Introduction to Animal Structure and Function

 Despite the perceivable differences, animal groups share many characteristics.

 One of these characteristics are their relatively large size.
 Why are most animals larger than bacteria, protists, and fungi?
 Due to ecological niches. These are the functional role of a species within a community.
 By the time animals evolved, bacteria, protists, and fungi already occupied most available ecological
niches. In order to success, they either had to displace other organisms from a niche or adapt to a
new one.
 Success in a new niche required a new body plan, and a new body plan involved a larger size. Larger
size gave more opportunity for capturing food. That’s why predators are larger than their prey.
 To grow larger, animals had to be multicellular.
 The number of cells is responsible for the size of an animal.
 In multicellular organism, cells specialize to perform specific tasks.
 Tissue – consists of a group of closely associated, similar cells that carry out specific functions.
 Organs – formed when tissues associate (heart or stomach)
 Organ systems – formed by groups of tissues and organs of a complex organism.
 Homeostatis – cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems work together to maintain a relatively constant
internal environment.
 Homeoststic mechanisms – the process that accomplish the task. In mammals, the endocrine and
circulatory systems work together to regulate body temperature.

TISSUES

 Biologists classify animal tissues as epithelial, connective, muscle, or nervous tissue.

 Classification depends on structure and origin.
 Each kind is composed of cells with characteristic sizes, shapes, and arrangements.
 Each type is specialized to perform a specific function or group of functions.
 Example: Some tissues are specialized to transport materials. Others contract to enable animals to
move. Others secrete hormones that regulate metabolic processes.
 There is a relationship between its form and function.
EPITHELIAL TISSUES

 This covers the body and line its cavities.

 Also called epithelium
 Consists of cells fitted tightly together to form a continuous layer or sheet of cells.
 One surface of the sheet is typically exposed because it covers the body (outer layer of the skin) or
lines a cavity (lumen cavity or intestine).
 The other surface attaches itself to the underlying tissue by a non-cellular basement membrane.
This membrane is consists of tiny fibers and nonliving polysaccharide material that the epithelial
cells produce.
 Forms the outer layer of the skin and the linings of the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive
tracts.
 Everything that enters or leaves the body, must cross at least one layer of the epithelium.
 Food swallowed is not really “inside” the body until I is absorbed through the epithelium of the gut
and enters the blood.
 The various epithelial tissues regulate the exchange of substances between the different parts of the body.
 Includes between the animal and the external environment.
 Perform many functions: protection, absorption, secretion, and sensation.
 Epidermis (epithelial layer of the skin) – covers the entire body and protects it from injury,
chemicals, bacteria, and fluid loss.
 The epithelial tissue lining the digestive tract absorbs nutrients and water into the body.
 Glands (formed by some epithelial cells) – secrete cell products such as hormones, enzymes, or
sweat.
  Other epithelial cells are sensory receptors that receive information from the environment (epithelial
cells in taste buds and in the nose specialize as chemical receptors).
 Three Types of Epithelial Tissues According to Shape
 Squamous epithelial cells – epithelial cells are thin, flat cells shaped like flagstones.
 Cuboidal epithelial cells – short, cylinders that from the side appear cube-shaped, like dice.
 Columnar epithelial cells – look like columns or cylinders when viewed from the side. Most
of the upper respiratory tract is lined with ciliated columnar epithelium that moves dust particles and
other foreign materials away from the lungs.
 Classifications of Epithelial Tissues According to the Number of Layers
 Simple epithelium – composed of one layer of cells. Located where substances are secreted,
excreted, or absorbed, or where materials diffuse between compartments. Example: Simple
squamous epithelium lines the air sac in the lungs. The tissue structure permits the diffusion of gases
in and out of air sacs.
 Stratified epithelium – has two or more layers. Found where protection is required. Example:
Stratified squamous epithelium makes up the outer layer of the skin, continuously generating as it is
sloughed off during normal wear and tear.
 Pseudostratified epithelium – falsely appear layered. All its cells rest on a basement membrane.
Some of the respiratory passageways are lined with these tissues that are equipped with cilia.
 Gland – consists of one or more epithelial cells specialized to produce and secrete a product (sweat, milk,
mucus, wax, saliva, hormones, or enzymes).
 Epithelial tissue that line the cavities and passageways of the body has some specialized mucus-
secreting cells called goblet cells. The mucus lubricates these surfaces, offers protection, and
facilitates movement of materials.
 Classifications of Glands
 Exocrine glands – secrete their products onto a free epithelial surface typically through a duct or
tube (goblet cells and sweat glands).
 Endocrine glands – lack ducts. Release their products called hormones into the blood. Hormones
are typically transported via circulatory system.
 Epithelial membrane – consists of a sheet of epithelial tissue and a layer of underlying connective tissue.
 Mucous membrane – mucosa, lines a body cavity that opens to the outside of the body (digestive or
respiratory tract). The epithelial tissue secretes mucus to protect it from drying.
 Serous membrane – lines a body cavity that doesn’t open to the outside of the body (pleural
membranes lining the pleural cavities around the lungs and pericardial membranes lining the
pericardial cavity around the heart).

CONNECTIVE TISSUES

 Support other body structures.

 A framework that supports and cushions every organ in the body.
 Contain relatively few cells.
 3 Types of Fibers Contained in Connective Tissues
 Collagen fibers – most numerous type. Made of collagens (a group of fibrous proteins found in all
animals). They are wavy and flexible, allowing them to remain intact when tissue is stretched.
 Elastic fibers – branch and fuse to form networks. Can be stretched by force and return to their
original size and shape when force is removed.
 Reticular fibers – very thin, branched fibers that form delicate networks joining connective tissues
to neighboring tissues.
 Fibroblasts – cells that are especially active in developing tissue and are important in healing wounds. As
tissues mature, the number of fibroblasts decreases and they become less active.
 Macrophages – the body’s scavenger cells. Wander through connective tissues, cleaning up cell debris and
foreign matter (bacteria).
 7 Main Types of Connective Tissue
 Loose connective tissue – the most widely distributed connective tissue in the vertebrate body.
Nerves, blood vessels, and muscles are wrapped with this tissue. Together with adipose tissue, it
 forms a subcutaneous (below the skin) layer that attaches skin to the muscles and other structures
beneath. Its flexibility permits the parts it connects to move.
 Dense connective tissue – found in the dermis (lower layer) of the skin. Very strong but somewhat
less flexible than the prior. Collagen fibers predominate. They consist the tendons and the ligaments.
Tendons are cords that connect muscles to bone. Ligaments are cables that connect bones to one
another.
 Elastic connective tissue – consists of bundles of parallel elastic fibers. Found in structures that
must expand and then return to their original size (lung tissue).
 Reticular connective tissue – composed mainly of interlacing fibers. Forms a supporting internal
framework in many organs (liver, spleen, and lymph nodes).
 Adipose tissue – store fat and release it when fuel is needed for cellular respiration. Found in the
subcutaneous layer and cushions the internal organs.
 Cartilage – supporting skeletons in sharks and rays; end of bones of mammals. Found in tip of nose;
external ear; supporting rings in the walls of the respiratory passageways; discs that serve as
cushions between vertebrae. Functions as flexible support.
 Bone – main vertebrae skeletal tissue. Highly vascular tissue with substantial blood supply. Forms
skeletal structure in most vertebrates. Support and protect internal organs; calcium reservoir.
 Blood – circulating tissues that help other parts of the body communicate and interact. Found within
the heart and blood vessels of the circulatory system. Functions to transport oxygen, nutrients,
wastes, and other materials. (Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets all suspended within
plasma, the liquid non-cellular part of the blood). RBC transport oxygen. WBC defend the body
against disease-causing microorganisms. Platelets, small fragments broken off from large cells in
the bone marrow, play a role in blood clotting.

MUSCLE TISSUES

 Specialized to contract.
 Most animals move by contracting the long, cylindrical or spindle-shaped cells of muscle tissue.
 Muscle fiber – what each muscle cell are called because of its length. Contains myofibrils, proteins,
myosin, and actin which play a key role in the contraction of muscle fibers.
 3 Types of Muscle Tissues in Vertebrates
 Skeletal muscle – the large muscle masses attached to the bones of the body. Generally under
voluntary control.
 Cardiac muscle – the main tissue of the heart. The fibers join end-to-end and branch out and rejoin
to form complex networks.
 Smooth muscle – occurs in the walls of the digestive tract, the uterus, blood vessels, and many other
internal organs

NERVOUS TISSUES

 Controls muscles and glands.

 Consists of neurons and glial cells. Neurons – specialized for receiving and transmitting signals. Glial cells
– support and nourish the neurons.
 Neurons – transmit signals to and from the brain and the spinal cord. Contains a cell body, dendrites and
axon. Cell body contains the dendrites and the axon. Dendrites receive signals and transmit them to the cell
body. Axon transmits the signals away from the cell body.
 Synapses – the junctions where neurons communicate.

ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS

 An animal organ may be composed of mainly one type of tissue. But other types are needed to support,
protect, provide blood supply, and transmit information.
 Example: The heart.
 Mainly composed of cardiac tissue
 Lined with endothelium and contains blood vessels made of endothelium.
 Contains smooth muscle and connective tissue.
 Has nerves that transmit information and help regulate the rate and strength of its contractions.
 Organ systems – an organized group of tissues and organs that together perform a specialized set of
functions.

SYSTEM COMPONENTS FUNCTIONS HOMEOSTATIC ABILITY

Integumentary Skin, hair, nails, sweat o Covers and protects the body o Sweat glands help
glands o Regulate body temperature control body
and receives stimuli such as temperature; as a barrier,
 pressure, pain, and the skin helps maintain a
temperature. steady state.
Skeletal Bones, cartilage, o Helps support and protect the o Helps maintain constant
ligaments body. calcium level in blood.
o Provide movement and
locomotion.
o Stores calcium.
Muscular Skeletal muscles, o Moves parts of skeleton. o Ensures vital functions
Cardiac muscles, o Provides locomotion. requiring movement
smooth muscles o Moves internal materials. (cardiac muscle
circulates the blood).
Digestive Mouth, esophagus, o Ingests and digests food by o Maintains adequate
stomach, intestine, mechanically and supplies of fuel
liver, pancreas, enzymatically breaking down molecules and building
salivary glands food. materials.
o Absorbs nutrients into blood.
o Eliminates waste.
Circulatory Heart, blood vessels, o Transports materials from o Transports oxygen,
blood; lymph and one part of the body to nutrients, hormones,
lymph structures another. wastes, maintains water
(lymphatic system is a o Defends the body against and salt balance of tissue.
subsystem of the disease-causing organisms
circulatory system)
Respiratory Lungs, trachea, and o Exchange gases between o Maintains adequate
other air passageways blood and external blood oxygen content
environment. and helps regulate blood
o Supply oxygen to the blood pH.
and excretes carbon dioxide. o Removes carbon dioxide
from the blood.
Urinary Kidney, bladder, and o Main excretory system of the o Helps regulate volume
associated ducts body. and composition of blood
o Excretes metabolic wastes. and bodily fluids.
o Removes excessive
substances from blood
(kidneys remove wastes from
the blood and produce urine).
Nervous Nerves and sense o Receives stimuli from o The principal regulatory
organs: brain and external and internal system
spinal cord. environment.
o Conducts impulses.
o Integrates activities of other
systems.
Endocrine Ductless glands o Regulates blood chemistry o Regulates metabolic
(pituitary, adrenal, and many body functions. activities and blood
thyroid) and tissues levels by working with
that secrete hormones the nervous system.
Reproductive Testes, ovaries, and o Sexual reproduction o Maintains sexual
associate structures o Passes on genes to the next characteristics.
generation.
10 MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEM

THE BODY MAINTAINS HOMEOSTASIS

 To survive and function, the organism’s must carefully regulate the composition of many internal things at
all times.
 Fluids that bathe its cells
 Appropriate concentration of nutrients, oxygen, other gases, ions needed for metabolism.
 Homeostasis: the tendency to maintain a balanced internal environment.
 Coined by U.S. physiologists Walter Cannon
 Derived from the Greek word homoios = same and stasis = standing
 Homeostatic mechanisms: the control processes that maintain these homeostatic conditions
 How does it work? This works through feedback systems. Such a system consists of a cycle of
events in which information about a change (change in temp.) is fed into the system so that the
regulator (temp. regulating center of the brain) can control the process (temp. regulation).
 The desired condition is referred as the set point.
 When body temp. becomes too high or too low, the changes serve as input, triggering the regulator
to counter-act the change. The regulator activates mechanisms that brings the system back to the set
point.
 The return to normal temp. signals the temp.regulating center to “shut off” the mechanism.
 Negative feedback: the response counteracts the inappropriate change, restoring the steady state.
Most homeostatic mechanisms in the body are negative feedback.
 Positive feedback: a deviation from the steady states sets off a series of changes that intensify
(rather than reverse) the changes.
 Example of positive feedback: Birth of a baby. As the baby’s head pushes against the opening of
the uterus, a reflex action causes the uterus to contract.
 Stressors: changes in internal or external environment that affect normal conditions within the body. This
challenges homeostasis.

Animal Nutrition
 Feeding – the selection, acquisition, and ingestion of food.
 Ingestion – the process of taking food into the digestive cavity.
o Includes taking food into the math and swallowing it.
 o Most animals have specialized digestive systems that processes the food they eat.
 Digestion – the process of breaking down food.
 This is because animals eat the macromolecules tailor-made by and for other organisms, they must
break down these molecules and fashion them for their own needs.
 They must first mechanically digest their food then chemically digest it by enzymatic hydrolysis.
 Absorption – amino acids and other nutrients pass through the lining of the digestive track and into the
blood through this.
 Egestion – food that is not digested and absorbed are discharged from the body in simple animals.
 Elimination – food that is not digested and absorbed are discharged from the body in more complex
animals.

Nutrition is the process of taking in food and converting it into living matter. Animal feed by taking in
complex organic matter (holozoic nutrition).
In animals, nutrition consists of the following processes:
 Feeding/ingestion – Food taken into the body
 Digestion – Large food molecules broken down into smaller soluble molecules that can be absorbed into
the body cells
 Absorption – Digested food substances absorbed into the body cells
 Assimilation – Some of the absorbed food substances are converted into new protoplasm or used to
provide energy

Feeding/ingestion:
 Mouth and buccal cavity – Food enters mouth which leads to the buccal cavity,
 teeth breaks down food into smaller pieces
 salivary glands produce saliva which flows into oral/buccal cavity via tubes known as ducts
 tongue helps to mix food with saliva

The pharynx – Passageway for food and air into the body
 connects to the oesophagus and larynx (contains a slit-like opening known as the glottis)
 larynx leads to the trachea (windpipe; leading to the lungs)
 flap-like tissue epiglottis above the larynx, behind the root of the tongue, prevents food from going
down the wrong way
The oesophagus/gullet – Narrow muscular tube which pass through the thorax (chest) and diaphragm to join
the stomach
 wall of oesophagus made up of two layers of muscles (longitudinal muscles on the outside, circular
muscles on the inside of gut) –> peristalsis

The stomach – Distensible (can be stretched/expanded) muscular bag

when fully distended sends signals to the brain that it is full (or sated)
pits present on the stomach wall lead to gastric glands that secrete gastric juice
pyloric sphincter (ring of muscle) located at the junction between stomach and small intestine (contract/relax
to close/open the entrance to small intestine)

The large intestine – Shorter and broader

 colon absorb water and mineral salts from undigested food)
 rectum is a temporary storage of faeces
 caecum is a sac-like structure between colon and intestine, attached to the appendix (no specific
function)
Accessory organs involved in digestion –
 Liver – largest gland in the body, secrete bile which is a greenish-yellow liquid that contains bile salts
& bile pigments which help to speed up digestion of fats by emulsifying fats into small fat molecules
 gall bladder is the temporary storage area for bile, connected and release bile to duodenum via bile duct
 pancreas is connected to the duodenum by pancreatic duct, produces pancreatic juice containing
digestive enzymes along with the hormones insulin and glucagon