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1
Functions
Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you will review precalculus topics. Although these topics are not
directly tested on the AP exam, reviewing them will reinforce some basic principles:
> General properties of functions: domain, range, composition, inverse
> Special functions: absolute value, greatest integer; polynomial, rational, trigono-
metric, exponential, and logarithmic
‘And some BC topics:
> Parametrically defined curves
> Polar curves
A. Definitions
AI, A function f isa correspondence that associates with each element a ofa set called the Function
domain one and only one element b of a set called the range. We write rome
fa)=b
to indicate that b isthe value of fata. The elements in the domain are called inputs, and those in
the range are called outputs.
‘A function is often represented by an equation, a graph, or a table,
A vertical line cuts the graph of a function in at most one point.
By Example 1
‘The domain of f(x) = x2 — 2s the set ofall real numbers; its range is the set of all reals greater
than or equal to ~2. Note that
flo)=02-2=-2 f-1)=(-1)°-
fWI=W3P-2=1 flQ=et-2
“flor+ h) — fe) = [+ ny? - 2] — [x2 - 2)
a x24 he 2 242 = Dh HP
Bq Example 2
Find the domains of: (a) f(x)
@ Solutions
4
(a) ‘The domain of f(x) isthe set of all reals except x= 1 (which we shorten to “x= 1") 64 AP CALCULUS PREMIUM
(b) ‘The domain of (2)
ay pisxe3,-3,
29
(c) The domain of h(x) =
x
a Solutions
fe) 2-4
ga) FFT
e@)_ eel ort
Ja) Poe ea)
‘Composition ‘AS. ‘the composition (or composite) of fwith g, written as f{g(x)) and read as "fof g of x! is
the function obtained by replacing x wherever it occurs in f(x) by g(x). We also write (f° g)(x)
for flg(x). The domain of (f» (x) isthe set ofall xin the domain of g for which g(x) isin the
domain of f.
Bdexampie 4a _
If fc = 2x — Land g(x) = x, then does figtx) = g( flail?
and has domain x= 1
and has domain x= 0,4
lution
filo) = 2!) 12x81
(FO) = (x1 = 4x? act
Ingeneral, f(g(3) = (fC).
Example 4B
Ifflx) = 4x? — 1 and g(x) = Vz, find fl g(x)) and g(fla)).
Solutions
Aa =4x—1 (20% ge) = v= (1 i)
‘symmetry ‘Ad, A function fis oda if, for all xin the domain of fx) =~). A function fis even if, for all,
xin the domain off.) =.
‘The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin; the graph of an even function is
symmetric about the y-axis. CHAPTER 1: FUNCTIONS 65
BExample 5
‘The graphs of, if) = 3x8 and (x) = 3x? — 1 are shown in Figure 1.1; f(x) is odd, g(x) even.
f-9= Eons fo
Sisis os
238-1240)
;
{
; Figure 1.1
AAS, If function fyieldsa single output for each input and also yields a single input for every
output, then is sai to be one-to-one. Geometrically, this means that any horizontal line cuts the
‘graph of in at most one point. ‘he function sketched at the left in Figure 1.1 is one-to-one; the
function sketched at the right is not. A function that is increasing (or decreasing) on an interval J
is one-to-one on that interval (see pages 165-164 for definitions of increasing and decreasing
functions). Graphs that are strictly increasing (or decreasing) on their domain are one-to-one
functions. .
AG, If fis one-to-one with domain X and range ¥, then there isa function f~, with domain Y
and range X, such that
PU )=% — Mandonlyit —fl%)=yy baiaiad
‘The function f~" is the inverse of f. It can be shown that fis also one-to-one
and hat ts invese ihe graphs of funeion ants inversearesymmetrc To fate ies of
: ¥ =f), interchange
with rspectto the line y= x, yee
tory.
BhExample 6
Find the inverse of the one-to-one function f(x) =x
@ Solution
Interchange xand y:
Solvefory: y= FT=f-%) 66 AP CALCULUS PREMIUM
Figure 1.2
Note that the graphs of fand f-1 in Figure 1.2 are mirror images, with the line y= as the mirror.
Zeros [A7. ‘The zeros ofa function fare the values of rfor which f(x) = 0; they are the x-intercepts of
the graph of y = f(a).
BR Example 7
Find zeros of (x) = x4 — 24%
[@ Solution
“The zeros are the xs for which x*
‘equals zero ifx = 0, +2, or —V2.
‘2x? = 0. The function has three zeros, since x* — 2x? = x%(x? — 2)
B, Special Functions
‘the absolute-value function f(x) = |x| andthe greatest integer function gs) = x] ae sketched in
Figure 13.
Absolute :
vee
1
0] T 7
sitx=0
Greatest fa)! —zifx<0
integer _ ot eter han x
Asolute-value function Grestest-integer function CHAPTER 1: FUNCTIONS 67
Example 8
‘A function fis defined on the interval [2,2] and has the graph shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4
@ Solutions
‘The graphs are shown in Figures 14a through 1.4d.
yal/ol yaflisl) ‘AP CALCULUS PREMIUM
Figure 1.4¢ Figure 1.44
Note that graph (c) of y = —f(x) isthe reflection of y= f(x) in the x-axis, whereas graph (4)
of y = f(-x) is the reflection of y = f(x) in the y-axis, How do the graphs of |f(2)| and f(|x])
compare with the graph off)?
Bh Example 9
Let (x) = 2° ~ 3x 4-2, Graph the following functions on your calculator in the window
[-3,3] = [-3,3]: (@) y=f@)_ (b) y=|fG)|_ © y=F(lx))
‘Solutions
+
(a) y=fe) s
See Figure 1.50,
() y= if) :
See Figure 1.5b.
1
14
2
3
Figure 1.5b CHAPTER 1: FUNCTIONS 69.
© y=f(lxl)
‘See Figure 1.5c.
Note how the graphs for (b) and (c) compare with the graph for (a),
C, Polynomial and Other Rational Functions
C1. Polynomial Functions
A polynomial function is ofthe form.
Fo) =ag bay ba, 8 boat ay
‘where mis a positive integer or zero, andthe coefficients yay ty
the degree ofthe polynomial isn
A linear function, (x) = mx + bis ofthe frst degree; its graph isa straight line with slope m,
the constant rate of change of f(x) (ory) with respect tox, and bis the line's y-intercept,
‘A quadratic function, f(x) = ax? + bx + ¢, has degree 2; its graph is a parabola that opens up if
4 > 0,down if < 0, and whose axis isthe line x= — 2.
Acaubic function, f(x) = agx* + azx? + a,x-+ dy has degree 3; calculus enables us to sketch is
graph easly; and so on. The domain of every polynomial is the set of all reals.
are constants. Ifa, = 0,
C2. Rational Functions
‘A rational function is of the form.
where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials. The domain of fis the set of all reals for which Q(x) = 0.
D. Trigonometric Functions
‘The fundamental trigonometric identities, graphs, and reduction formulas are given in the
Appendix.
Polynomial
functions
Rational 70 AP CALCULUS PREMIUM
‘Trigonometric
functions
D1. Periodicity and Amplitude
‘he trigonometric functions are periodic. A function fis periodic if there is a positive number P|
such that f+ p) = fla) for each xin the domain off. The smallest such p is called the period
of The graph of frepeats every p units along the x-axls. The functions sin , cos x, csc x, and sec.x
hhave period 2x; tan x and cot x have period 7.
The function fl) = A sin bx has amplitude A and period >; g(x) = tan exhas period =
Ba Example 10
Consider the function fx) ~ # cos(kx).
(a) Forwhat value of k does f have period 2?
(©) Whacis the amplitude of f for this k?
Solutions —
(a) Function f has period 2%;
ken.
(b) _Iefollows that the amplitude of f that equals asa value of 1,
Since this must equal 2, we solve the equation 2 — 2, gett
Ey Example 11
Ey
Consider the function f(x) =
Find (a) the period and (b) the maximum value off.
(© Whatis the smallest positive x for which f is a maximum?
(@) Sketch the graph.
[@ Solutions
@
(b) Since the maximum value of —sin xis —(—1) or +1, the maximum value of f is 3+ 1 or 4.
o -( in) TE = 1, hati, when 35. Solving yields x =}
(4) Wegraph y= 3 — sin $*in [5,8] x [0,5] in Figure 1
432
(fix) =3—sin(rov3) CHAPTER 1: FUNCTIONS 71
D2. Inverses
‘We obtain inverses of the trigonometric functions by limiting the domains ofthe latter so each,
‘trigonometric function is one-to-one over its restricted domain. For example, we restrict,
sinxto -Zex< Inverse trig
2 functions:
cosxto OSS
tanxto -$cx 0, a= 1:
functions
a1 a aMegtaamt as ahaan—"
(anya ama
‘The exponential function f(x) = a* (a > 0, a = 1) is thus defined forall real x its range is the
set of positive reals. The graph ofy = a, when a =2 is shown in Figure 1.8,
Of special interest and importance in calculus isthe exponential function f(x) = e*, where eis,
an irrational number whose decimal approximation to five decimal places is 2.71828. We define ¢
on page 99.
E2. Logarithmic Functions
Log Since f(s) = ais one-to-one, ithas an inverse, f-1(x) = log, x, called the logarithmic function
functions with base @, We note that
y=log,x ifandonlyif a¥=x
‘The domain of log, xis the set of positive reals; ts range is the set ofall reals It follows thatthe
‘graphs ofthe pair of mutually inverse functions y= 2" and y= log, xare symmetric to the line
y=, asean be seen in Figure 1.8.
Figure 1.8,
‘he logarithmic function log, x(a > 0, a = 1) has the following properties:
Jog, mn = log, m-+ log,
log, = log,m—log,n log, x" = mlog, x
log,1=0 log,
‘The logarithmic base e is so important and convenient in calculus that we use a special
symbol:
log,x=Inx CHAPTER 1:FUNCTIONS 73
‘Logarithms with base e are called natural logarithms. The domain of In xis the et of postive
teal; ts range isthe set ofall reals. The graphs ofthe mutually inverse functions In x and e* are
siven in the Appendix,
F. Parametrically Defined Functions
Ifthe x- and y-coordinates ofa point on a graph are given as functions fand g of a third variable,
say ¢, then
=f y= 8)
are called parametric equations and tis called the parameter. When t represents time, as it often
does, then we can view the curve as that followed by a moving particle as the time varies.
By Example 12
Find the Cartesian equation of, and sketch, the curve defined by the parametric equations
x=4sin¢é y=Seost (02
ya) =x 36
a/ie))=
(0) 209 6x? 20-410
() 22 6e41
© -3
2
2 2x45 and g(x) =2, then
Ub flx) = 23 — 3x? — 2x-+ § and g(x) =2, then
Sls)
(A) 2x3 — 6x? 2x4 10
(B) 2x? 6x41
©-3
2
Ife) =29 + Ax? + Bx 3 and iff(1)=4 and
AH) = ~6, whatis the value of 24 + B?
12
(B) 8
jo
(©) -2
AT.
a9.
Alo.
An.
Which ofthe following equations has a graph
that is symmetric with respect to the origin?
. Let gbe a function defined forall reals. Which of
the following conditions isnot sufficient to guar-
antee that ghas an inverse function?
(8) gars baz
(B) gisstrictly decreasing
(©) gissymmetric to the origin
(D) gisone-to-one
Let y= f(x) = sin(arctan x). Then the range
offis
(A) fy|-. 2)
inx(-Z3}
(©) &| Ix] <3}
(0) fe|oo}
®) {y|o