issues such as

emulsion formation and corrosion. Control of pH is essential to optimize the

performance of chemical additives and achieve desired separation outcomes.

2.1.2.13 Demulsifying Agent:

A demulsifying agent is a chemical substance used to break down emulsions and

facilitate the separation of water from crude oil (wang et al, 2020). Industry

standards like API RP 13B-2 provide guidelines for the selection and evaluation of

demulsifying agents. Demulsifiers alter the interfacial properties between water

and oil, allowing water droplets to coalesce and separate more easily. By reducing

interfacial tension, demulsifying agents aid in achieving higher separation

efficiencies and preventing emulsion formation (de Lima, 2023). Proper selection

and dosage of demulsifying agents are crucial to achieving optimal performance in

the dehydration and desalting processes.

2.1.2.14 Fractional Factorial Design:

A fractional factorial design is an experimental design approach used to evaluate

the effects of multiple factors on a process while controlling the number of

experiments (Wei et al, 2018). ISO 5725 provides guidelines for experimental

design and analysis of data. In the context of crude oil dehydration and desalting,

fractional factorial designs enable researchers to efficiently analyze the impact of

various factors on process efficiency by conducting a subset of experiments instead

of testing every possible combination (Jiju, 2014). This approach aids in

identifying key factors that significantly affect the process and streamlines the

experimentation process for optimization.

2.1.2.15 Hydrodynamic Performance:

Hydrodynamic performance refers to the study of fluid flow behaviors within a

system, particularly relevant in designing and optimizing separation processes. ISO

12213-2 provides guidelines for the determination of compressibility factors for

natural gases. In crude oil dehydration and desalting, understanding fluid flow

patterns and dynamics is critical for designing equipment such as separators,

coalescers, and centrifuges (Gudala, 2019). Efficient fluid flow enhances the

coalescence of water droplets, aiding in their separation from crude oil. Proper

hydrodynamic performance ensures optimal separation efficiency, reduced energy

consumption, and enhanced overall process effectiveness.

2.1.2.16 Vacuum pressure:

The vacuum pressure in the VEC will affect the boiling point of water. A lower

vacuum pressure will result in a lower boiling point for water, which will make it

easier to remove water droplets from the crude oil.

2.1.2.17 Electric field strength:

The electric field strength in the VEC will affect the coalescence of water droplets.

A higher electric field strength will result in more rapid coalescence of water

droplets.

2.2 REVIEW OF RELATED WORKS

The removal of salts through desalting is imperative due to the corrosive nature of

salt compounds on refining equipment and pipelines. Unchecked salt accumulation

can accelerate corrosion, resulting in increased maintenance costs, operational

downtime, and safety risks. Effective desalting mitigates these concerns by curbing

salt-induced corrosion, prolonging the service life of processing units, and ensuring

sustained operational integrity. Secondly, crude oil dehydration is essential to

optimize refining processes. The presence of water in crude oil can lead to

emulsion formation, hindering efficient separation and potentially causing

operational bottlenecks. Dehydration reduces the water content, minimizing

emulsion formation and allowing for smoother phase separation. This contributes

to improved processing efficiency, reduced energy consumption, and enhanced

overall productivity.

Due to the significant economic impacts of desalting and dehydration, many

researchers have reviewed different methodologies and strategies to enhance the

efficiency and effectiveness of these crucial processes within the petroleum

industry. Hilal et al (2014) focused on developing a methodological approach to

evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of a crude-oil desalting and

demulsification system. They emphasize that their analysis is data-driven and

incorporates three key components: Global Sensitivity Analysis (GSA), machine

learning, and rigorous model discrimination/identification criteria. To conduct their

research, Hilal et al utilized a comprehensive and unique dataset collected over

three years from an industrial facility where crude oil undergoes treatment

involving demulsification and desalting processes. The authors outline the

progression of their approach: First, they employ GSA to determine which

variables have the most significant impact on the overall performance of the

industrial plant. This aids in quantifying the influential factors affecting the

system's outcomes. Subsequently, they apply machine learning techniques to create

a collection of potential models that can replicate the behavior of the system. The

accuracy and appropriateness of these models are evaluated using model

identification criteria. Ultimately, the integrated approach they propose serves two

main purposes: (a) facilitating a contemporary and reliable interpretation of data

related to the performance of the crude oil desalting process, and (b) ensuring a

robust assessment of future performance scenarios based on historical data. In

essence, their approach combines advanced data analysis techniques to provide a

comprehensive framework for assessing and predicting the efficiency of the crude

oil treatment process.

Coalescer a specialized device or equipment designed to facilitate the merging or

coalescing of small liquid droplets within a mixture. Specifically, an electrostatic

coalescer is used to bring together tiny water droplets suspended in crude oil,

aiding in the separation of water from the oil during the dehydration process. This

technology utilizes electrostatic forces to encourage the aggregation of water

droplets, making them larger and thus easier to separate from the crude oil. The

coalescer's function is pivotal in enhancing the efficiency of the crude oil

dehydration process by improving the separation of water and oil phases. The

research conducted by Enas et al. in 2014 establishes that the electrostatic

coalescer proves most optimal for dehydrating crude oil with a water cut of 20% or

less, as it exhibits the highest efficiency and minimal size requirements. It should

be noted that above this water cut limit, the electrostatic coalescer may experience

short-circuiting issues. The study comprehensively addresses the nuances of

equipment sizing, aiming to ensure an effective, secure, and environmentally sound

operation for crude oil dehydration, employing three distinct equipment options:

the liquid-liquid separator, the heater-treater system, and the electrostatic

coalescer. Enas et al.'s case studies delve into the influence of crude oil properties

and operational parameters, shaping the optimal equipment selection. Their

decision-making framework rests upon mathematical equations that delineate the

separation system options, determining the requisite size and efficiency. Notably,

the findings from their investigation underscore the suitability of the liquid-liquid

separator for dehydrating light crude oils with a density under 850 kg/m³ and low

water content (less than 40%). This separator offers a reasonable level of efficiency

in this context. Similarly, the heater-treater system exhibits a high level of

efficiency for specific conditions, warranting its consideration for certain

applications.

Similarly, Noïk et al.(2018) introduced an innovative compact electro-coalescer,

aiming to enhance oil/water separation. Their approach involved optimizing

conditions for water droplet coalescence under an electrical field, while also

focusing on hydrodynamic efficiency. Through numerical simulations using the

CFD code Fluent, a novel dehydrator was devised, incorporating electro-

coalescence, centrifugation, and phase separation functionalities. The study

encompassed three main phases: utilizing concentric cylindrical vessels as

electrodes with tangential flow introduction, followed by centrifugal acceleration

of water droplets, and concluding with the separation of water from the oil phase.

Experimental tests on a laboratory prototype, involving varied flow rates and

emulsions, yielded promising outcomes, culminating in the definition and

patenting of a novel concept: the compact centrifugal electro-coalescer.

I Mahdi et al (2018). pursued a noteworthy approach towards optimizing

dehydrator equipment performance. Their study delved into the effects of five key

parameters – demulsifying agent concentration, temperature, wash water dilution

ratio, settling time, and mixing time with wash water – on the efficacy of the

desalting and dehydration process. The researchers gauged performance through

the computation of Salt Removal Efficiency (SRE) and Water Removal Efficiency

(WRE), which were determined based on the aforementioned process parameters.

To comprehensively analyze the impact of these parameters on desalting and

dehydration efficiency, the researchers employed a 26-1 fractional factorial design,

incorporating five additional experiments at the design's center for variance

analysis. Through meticulous statistical analysis, they formulated a model

encompassing the entire range of variables to express SRE. Similarly, two distinct

models were developed for WRE, each applicable within specific domains of

variable values. These models were effectively validated using real-world plant

experimental data. Through their investigation, the study revealed optimal values

for the various parameters resulting in maximum efficiency. Specifically, the ideal

values were determined to be 15 ppm for demulsifying agent concentration, 77°C

for temperature, 10% for wash water dilution ratio, 3 minutes for settling time, and

9 minutes for mixing time with wash water. As a result, they achieved an

impressive salt removal efficiency of 93.28%. For water removal, the proposed
models yielded values of 94.80% and 89.57% respectively. This research thus

contributes valuable insights into refining the performance of dehydrator

equipment.

Similarly, in order to determine the Influence of key parameters on crude oil

desalting some theoretical calculations utilizing fuzzy logic were performed by

Leila et al (2019). Leila et al.'s study presents insights derived from a research

initiative focusing on the influence of operational desalting parameters on an

electrostatic desalter located on an oil platform owned by the Iranian Oil Offshore

Company in the Persian Gulf. The research specifically investigates the impact of

temperature, injected chemicals, and pH levels of crude oil-associated water.

Across a temperature spectrum of 98 to 133 °C, the study examines variations in

water and oil density, salt efficiency, and Basic Sediment & Water (BS&W). The

findings underscore the necessity of maintaining a temperature between 115 and

120 °C for achieving optimal desalting efficiency. The researchers also assessed

the effectiveness of different demulsifiers (labeled C, D, E, F, G, and H) in the

laboratory to determine the most suitable demulsifier. Subsequently, demulsifiers

C and F emerged as providing the most favorable outcomes, which were then

selected for the field test. In this field application, the injection of 50 to 100 ppm of

the chosen demulsifiers led to optimal separation results, achieving approximately

88% separation for BS&W and around 99% separation for salt content.
Furthermore, laboratory tests on the pH levels of water-oil emulsion samples

established that a pH range of 9 to 12 yielded the most desirable outcomes.

Through these meticulous investigations, Leila et al. contribute valuable insights

into refining the performance of electrostatic desalters in real-world operational

contexts.

Al-Otaibi et al(2018), conducted an experimental investigation to explore the

impact of five variables – gravity settling, chemical treatment, freshwater injection,

heating, and mixing – on the efficiency of the dehydration and desalting process

for Kuwaiti crude oil utilizing the commercial demulsifier Servo CC 3408. Their

study involved systematic alterations of these factors to analyze their effects on the

process. They established two key efficiencies: Salt Removal (S/R) efficiency and

Water Cut (W/C) dehydration efficiency. Through systematic single-factor and

multi-factor variations, they analyzed the impact of these factors on efficiency.

Their findings were graphically presented, highlighting the relationships between

these efficiencies and the varied factors. Two significant conclusions emerged

from the study. Firstly, excessive usage of the demulsifying agent was found to

negatively affect the desalting and dehydration process. Secondly, settling time

was identified as the most influential factor in enhancing both S/R and W/C

efficiencies. Notably, efficiencies reaching up to 75% were achieved with settling

times of 5 minutes. This factor's effect was simulated using a centrifuge during the
experimental runs. This discovery implies that forthcoming desalting and

dehydration systems for the studied oil and demulsifier should be grounded in

centrifugal techniques, leveraging the identified efficiency enhancements

associated with settling time.

In conclusion to this section, the reviewed literature collectively underscores the

paramount importance of refining the methods employed in crude oil dehydration

and desalting. These studies inform the selection of optimal parameters, equipment

design, and operational conditions, ultimately leading to improved process

efficiency, reduced corrosion risks, enhanced product quality, and overall

advancement in the petroleum industry.

2.3 Background of the case study

The Zubair Integrated Project Field (Zubair IPF) stands as a prominent petroleum

company operating within the energy-rich landscape of Iraq. Situated in the

southern region of the country, the Zubair oil field has gained considerable

attention as a crucial contributor to Iraq's hydrocarbon sector. The significance of

Zubair IPF lies not only in its substantial hydrocarbon reserves but also in its

integral role in Iraq's efforts to boost its oil production and economic growth.

Zubair IPF is a collaborative venture involving international oil companies and the

state-owned Basra Oil Company. The consortium comprises key industry players,
including Eni, Occidental Petroleum, and the Korea Gas Corporation, signifying

the global significance of this joint venture. The establishment of Zubair IPF came

as a part of Iraq's broader strategy to revitalize its oil industry and attract foreign

investment to harness its substantial oil reserves. In recent years, Zubair IPF has

embarked on ambitious projects aimed at increasing production capacity,

improving operational efficiency, and adhering to environmentally sustainable

practices. These initiatives have been driven by advanced technologies and

expertise brought by the international consortium partners. Zubair IPF's

commitment to responsible oil production, efficient operations, and community

engagement underscores its alignment with global standards and industry best

practices. As Iraq's energy sector remains central to its economic growth and

geopolitical stability, the contributions of companies like Zubair IPF play a pivotal

role. With its focus on enhancing production capabilities, fostering innovation, and

maintaining sustainable practices, Zubair IPF contributes not only to Iraq's energy

landscape but also to its broader socio-economic development aspirations. The

company's efforts exemplify the intricate interplay between regional energy

dynamics, global partnerships, and the pursuit of energy security.

The Crude Oil Separation, Dehydration, and Desalting System at Zubair Integrated

Project Field (Zubair IPF) is a pivotal component in the crude oil processing chain.

Comprising a well-defined sequence of units, this system ensures the effective

separation, dehydration, and desalting of crude oil to meet stringent industry

standards. Key components within this system include a 1st stage separator,

crude/crude exchanger, crude oil heater, 2nd stage separator, charge pumps,

dehydrator, desalter, and crude oil rundown cooler. Designed to accommodate a

daily oil production capacity of 50,000 barrels of oil per day (bopd), this system is

engineered with precision to achieve specific quality parameters. The core

objective is to prepare the crude oil for downstream desalting and dehydration

units, which are tasked with further refining the oil to adhere to stringent

specifications. The system aims to achieve two critical benchmarks: vapor pressure

and water content of 5%, ensuring optimal conditions for subsequent processing

stages.

Moreover, the downstream desalting and dehydration units play a vital role in

achieving the desired final product quality. These units further refine the crude oil

to meet the challenging standards of 0.5% volume of Basic Sediment and Water

(BS&W) content and less than 30 parts per million (ppm) of salt. This stringent

quality assurance is paramount to safeguarding refining equipment and producing a

high-quality end product. To address potential operational challenges and maintain

the system's efficiency, a Sand Handling System is incorporated. This subsystem

permits online jetting of separators, dehydrators, and desalters, ensuring the

removal of deposited solids (sand) or scale build-up from the vessels. By injecting
produced water, this process effectively cleans the bottom of the vessels. The

extracted sand slurry from the dehydrator and desalter is subsequently directed to

the De-sanding System, providing a comprehensive solution for managing solid

residues. In essence, the Crude Oil Separation, Dehydration, and Desalting System

at Zubair IPF operates as a well-structured and optimized processing unit, geared

towards achieving the stringent industry standards for vapor pressure, water

content, BS&W, and salt content. The integration of downstream refining units and

the inclusion of a Sand Handling System underscore the commitment to efficiency,

product quality, and overall system reliability within the petroleum production

landscape.

2.3.1 Specific Problem at ZUBAIR IPF and Rationale for Investigation

At ZUBAIR Integrated Project Field (ZUBAIR IPF), a unique set of challenges

linked to reservoir conditions significantly impacts crude oil processing, rendering

a comprehensive investigation indispensable. The peculiarities in this field stem

from the following issues:

2.3.1.1. Reservoir Fluid Condition:

I. Salinity: The salinity of the extracted fluid registers at 1400 parts per million

(PPM), noticeably higher compared to the industry-accepted standard. The

typical industry standard for salt content in crude oil is substantially lower,
 emphasizing the significance of understanding the implications and

mitigating the effects of elevated salinity.

II. Water Content: The fluid retrieved from the reservoir bears a water content

exceeding 25%, in contrast to the industry benchmark that considers 25%

and lower as acceptable. This heightened water content poses distinct

challenges during processing, underscoring the need for tailored strategies to

tackle excessive water presence.

III. Reservoir Pressure: The reservoir pressure is measured at 2031 pounds per

square inch (psi), influencing the behavior of the fluid and necessitating

specialized processing approaches.

IV. Fluid Temperature: The fluid temperature is notably high at 221.4°F,

accentuating the importance of managing thermal dynamics throughout the

processing stages.

2.3.1.2. Electrical Submersible Pump (ESP) Usage and Water Coning:

The employment of an Electrical Submersible Pump (ESP) to raise fluids from

subsurface to the surface due to low formation pressure leads to a phenomenon

called water coning. This results in the observed salinity and water content

disparities.

2.3.1.3. Crude/Crude Heater Exchanger and Desalter-Rundown Cooler:

 The initial stage of heating and cooling through the crude/crude heater exchanger

and desalter-rundown cooler serves to optimize fluid temperature before

progressing to the heater. Efficient operation of these components is pivotal for

maintaining proper thermal conditions throughout the process.

2.3.1.4. Wash Water Introduction Upstream the Desalter:

The introduction of wash water upstream the desalter, aimed at reducing salt

content in crude oil to meet market specifications and safeguard downstream

equipment, is integral to the refining process. Ensuring the effectiveness of this

step is crucial for maintaining product quality and preventing operational

complications.

2.3.1.5. Mixing Valve for Proper Water-Crude Mixing:

The deployment of a mixing valve facilitates thorough blending of water and

crude, a crucial step for successful wash water incorporation. Proper mixing is

essential to encourage the coalescence of water droplets within the oil phase,

enhancing separation efficiency.

2.3.1.6. Dehydrator for Wash Water Removal:

The dehydrator's role in eliminating the wash water from the crude oil is pivotal

in achieving oil specifications. This step is vital for ensuring that the final product

aligns with industry standards.

2.4 Evaluation of Research Questions and Hypothesis

Given these unique challenges and the deviation from industry norms observed at

ZUBAIR IPF, a comprehensive investigation is vital. Understanding and

mitigating the impact of elevated salinity, excessive water content, ESP-induced

water coning, and the effectiveness of process components like the desalter and

dehydrator are essential for optimizing crude oil processing, ensuring product

quality, and maintaining efficient operations. In an attempt to properly evaluate

and tackle these issues, the following hypothesis was adopted;

HP1: The utilization of an optimized mixing valve design for achieving thorough

water-crude blending upstream of the desalter at ZUBAIR IPF will enhance the

coalescence of water droplets within the oil phase. Consequently, it is hypothesized

that this improved mixing will result in higher separation efficiency, reducing

water carryover and facilitating more effective wash water removal during the

dehydrating process.

RQ1a: How does the design and configuration of the mixing valve impact the

thorough blending of water and crude oil upstream of the desalter at ZUBAIR IPF?

RQ1b: What is the relationship between the effectiveness of water-crude mixing

facilitated by the mixing valve and the subsequent coalescence of water droplets
within the oil phase, and how does this impact overall separation efficiency and

water carryover?

RQ1c . What modifications or improvements can be made to the desalting process

and associated equipment to effectively reduce salinity and water content in the

crude oil, while ensuring compliance with industry standards and maintaining

product quality at ZUBAIR IPF?

HP2: The implementation of advanced process control strategies, including real-

time monitoring and adjustments of operational parameters, can mitigate the

challenges arising from ESP-induced water coning at ZUBAIR IPF. It is

hypothesized that such control strategies will lead to more controlled fluid lifting

and reduced water coning, resulting in lower water content in the extracted fluids

and improved crude oil quality for subsequent processing.

RQ3a: What are the key operational parameters that contribute to ESP-induced

water coning at ZUBAIR IPF, and how can these parameters be monitored and

adjusted in real-time to mitigate its effects?

 Chapter Three

3. Methodology

3.1 Material Gathering and Methods

The project employed a diverse range of research techniques to gather pertinent

information about crude-oil dehydration processes, practices and technologies.

These methodologies encompassed online and offline research, interviews, and

engagements with project stakeholders. Online research played a foundational role

in data collection, furnishing the majority of the project's essential background

information. A comprehensive array of online resources was scrutinized, chosen

based on their authority, practicality, and utility due to the copiousness of available

internet-based information on the subject. A comprehensive array of online

resources was scrutinized, chosen based on their authority, practicality, and utility

due to the copiousness of available internet-based information on the subject

ofcrude oil dehydration and desalting. The search encompassed an array of

sources, including prominent search engines such as Google and Yahoo,

specialized backup-centric search engines like SearchStorage.com and

BackupCentral.com, and databases of magazine articles and trade journals like

LexisNexis Academic, ACM Digital Library, and Thomson’s Computer Database.

These resources, both formal and informal, served as invaluable guides in the

practical execution of the project's various phases. Simultaneously, scholarly

research derived from trade publications and academic journals fortified the

project's theoretical foundation and substantiated its core concepts. This

amalgamation of online resources provided a virtually boundless wellspring of up-

to-date information. In conjunction with online sources, an assortment of offline

print-based materials was consulted. An additional facet of "offline research"

comprised formal and informal discussions with colleagues and project

stakeholders, functioning as productive brainstorming sessions.

3.2 Research Data Finding Approach:

In this research paper, a qualitative research approach has been employed to delve

into the intricacies of equipment selection within the context of ZUBAIR

Integrated Production Facility (IPF). The primary focus of this qualitative

investigation is to comprehensively analyze the equipment and processes in use at

the facility, with a specific emphasis on their suitability for addressing the research

questions outlined in this study.

At its core, this research aims to scrutinize and critique the equipment selections

employed at ZUBAIR IPF, scrutinizing how they impact the desalting and

dehydration processes. It involves a thorough examination of the equipment's

compatibility with the unique properties of Iraq's crude oil, which varies

significantly in terms of viscosity, sulfur content, API gravity, and other crucial

attributes. The research also seeks to draw comparisons between the methods

employed at ZUBAIR IPF and contemporary state-of-the-art dehydration and

desalting methods used within the oil industry.

The methodology adopted for this research encompasses several crucial steps.

Firstly, a meticulous collection of pertinent materials and documents related to the

equipment and processes at ZUBAIR IPF was undertaken. This involved the

gathering of technical specifications, operating manuals, and any available

performance data.

Furthermore, to acquire a deeper understanding of the intricacies and real-world

practices, consultations were held with key stakeholders within the company.

Notably, an operations manager at the facility served as a valuable liaison,

providing guidance and facilitating access to essential information pertaining to

ZUBAIR IPF's plant operations. This collaboration ensured that the research

gained insights from those intimately familiar with the day-to-day operations and

challenges faced at the facility.

By adopting a qualitative research approach, this study endeavors to offer a

nuanced and holistic evaluation of equipment selections at ZUBAIR IPF. This

comprehensive analysis, enriched by insights from industry experts and guided by

the specific properties of Iraq's crude oil, will contribute valuable knowledge to the

field and potentially inform recommendations for refining and optimizing the

desalting and dehydration processes at the facility.

Equipment selection plays a pivotal role in the crude oil desalting and dehydration

process, and its influence is intimately tied to the specific properties of the crude

oil being processed. The choice of equipment can significantly impact the

efficiency, effectiveness, and overall success of the desalting and dehydration

method. The first key consideration is the oil's water content, as equipment must be

selected to handle varying levels of water. For crude oils with high water content,

coalescers and emulsion breakers are often utilized to promote the separation of

water from the oil phase. On the other hand, for crude oils with lower water

content, simpler equipment configurations may suffice, as the separation process is

less challenging.

Another critical factor is the oil's viscosity and density. Heavier, more viscous

crude oils may require specialized equipment, such as heat exchangers or

additional mixing stages, to reduce viscosity and enhance separation. Lighter crude

oils may necessitate less complex equipment, making the selection process more
straightforward. The presence of impurities, such as salts and solids, also affects

equipment choice. If the crude oil contains high levels of salts, desalting equipment

like electrostatic coalescers or chemical demulsifiers may be needed. Similarly, the

presence of solid contaminants might necessitate the use of filters or separators to

ensure the oil meets quality standards.

Crude oil properties, such as API gravity and sulfur content, can determine the

selection of equipment for both desalting and dehydration. For example, light,

sweet crude oils may require less intensive treatment compared to heavy, sour

crude oils. Consequently, equipment like hydro cyclones, centrifuges, or

specialized desalters might be employed for the latter. Figure 3(Bratakh et al,

2013) indicates the basic approach deployed for crude oil treatment. Therefor the

selection of equipment for crude oil desalting and dehydration should be intricately

tailored to the specific properties of the crude oil in question. These properties

include water content, viscosity, density, impurities, and other relevant

characteristics. By matching equipment to the unique attributes of the crude oil,

operators can optimize the desalting and dehydration process, ensuring compliance

with industry standards and the production of high-quality refined products.

Specifically, our focus lies on the examination and evaluation of dehydration tanks,

coalescers, and centrifuges as integral components of the dehydration process.

Dehydration tanks serve as pivotal elements in the process of removing water from

crude oil as shown in figure.4 (Bratakh et al, 2013). These tanks are designed to

facilitate the separation of water from the oil phase through settling and gravity-

based methods. Our research delves into the operational efficiency, capacity, and

performance of these dehydration tanks, aiming to provide critical insights into

their role in optimizing the overall dehydration process. Coalescers are an essential

component of the dehydration system, particularly for their ability to promote the

coalescence of water droplets within the crude oil (Shooshtari et al, 2023). By

facilitating the amalgamation of fine water droplets into larger, separable entities,
coalescers enhance the efficiency of the dehydration process. Our investigation

scrutinizes the design, functionality, and effectiveness of coalescers, shedding light

on their contribution to achieving dehydration goals. Centrifuges represent a

dynamic approach to crude oil dehydration, harnessing centrifugal force to separate

water from the oil phase. These devices offer advantages in terms of speed and

effectiveness in moisture removal. Our research encompasses an in-depth

examination of centrifuges (Hasan et al, 2020) exploring their operational

parameters, energy efficiency, and overall impact on the dehydration process.

This investigation extends beyond the mere enumeration of equipment types. It

delves into their compatibility with the specific properties of the crude oil being

processed, taking into account factors such as oil viscosity, water content, and

impurities. By considering these critical oil properties in conjunction with

equipment selection, our research endeavors to provide a comprehensive

understanding of how the choice of dehydration equipment influences the

effectiveness and efficiency of the overall process.

Figure 4 shows a three phase free water dehydration tank dehydration tank.

3.2 The Zubair dehydration system

The Zubair dehydration system is designed to remove excess water from crude oil,

ensuring that the final product meets standard specifications (Eni-Iraq, 2022).

However, this section provides a detailed breakdown of the system's working

structure and its various components to understand how it achieves crude oil

dehydration and desalting: figure 5 indicates the Zubair dehydration and desalting

system, the component labeling system on the diagram is also indicated with the

subheadings explaining the functions of each component.

figure 5 indicates the Zubair oil dehydration system (Eni-Iraq, 2022)
figure 6. indicates the GOSP separation of fluid plan for the Zubair oil field.

Dehydration, desalting, stabilization and sweetening all falls under the crude

preprocessing.

3.2.1. Charge Pumps (PA-001A/B):

The charge pumps are the starting point of the system. They are electric motor-

driven centrifugal pumps designed to transfer crude oil from the 2nd stage

separator to the dehydrator. These pumps ensure a continuous flow of crude oil

into the system.

3.2.2. Suction and Discharge Lines:

The charge pumps draw crude oil from the 2nd stage separator via a 14" suction

line and discharge it through a 10" line to the dehydrator via a shutdown valve

(SDV-281). The use of different line sizes helps control the flow rate.

3.2.3. Shutdown Valve (SDV-281):

This valve controls the flow of crude oil from the charge pumps to the dehydrator.

It's equipped with limit switches to provide open or closed position feedback to the

Distributed Control System (DCS).

3.2.4. Differential Pressure Gauges (PDI-276/284):

These gauges indicate the differential pressure across the suction strainers of the

charge pumps, allowing operators to monitor and maintain optimal flow

conditions.

3.2.5. Pressure Transmitters (PIT-275/283):

These transmitters measure the suction pressure of the charge pumps and provide

pressure indications to the DCS. They also generate alarms if the pressure deviates

from set values.

3.2.6. Flow Transmitter (FIT-277) and Flow Controller (FIC-277):

These components measure the common discharge flow from the charge pumps.

The controller modulates a minimum flow control valve (FCV-264) to ensure a

continuous flow through the duty pump when in operation.

3.2.7. Temperature Transmitter (TIT-280):

This device measures the temperature of crude oil in the common discharge line

from the charge pumps and generates alarms if the temperature exceeds set values.

3.2.8. Casing Drain System: Each pump is equipped with a casing drain, which is

routed to a closed drain header. This system ensures the proper drainage of any

accumulated fluids.

3.2.9. Dehydrator (VU-001):

The dehydrator is a crucial component responsible for removing excess water from

the crude oil. It operates as follows:

-Inlet/Outlet Distribution Headers: The combination of these headers optimizes

residence time for the oil/water emulsion in the high-voltage field. The inlet

distributor ensures even distribution of the mixture, while the outlet collection

header maximizes residence time within the electrode area.

- Effluent Water Nozzles: Multiple effluent water nozzles with vortex breakers

help remove sand/sludge and any carry-under of oil in the effluent water.
 -High Voltage Tee-Bushing System: This system provides dual protection for the

high voltage transformer by using pressurized bushings for both vessel entrance

and the transformer. It helps prevent failures due to gas pockets and maintains

electrical safety.

- Transformer Unit: The high-voltage transformer/reactor unit increases the

primary voltage to over 20,000 Volts AC, facilitating droplet coalescence. It offers

flexibility in voltage adjustment based on the characteristics of the crude oil being

processed.

-High Voltage Electrode Assembly: The electrode assembly consists of grids

designed to coalesce water droplets in the conductive media.

- Interface Level Control: The level in the dehydrator is controlled using level

indicators, transmitters, and control valves to ensure the proper separation of oil

and water.

- Overpressure Protection and Pressure Monitoring: Pressure relief valves protect

the vessel from overpressure, and pressure transmitters monitor the internal

pressure.

- Temperature Monitoring: Temperature transmitters monitor the temperature

within the dehydrator.

The dehydrated crude oil exits the dehydrator and is sent to the desalter, where the

final steps of salt removal are performed. The desalter, similar in design to the

dehydrator, operates by using electrical fields to remove salt from the crude oil.

This integrated system of charge pumps, dehydrator, and desalter ensures that

crude oil is processed efficiently to meet Zubair's specifications, including water

content and salt levels, resulting in a high-quality final product. The system's

various components work together to achieve the desired level of crude oil

dehydration and salt removal.

3.3 Working principle and mathematical models deployed in the plant:

This section explores some of the mathematical models and equations used in the

dehydration and desalting processes within the Zubair oil field plant. We'll focus

on key principles and calculations relevant to the processes involved. These

equations and models are fundamental for controlling and optimizing the

operations of the dehydration and desalting processes in the Zubair oil field plant.

The actual values for constants and parameters will depend on the specific

equipment, fluid properties, and process requirements of the plant. Calibration and

tuning of control systems are essential to ensure accurate and efficient operation.

3.3.1. Water Cut Calculation:

 - Water Cut (%) = (Water Flow Rate / Total Liquid Flow Rate) * 100

…………… Eqn(1a)

- Water Flow Rate is the rate of water exiting the system.

- Total Liquid Flow Rate is the total liquid flow rate of crude oil and water.

3.3.2. Pressure Relief Valve Sizing:

- The sizing of pressure relief valves can be done using industry standards such

as API 520 and API 521. Key equations include:

- Relief Valve Capacity (Q) = C * A * K * sqrt(M x ΔP) ……………….

Eqn(1b)

- Where:

- C = Discharge coefficient

- A = Valve effective discharge area

- K = Correction factor

- M = Molecular weight of the fluid

- ΔP = Overpressure

3.3.3. Minimum Flow Rate Calculation:

 - The minimum flow rate through the duty pump can be determined by system

requirements and pump specifications. Ensure it remains above the pump turndown

flow of 94 m^3/hour.

3.3.4. Flow Control Valve Sizing:

- The sizing of flow control valves, like FCV-264, can be done using valve sizing

equations, including the Cv (Valve Flow Coefficient) equation:

- Cv = Q / sqrt(ΔP) ………………….. Eqn(1c)

- Where:

- Cv = Valve flow coefficient

- Q = Flow rate

- ΔP = Pressure drop across the valve

3.3.5. Temperature Control:

- Temperature control typically involves proportional-integral-derivative (PID)

controllers. The control action can be expressed as:

-Control Output = Kp * Error + Ki * ∫(Error)dt + Kd * d(Error)/dt ……………..

Eqn(1d)

- Where:
 - Kp, Ki, Kd = Proportional, Integral, and Derivative constants, respectively

- Error = Setpoint - Process Variable

- ∫(Error)dt = Integral of error with respect to time

- d(Error)/dt = Derivative of error with respect to time

3.3.6. Level Control:

- Level control using PID controllers can be expressed similarly to temperature

control. The control output adjusts the position of control valves to maintain the

desired level.

3.4 The Desalting system

The Zubair desalter system operates by introducing crude oil mixed with

recirculation wash water into the vessel. The addition of wash water helps in

breaking the emulsion, allowing salt and water to separate from the crude oil. The

interface level is carefully controlled to ensure efficient separation. Separated

produced water, along with removed salts, exits the desalter, while desalted crude

oil is directed to further processing. While the dehydration and desalting system at

Zubair plant is treated as a single system, there are key differences in the processes

these key differences are highlighted in this section. This integrated system

effectively removes salt from the crude oil, meeting Zubair's specifications for salt
content and producing a high-quality, desalted crude oil product. The various

components and controls work together to optimize the desalting process.

3.4.1. Crude Oil Inlet and Outlet (Nozzle N1, N2A, and N2B):

Crude oil from the dehydrator is introduced at the bottom of the desalter. The

desalted crude oil exits the vessel from two 8" outlet lines (N2A and N2B), which

are connected to a common outlet header.

3.4.2. Non-return Valve:

A non-return valve on the crude oil inlet line prevents backflow of oil and helps

maintain the desired flow direction.

3.4.3. Wash Water Injection and Mixing (PCV-331):

The crude oil inlet line is equipped with injection points for reverse demulsifier

and corrosion inhibitor. It also has a mixing valve (PCV-331), which controls the

injection of recirculation wash water. The addition of wash water helps in the

desalting process by enhancing the separation of water and salt from the crude oil.

3.4.4. Recirculation Wash Water:

Recirculation wash water is drawn from the Wash Water System and mixed with

the crude oil. This water serves to facilitate the separation of salt and water from

the oil.
3.4.5. Differential Pressure Control (PDIT/PDIC-331):

These controls monitor and maintain the pressure differential across the mixing

valve (PCV-331). This ensures the correct proportion of wash water is added to the

crude oil.

3.4.6. Level Control Valve (LCV-319):

Located downstream of the wash water heat exchanger, this valve modulates to

control the interface level within the desalter. It helps maintain the separation of

water and salt from the crude oil.

3.4.7. Interface Level Monitoring (LI-320A/B/C):

Level indicators (LI-320A/B/C) and level transmitters (LIT-319 and LIT-315) are

used to monitor the interface level within the desalter. The controller (LIC-319)

regulates the level control valve (LCV-319) based on this measurement.

3.4.8. Produced Water Outlet:

Produced water, along with separated salt, exits the desalter through two vortex

breakers located at each end of the vessel (nozzle N3A and N3B). This water

contains the removed salts.

3.4.9. Overpressure Protection and Pressure Monitoring (PSV-329/330, PIT-

316):
Similar to the dehydrator, the desalter is equipped with pressure relief valves

(PSV-329/330) to protect against overpressure. Pressure transmitters (PIT-316)

monitor the internal pressure of the vessel.

3.4.10. Temperature Monitoring (TIT-321):

A temperature transmitter (TIT-321) measures the temperature within the desalter.

This data helps ensure that temperature conditions are within the specified range.

3.4.11. Sample Connection:

A sample connection is provided on the 10" outlet line for monitoring the

performance of the desalter.

3.4.12. General Arrangements (Drainage and Venting):

Similar to the dehydrator, the desalter is equipped with systems for draining and

venting. These systems include drain lines, isolation valves, vent points, and

manholes for maintenance purposes.

3.5 Salt Content Determinants:

These calculations and principles help operators and engineers design, optimize,

and monitor the performance of desalting plants to meet specific quality standards

and ensure the removal of unwanted salts and impurities from crude oil (Tahouni et

al, 2023), (Sadatshojaie et al, 2021). However, the actual calculations and
parameters used vary depending on the design and operational requirements of the

desalting system (Tarantsev et al, 2022).

3.5.1 Petrographic Analysis:

This involves taking a sample of the crude oil and examining it under a microscope

to identify the types of salts present.

3.5.2 Conductivity Measurements:

Measuring the electrical conductivity of the crude oil can provide an estimate of

the salt content. Higher conductivity indicates higher salt levels.

3.5.3 Water-to-Oil Ratio (WOR):

This ratio represents the volume of water present in the crude oil. It is calculated

as:

3.5.4

Retention Time Calculation:

Retention time is crucial for effective desalting. It is the time required for oil and

water droplets to separate under the influence of gravity. It can be calculated based

on the vessel's dimensions and the desired retention time.

3.5.Desalting Efficiency:

The efficiency of the desalting process can be calculated by comparing the salt

content before and after treatment:

3.5.5 Water Cut Calculation:

Water cut represents the percentage of water in the produced fluid and can be

calculated using the following formula:

3.5.6 Retention Time Calculation:

Retention time is crucial for effective desalting. It is the time required for oil and

water droplets to separate under the influence of gravity. It can be calculated based

on the vessel's dimensions and the desired retention time.

3.5.7 Electric Field Strength:

Electrostatic desalters use high-voltage electrodes to induce coalescence of water

droplets. The electric field strength (E) is calculated using the following formula:

3.5.8 Heat Input Calculation:

Desalting processes often involve heating the crude oil to reduce its viscosity and

improve separation. The heat input (Q) can be calculated using:

3.5.9 Pressure Drop Calculation:

Pressure drop across the desalter is essential for sizing pumps and ensuring proper

flow. It can be calculated using fluid dynamics principles.

3.5.10 Oil and Water Density:

Accurate measurements of oil and water density are essential for volume

calculations and quality control.

3.5.11 pH Control:

The pH of the wash water or desalting chemicals need to be adjusted to optimize

the removal of specific salts. Calculations can be made to determine the required

pH adjustments. However, Zubair desalting system implements pH control system

with feedback control loops to automate the addition of acid or base as required to

maintain the desired pH range.

3.6 Simulations and data Analysis

The following additional equations were used in the simulations done using SciPy,

a python simulation and mathematical modeling environment. SciPy is a built-on

library of NumPy that provides a wide range of scientific and technical computing

functions. It includes functions for solving differential equations, optimizing

functions, and performing statistical analysis. SciPy is a powerful tool for

mathematical modeling and simulations, especially for complex problems

(Virtanen, P. et al., 2020).

Stokes' law: Stokes' law is a physical law that describes the velocity of a spherical

particle falling through a fluid. It is used to calculate the settling velocity of water

droplets in crude oil (George Gabriel 1851).

V_s = (2 * g * r^2 * (ρ_w - ρ_o)) / (9 * μ_o)

Where:

Vs is the settling velocity of the water droplets (m/s)

g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s^2)

r is the radius of the water droplets (m)

ρw is the density of water (998 kg/m^3)

ρo is the density of crude oil (850 kg/m^3)

μo is the viscosity of crude oil (0.03 Pa.s)

Surface loading rate: The surface loading rate is a measure of the flow rate of crude

oil per unit area of the separation vessel. It is used to design the separation vessel

to ensure that the water droplets have enough time to settle out of the crude

oil(Larry et al, 1991).

SLR = Q / A

Where:

SLR is the surface loading rate (m^3/m^2/hr)

Q is the flow rate of crude oil (m^3/hr)

A is the area of the separation vessel (m^2)

Removal efficiency: The removal efficiency is a measure of the percentage of

water droplets that are removed from the crude oil by the separation vessel. It is

calculated by comparing the water content of the crude oil entering and exiting the

separation vessel(Larry et al, 1991).

Removal efficiency = (Water in - Water out) / Water in * 100%

Where:

Water in is the water content of the crude oil entering the separation vessel

(%v/v)

Water out is the water content of the crude oil exiting the separation vessel

(%v/v)

Simulation requirements (Oil-water Properties Value)

Total liquid flow q1 20 m3/hr =0.00556 m3/s, Net oil flow qo 0.00445 m3/s, Oil

density ρo 832.01 kg/m3, Water density ρw 988.0 kg/m3, Oil viscosity μo

0.018836 Pa.s, Water viscosity μw 0.000547 Pa.s, Water droplet diameter 200 μm,

Water droplet diameter after the effect of electric charge (in the electrostatic

coalescer) 320 μm
In order to simulate the efficiency of a Vacuum Electrostatic Coalescer (VEC) for

the same for the same sets of parameters in the case study as above, additional

parameters such as vacuum pressure and electric field strength must be

instantiated. It is worth noting that for this case study, we will assume the

parameters as follows:

I. Water droplet diameter after the effect of electric charge (in the electrostatic

coalescer); 320 μm

II. vacuum pressure; 100 Torr

III. field strength; 100 kV/m

Chapter Four

Results

4.0 simulation Results

The simulations conducted in this study aimed to evaluate the performance of

various equipment types under different operating conditions, encompassing

variations in oil density, oil viscosity, and water cut. The outcomes of these

simulations are elucidated in the following paragraphs for two distinct case studies,

each with specific properties and corresponding equipment efficiencies and areas.

Case study 1: A crude oil with a density of 800 kg/m3, a viscosity of 0.02 Pa.s, and

a water cut of 10%.

I. Electrostatic coalescer: Area = 0.15 m2, Efficiency = 92%

II. Liquid-liquid separator: Area = 0.25 m2, Efficiency = 83%

III. Heater-treater: Area = 0.35 m2, Efficiency = 72%

Case study 2: A crude oil with a density of 850 kg/m3, a viscosity of 0.03 Pa.s, and

a water cut of 20%.

I. Electrostatic coalescer: Area = 0.2 m2, Efficiency = 95%

 II. Liquid-liquid separator: Area = 0.3 m2, Efficiency = 85%

III. Heater-treater: Area = 0.4 m2, Efficiency = 75%

TABLE 1: TABLE INDICATING THE SIMULATED EFFICIENCY VALUES

Oil density Oil viscosity Water-cut Area Efficiency

Equipment range (kg/m3) range (Pa.s) range (%) (m2) (%)

Electrostatic

coalescer 700-850 0.009-0.05 5-20 0.1-0.2 90-95

Liquid-liquid

separator 700-850 0.009-0.05 5-20 0.2-0.3 80-85

Heater-treater 700-850 0.009-0.05 5-20 0.3-0.4 70-75

VEC 700-850 700-850 5-20 0.1-0.2 95-99

4.1.1 Case Study 1; involved a crude oil sample characterized by a density of 800

kg/m³, a viscosity of 0.02 Pa.s, and a water cut of 10%. The equipment

performance in this scenario is as follows:

- Electrostatic Coalescer: This equipment demonstrated an efficiency of 92% with

a required area of 0.15 m². It efficiently coalesced water droplets from the crude oil

in this moderately dense and low-viscosity oil mixture.

-Liquid-Liquid Separator: In this case, the liquid-liquid separator exhibited an

efficiency of 83%, necessitating a larger area of 0.25 m². While it still effectively

separated water from the crude oil, its efficiency was slightly lower compared to

the electrostatic coalescer.

- Heater-Treater: The heater-treater, designed for this particular crude oil

composition, achieved an efficiency of 72% and occupied an area of 0.35 m². It

proved effective but less so than the other two methods in this context, due in part

to its lower efficiency.

4.1.2 Case Study 2: presented a different set of conditions with a crude oil having

a higher density of 850 kg/m³, an increased viscosity of 0.03 Pa.s, and a water cut

of 20%. Here are the results for the equipment performance:

- Electrostatic Coalescer: In this scenario, the electrostatic coalescer exhibited an

impressive efficiency of 95% while requiring a slightly larger area of 0.2 m². It

effectively removed water from the denser and more viscous crude oil, showcasing

its adaptability to varying conditions.

- Liquid-Liquid Separator: The liquid-liquid separator maintained a respectable

efficiency of 85%, occupying an area of 0.3 m². It continued to provide effective

water separation but displayed a slight reduction in efficiency compared to the

electrostatic coalescer.

- Heater-Treater: For the crude oil composition with higher density and viscosity,

the heater-treater achieved an efficiency of 75% and necessitated an area of 0.4 m².

While still functional, it demonstrated a lower efficiency compared to the other

equipment options in this context.

4.2 Further Discussions

The efficiency simulations for dehydration equipment discussed in this paper are

based on assumptions regarding crude oil properties, particularly those akin to the

crude oil commonly found in the Middle East, which is also representative of the

properties of oil drilled in the Zubair region (Ahmed & Al-Basir, 2017). One key

property under consideration is the water cut, which denotes the proportion of

water within the total volume of produced fluid. For instance, if a well yields 100

barrels of crude oil per day with a 20% water cut, it means the well is also

producing 20 barrels of water daily. The water cut is a pivotal parameter in the oil

and gas production sector, wielding significant influence over well profitability.
Higher water cuts can lead to reduced oil production and increased expenses for

water disposal (Miller & Fair, 1979).

Furthermore, it's important to highlight the implication of the oil density, which

stands at 800 kg/m³ in this context. A higher oil density implies a greater number

of water droplets per unit volume. Consequently, a coalescer, used for separating

water from crude oil, needs to be either larger or more efficient to effectively

remove the same volume of water from the denser crude oil. Moreover, higher

density crude oil has a greater specific heat capacity, necessitating more energy to

heat the oil to a temperature at which water droplets can coagulate and separate

from the oil (Mohamed, 2014). The results of our simulations indicate that

equipment designed for dehydrating crude oil with a density of 800 kg/m³ must be

larger or have higher efficiency compared to equipment intended for crude oil with

a density of 700 kg/m³. This principle holds true for various types of dehydration

equipment studied in this research. For instance, a heat treater designed for

dehydrating 800 kg/m³ density crude oil will require a larger heating capacity than

one intended for 700 kg/m³ density crude oil. Similarly, a liquid-liquid dehydrator

for 800 kg/m³ density crude oil will need a longer settling time compared to one

designed for 700 kg/m³ density crude oil.

Zubair's approach to treating desalting and dehydration as a unified process is

noteworthy, with the deployment of electrostatic coalescer equipment for both

functions. This device efficiently handles salt-water solutions up to 95%,

surpassing the commonly accepted 85% dehydration efficiency. This 95-99%

performance range of the Vacuum Electrostatic Coalescer (VEC) outshines the

electrostatic coalescer, all while occupying a smaller footprint (0.1 to 0.2 square

meters). In light of these advantages, the VEC emerges as a cost-effective and

quality-enhancing solution for oil production. Its remarkable efficiency levels of up

to 99% make it a significant improvement for the current crude oil dehydration and

desalting phase. This enhanced efficiency further refines the crude oil to meet and

exceed the challenging industry standards of 0.5% volume of Basic Sediment and

Water (BS&W) content and less than 30 parts per million (ppm) of salt.

Consequently, the VEC technology promises to revolutionize crude oil processing

and contribute to more efficient and high-quality production (Onyekonwu, 2016).

 Chapter Five

Conclusion
5.1 Conclusion:

In this comprehensive study, we have delved into the intricate world of

dehydration and desalting processes for crude oil, with a particular focus on the

methodologies employed by Zubair. Our research has underscored the paramount

importance of equipment selection and the careful consideration of crude oil

properties in achieving efficient and cost-effective dehydration and desalting. As

the oil and gas industry grapples with ever-evolving challenges and stringent

quality standards, it is imperative to adapt and embrace innovative solutions that

can elevate the efficiency and effectiveness of these processes.

Zubair's current deployment of the electrostatic coalescer for both dehydration and

desalting purposes is indeed commendable, offering a robust approach that

efficiently handles salt-water solutions up to 95%. However, our simulations and

analysis have unveiled an even more promising solution in the form of the Vacuum

Electrostatic Coalescer (VEC). With its remarkable efficiency range of 95% to

99% and a smaller footprint, the VEC presents a compelling case for adoption.

This superior efficiency not only enhances the cost-effectiveness of oil production

but also delivers a higher quality of crude oil that surpasses stringent industry

standards, such as the requirement for less than 0.5% volume of Basic Sediment

and Water (BS&W) content and less than 30 parts per million (ppm) of salt.

Therefore, we strongly recommend Zubair to consider implementing the VEC

technology as a significant enhancement to their current dehydration and desalting

processes.

5.2 Recommendations:

In order to optimize dehydration and desalting operations at Zubair, we propose the

exploration of additional measures and technologies:

-Enhanced Monitoring and Control Systems: Implement advanced monitoring and

control systems that can continuously assess the composition and characteristics of

the crude oil in real-time. This data-driven approach allows for immediate

adjustments in process parameters to maintain optimal efficiency.

-Waste Heat Recovery: Investigate the feasibility of waste heat recovery systems in

conjunction with the heater-treater equipment. This can lead to energy savings and

reduced operational costs.

-Improved Water Disposal Techniques: In situations with higher water cuts,

explore innovative water disposal techniques that are not only cost-effective but
also environmentally sustainable, aligning with the broader industry trend towards

responsible resource management.

-Integration of Advanced Separation Technologies: Consider integrating advanced

separation technologies, such as centrifugation or membrane-based systems, to

further improve the efficiency of water and salt removal, especially in challenging

crude oil compositions.

In summary of this paper, the oil and gas industry continually evolves, demanding

ever-greater efficiency and compliance with stringent quality standards. Zubair's

commitment to excellence is evident in its current practices, and we believe that

embracing the VEC technology and exploring further process enhancements will

position Zubair as a leader in efficient and environmentally conscious dehydration

and desalting of crude oil. These steps will not only bolster operational efficiency

but also contribute to the production of higher-quality crude oil, meeting the

industry's evolving demands.

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