Unit 5

Effective Stress

Dr. Jitendra Singh Yadav

Assistant Professor-I
Dept of Civil Engineering
NIT Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra Haryana
• Concept principle of effective stress,
• Effective stress under hydrostatic conditions,
• Capillary rise in soils,
• Effective stress in the zone of capillary rise,
• Effective stress under steady state hydro-dynamic conditions,
• Seepage force,
• Quick condition,
• Critical hydraulic gradient,
• Two dimensional flow,
• Laplace's equation,
• Properties and utilities of flownet,
• Graphical method of construction of flownets,
• Piping, protective filter
Different types of fluid flow in soils

A 1-D flow condition is the one where the velocity vectors are all
parallel and of equal in magnitude .
In other words, the water always moves parallel to some
axis and through a constant c/s area . 1-D flow
Steady downward flow occurs when
water is pumped from an underground
aquifer.
Steady upward flow occurs as a result of
artesian pressure when a less permeable layer
is underlain by a permeable layer which is
connected through the ground to a water
source providing pressures higher than local
Flow through hydrostatic pressures.
a confined aquifer
 Different types of fluid flow in soils 2-D flow
It occurs when all the velocity vectors are confined to a single plane but vary in direction
and magnitude within that plane.

Long excavation

Sheet pile wall

Different types of fluid flow in soils 3-D flow
Most general flow condition

E.g.
Flow towards a water well
Multi-dimensional fluid flow in soils

As of now, we have considered one -dimensional flow in soils, where all fluid is flowing
in the same direction.

In most cases, however, fluid in different regions will be flowing in different directions. →
Multi-dimensional flow

Hence, it is required to learn how to solve multi -dimensional flow problems

To develop these capabilities, we use
i) Equation of continuity
ii) Multi-dimensional forms of Darcy’s law
Seepage
Equation of continuity – Laplace Equation
In many practical cases, the nature of the flow through soil is such that the velocity and gradient
vary throughout the medium.
For these problems, calculation of flow isgenerally made by use of graphs referred to as flow nets.

The concept of flow net is based on Laplace’s equation of continuity, which describes the steady
flow condition for a given point in the soil mass.
Seepage
Equation of continuity

Details of small
z q+ z qy
element at A → dqz
qx + dqx
qx
x
qz + dqz
H1 h H2 y
qz
Flow at point A

Datum
A
 Seepage

Equation of continuity
Flows entering the soil prism in x , y, and z directions can be given from Darcy’ s law
as:
h 
q x = k x i x A x = k x   (dydz)
 x 
 h  h = hydraulic
q =k i A =k (dxdz)
y  head at point A
y
y y y y
 
h 
q z = k z i z A z = k z  (dxdy)
 z 

Where qx, qy, qz = flow entering in directions x, y, and z respectively.

Where kx, ky, kz = Coff. of permeability in directions x, y, and z respectively.

Seepage
For flow in x direction (Ax = dydz; h = total head)
z q+ z qy
dqz
qx + dqx
 h  qx dz
q x (in) = q x = k x   (dydz)
 x  x1 qz + dqz x
dy
 h 
q x (out) = q x + dq x = k x   (dydz) y dx
 x  x 2 qz
x1 x2
  h   h  
 dq x = k x   −    (dydz)
 x  x 2  x  x1 
Change in gradient over dx
  2 h  
dq x = k x   2  dx  (dydz)
  x  
Seepage

Equation of continuity
The respective flows leaving the soil prism in x, y, and z
directions can be given from Darcy’s law as:

 h  2 h
q x + dq x = k x (ix + dix ) Ax = k x  + 2 dx (dydz)
 x x 
 h +  2 h dy (dxdz)
q y + dq y = k y (i y + di y ) Ay = k y  
 y y
2

 h +  2 h dz (dydx)
q z + dq z = k z (iz + diz ) Az = k z  
 z z
2

Seepage
Equation of continuity

Using the principle of the conservation of fluid mass:

For steady flow through an incompressible medium, the flow entering the element
isequal to the flow leaving the element:

qin = qout
Seepage
Equation of continuity

qx + q y + qz = (qx + dqx ) + (q y + dq y ) + (qz + dqz )

By simplifying: Volume change/unit volume
= (1/1+e) e / t = 0 (i.e. e / t = 0)

Net flow into (or out 2h 2h 2h

of) element/ unit kx 2 + k y 2 + k z 2 = 0
time→ dx dy dz
2h 2h
For 2-D flow in the x -z plane kx 2 + kz 2 = 0
dx dz
Seepage
Equation of continuity
If the soil is isotropic with respect to permeability, kx = ky = kz, and the continuity equation
simplifies to:
Change in i x gradient/unit distance in x -direction

h h h
2 2 2
+ + =0 kx = ky = kz = k
dx2 dy2 dz2 k 0
Simplified Laplace ’s equation of continuity

For 2-D flow in the x -z plane 2h 2h

kx 2 + kz 2 = 0
kx  kz dx dz
Flow through a constant head permeameter in the laboratory

For 1-D flow in the Z Water Constant

direction: supply
water level

2h
2
= 0 A = area of
dz C/ S of the L h z
specimen
Change in i z
gradient/unit distance
in z-direction
i.e. vx = vy = 0
Ix =0; iz = constant.
Possible methods for solving the Laplace Equation

1) Analytical, closed form or series solutions of the partial differential equations

- quite mathematical, and not very general
2) Numerical solution methods
- typically, the finite element method or finite difference method;
- very powerful and easy to apply
- can deal with heterogeneity, anisotropy, 2D, 3D
3) Graphical Techniques – FLOW NET METHODS
- commonly used in engineering practice to solve 2D problems
Same energy
Features of Flow lines
Boundary Conditions
Flow net methods
Straightforward graphical method to solve 2D seepage problems
Solutions of Laplace Equation consist of two families of orthogonal curves in the (x,
z) plane.
These families of curves make a flow net.
Equipotential lines
The path which a particle of i.e. A line joining
water follows in its course of equal head
seepage through a sat. soil
mass is called flow line
Partial flow net
Flow lines
Flow net methods
Seepage - Flow net solution

The flow net solution is a graphical method of solving the 2-D Laplace’s equation:

h h
2 2
h2
+ =0 =0
x2 z2 x2
2-D flow 1-D flow

It describes the energy loss associated with flow

through a medium, and is used to solve many kinds of flow problems,
including those involving heat, electricity and seepage.
Seepage - Flow net solution
Flow nets are based on two mathematical functions:

Potential function  and Flow or Stream function 

Consider a function  (x, z) such that:

x


 h
= v x = −k (A)
x x
 h
= v z = −k (B) z
z z
Seepage - Flow net solution
By differentiating and substituting in Laplace equation of continuity:

We get
 
2 2
+ =0
x 2
z 2

 (x, z) satisfies the Laplace equation

Seepage - Flow net solution
 h
= vx = −k
x x
Integrating (A) and (B),   h
= vz = −k
z z
 (x, z) = −kh(x, z) + f (z) --from (A)

 (x, z) = −kh(x, z) + g (x) --from (B)

Since x and z can be varied independently , f (z) = g(x) = Constant

h ( x , z ) = − C −  ( x , z ) 
1 -- (C)
k
If h (x, z) represents a constant h 1, equation (C) represents a
curve in (x, z) plane.
Seepage - Flow net solution

Equipotential line: Curve in the cross-section such that

 is constant along the curve.

i.e., Total head is constant along equipotential line

Thus, family of curves is similar to the contour lines on a topographical map

Except drawn in a vertical section and the lines represent equal heads
(not equal elevations)
Seepage - Flow net solution
Along such contours of equal total head d = 0 From the definition of partial
differentiation and combining equations:

 
= vx = vz
It gives: x z
 
d = dx + dz
x z dx dz vx

d = vxdx + vzdz vz

Along an EQP line,  = constant, so d  = 0  dz  vx

  = −
 d x  vz
Seepage - Flow net solution
Flow or Stream function 
x
Consider a function  (x, z) such that:
1

 h
= v x = −k 1

z x 2

 h
− = v z = −k z
x z Inverse of potential function 

 
Combining equations and substituting in 2 2
Laplace equation: → →
So,  (x, z) also satisfies the + =0
Laplace equation x 2
z 2
Seepage - Flow net solution
From the definition of partial differentiation and combining equations:

It gives:
 
− = vz = vx
x z
Total differential of the  (x, z) is: vz
dx
 
d = dx + dz dz
x z
vx
d = − vzdx + vxdz
For a given flow line, if  is a constant,
 d z  = v z
d = 0 dx v
  x
Seepage - Flow net solution

It is apparent that the flow lines and equipotential lines intersect each
other at right angles (or orthogonal).

 dz  vx
  = −
 d x  vz

 d z  = v z
dx v
  x
Pore pressure in steady state seepage conditions

i = head drop per

unit length
For steady state
seepage
i = constant

Change in PWP between points P and Q: (per unit width)

 u = i  w ( s )
Seepage - Flow net solution

 When water flows through a porous medium such as soil, he ad is lost

through friction.
 Similar he ad losses occur when water seeps
through ane arth dam (unconfined flow)orunder a
Sheet pile cofferdam or concrete masonry dam
(confined flow)

As the particle of water proceeds from A to B, it exerts a frictional

drag on the soil particles; this drag in turn produces a seepage
pressure in the soil structure.
Example Problem: Flow net construction

Datum Number of Flow

channels Nf = 4

Number of
Potential drops
Nd = 6

Seepage pressure
Seepage- Flow net solution : Computation of discharge q

Aspect ratio: a / b
 hL / N 
i=  d

Hydraulic gradient i = h/ b  b 
Equipotential drops between two flow lines h =hL /Nd
From Darcy’s law, flow in each channel is:

 hL / N a q = Total discharge
q = k  d
 per unit width
 b 
a
 N   a 
q = khL  f  
 N d  b  b
 q ? and p w at B

Example problem: Flow net method

Nf = 4
Nd = 12
h =
2/12
Drawing Flow Nets
• To calculate the flow and pore pressures in the ground a flow net must be drawn.
• The flow net must be comprised of a family of orthogonal lines (preferably defining
a square mesh) that also satisfy the boundary conditions.
 Common boundary conditions
a. Submerged soil boundary - Equipotential

Water
H-z
H uw
h = +z
w
z now
uw =  w ( H − z) (7)
Datum so
( H − z)  w
h = +z= H
w
Common boundary conditions
b. Impermeable soil boundary - Flow Line

Permeable Soil
vn=0
Flow Line
vt

Impermeable Material
 Common boundary conditions
c. Line of constant pore pressure - eg. phreatic surface

uw
Head is given by h = +z
 w

u w
and thus h = + z
w

now if pore pressure is

constant u w = 0

and hence h = z (8)

Common boundary conditions
c. Line of constant pore pressure - eg. phreatic surface
Procedure for drawing flow nets

 Mark all boundary conditions

 Draw a coarse net which is consistent with the boundary conditions and which has
orthogonal equipotentials and flow lines. (It is usually easier to visualise the pattern of
flow so start by drawing the flow lines).
 Modify the mesh so that it meets the conditions outlined above and so that rectangles
between adjacent flow lines and equipotentials are square.
 Refine the flow net by repeating the previous step.
Steps for Drawing a Flow Net Using Pencil and Paper
1. Draw the outline of the flow system to scale and label the nature of each boundary
2. Draw equipotential lines along the boundaries where a single value of hydraulic head is specified
along the boundary
3. Draw flow lines along no-flow boundaries
4. Within the flow domain, draw flow lines along paths where you envision groundwater flowing,
ensuring they are perpendicular to equipotential lines on the boundaries
5. Draw equipotential lines within the flow domain, ensuring they:
• are perpendicular to no-flow boundaries;
• are perpendicular to flow lines; and,
• together with flow lines, form shapes of constant aspect ratio, preferably “curvilinear squares.” A curvilinear
square is a four-sided shape with curved edges and an aspect ratio close to one.
6. Calculate the contour interval and label the equipotential lines
Drawing a Flow Net for Flow Beneath an Impermeable Dam

concrete dam keyed into soil.

Drawing a Flow Net for Flow Beneath an Impermeable Dam
 In the field, the porous geologic material below the dam extends a long distance in the upgradient and
downgradient directions, but only a portion of it is illustrated here.
 The dam is 21 meters wide in the direction perpendicular to the figure.
 The water level in the reservoir contained by the dam is 10 meters above the surface of the low hydraulic
conductivity material below the aquifer which is used as a datum.
 The water level in the reservoir below the dam is 4 meters lower than the water behind the dam and the
water below the dam runs off downstream
Drawing a Flow Net for Flow Beneath an Impermeable Dam
 We begin constructing a flow net by drawing the outline of the flow system to scale and labeling
all boundary conditions.

Step 1 - Draw the system to scale (no-flow boundaries are indicated by gray zones),
Step 2 - Draw equipotential lines to coincide with head boundaries (black lines),
Step 3 - Draw flow lines to coincide with no-flow boundaries (blue arrow following the no-flow boundary
of the dam
Drawing a Flow Net for Flow Beneath an Impermeable Dam

Step 4: Draw flow lines along paths where you envision groundwater flowing (blue arrows), ensuring they are
perpendicular to equipotential lines on the boundaries. Do not be concerned about getting them right initially.
Drawing flow nets is a trial-and-error process. As experience with flow nets grows, intuition improves and it
becomes easier to place flow lines in nearly the right position on the first attempt
 Drawing a Flow Net for Flow Beneath an Impermeable
Dam

Step 5: Draw equipotential lines between lines drawn at constant head boundaries (black lines), ensuring they are
perpendicular to no-flow boundaries, perpendicular to flow lines and attempting to form curvilinear squares.
Drawing a flow net by hand is a trial-and-error process because the equipotential lines and flow lines are adjusted
until curvilinear squares are formed. It is useful to sketch round shapes within and touching the boundaries of the
space formed by the equipotential lines and flow lines. If the shapes are not circular, as in this first attempt to draw
the flow net, then the lines should be adjusted.
Drawing a Flow Net for Flow Beneath an Impermeable Dam

Step 6: Creating shapes with a constant aspect ratio is a requirement when drawing a flow net. The best way to
achieve that is by drawing curvilinear squares. Sketching a circle within the shapes can help discern whether the
shapes are curvilinear squares. A slight misfit is not important. The misfits need to be large enough such that it is
necessary to add or delete flow or equipotential lines in order to obtain the near-curvilinear squares because
achieving the proper ratio of the number of flow lines and equipotential lines is key to drawing a valid flow net.
The number of flow lines is same in this figure and previous Figure , but the number of equipotential lines differ
indicating the redrawing was necessary to obtain a flow net that can be used to calculate flow through the system.
 Value of head on equipotentials
H
h = (9)
Number of potential drops

Phreatic line

15 m

Datum
h = 15m h=0

h = 3m
h = 12m h = 9m h = 6m
 Calculation of flow
Phreatic line
15 m

h = 15m h=0

h = 3m
h =12m h = 9m h = 6m

For a single Flow tube of width 1m: Q = k h (10a)

For k = 10-5 m/s and a width of 1m Q = 10-5 x 3 m3/sec/m (10b)

For 5 such flow tubes Q = 5 x 10-5 x 3 m3/sec/m (10c)

For a 25m wide dam Q = 25 x 5 x 10-5 x 3 m3/sec (10d)

H
Note that per metre width Q = k Nf (10e)
Nh
 Calculation of pore pressure
Phreatic line
15 m

h = 15m h=0
5m
P

h = 3m
h = 12m h = 9m h = 6m

5m uw
Pore pressure from Ph = +z (11a)
w
At P, using dam base
as datum u w = [12 − ( −5)]  w (11b)
Example problem
1
Flow net around the horizontal drain
2-D problem Datum
9
9
3m 1
7 3 7
6m
5 5
k = 5 x 10-7 m/s 3
Sand
3 2
6
Long horizontal drain
Flow net around the horizontal drain
Example problem
a) Find the discharge through the drain in m3 /day per metre
length of drain
➢ Consider datum at free water surface
➢ This makes total head at top of the ground is 3 m

HL (from the surface to the drain) = 3 m

By considering only half of the flow region Nf = 6; Nd = 9

N
q = k (h) f
=
Nd

5  1 0 − 7  ( 3 )     2  ( 2 4  3 6 0 0 )
6
9 
0.1426m3 / day Per m run
b) Find the PWP at X, 1.5 m into the soil, directly above the drain
Potential drop between two EQP lines = 3/9
Total head at X = (5.6/9) x 3 = 1.867 m
Elevation head at X = - 1.5 m

Pressure head at X = 1.867 + 1.5 = 3.67 m

PWP at X = 3.67 x 10 = 36.7 kN/ m2
c) Estimate the velocity of flow at X.
Let the vertical length of the curvilinear square at X is
measured as 0.4 m i =
0.333
= 0.83
0.4
v = ki = 5  10 − 7
 0.83
= 4.75  10 − 7
m / s
 Flow nets in Anisotropic Material

If a flow occurs parallel to the bedding planes the flow lines are also parallel to
these planes and the hydraulic gradient has at every point of every bed the same
value i, which is independent of the coefficient of permeability of the beds.

khorizontal =
 Flow nets in Anisotropic Material
On the other hand, if flow occurs at right angles to the bedding planes every
water particle passes in succession through every one of the layers. Since the
flow is continuous the discharge velocity v must be the same in every layer,
whereas the coefficient of permeability of the layers is different. Hence the
hydraulic gradient must also be different in the different layers.

kvertical =
Flow nets in Anisotropic Material
In developing procedure for plotting flow nets, we assumed that
the permeable layer is isotropic, i.e.
khorizontal = kvertical = k

Consider the case of constructing flow nets for seepage through soils that
show anisotropy with respect to permeability

(khorizontal  kvertical ) Where

For 2-D flow h
2
h
2
khorizontal = kx
problems → kx 2 + kz 2 =0
x z kvertical = kz
kx > kz
◆In all sedimentary deposits, as well as in most earthen dams, there is
a pronounced tendency for the permeability to be greater in the
horizontal than in the vertical direction. Generally kx  5 to 10 kz

 2h  2h  Is not a Laplacian
kx 2 + kz 2 = 0
x z equation, since this equation
applies for a soil mass in
which stratification occurs.
◆Also results in distorted flow net (not necessary that
flow lines and Eqp lines are orthogonal)
Flow nets in Anisotropic Material

k x 2h 2h
By rewriting: + = 0 -- A
k z x z
2 2

A closer analysis of the above equation indicates that a

simple Laplacian equation may be endangered if an
adequate change of variable is used.
Let us write the same equation using X = cx
(where c is a constant)

2h 2h 2h 2h 1 2h 2h

+ = + = 2 + =0 -- B
X 2 z2 (cx)2 z2 c x2 z2
 Flow nets in Anisotropic Material
The constant c is identified by comparing equations A and B.

c= kz
kx
2h 2h
Equation (B) is of the same form as + = 0
x z
2 2

Which governs the flow in isotropic soils and should

represent two sets of orthogonal curves in the Xz plane.

X= kz
kx
x
Flow nets in Anisotropic Material

Q Direction of flow Q

kz kt
D
kx

L kz
Flow through natural L kx
anisotropic section
Assumption: Anisotropy merely Flow through transformed
causes linear distortion of the (isotropic) section
flow net
 Flow nets in Anisotropic Material
Starting with the natural section, the flow quantity per unit length is:

Q = (L x 1) kz i ---- (C)
Within the transformed section, the same quantity of flow is calculated
as follows:

Q= (L kz
kx
x 1 ) kt i ---- (D)

Comparing (C) and (D), the transformed permeability is then

established:
kt = kxkz
Flow nets in Anisotropic Material
The same expression could have been found using the flow in horizontal
direction. Note, then, the hydraulic gradient changes
from i = H/L in the natural section to i = H kz in the transformed
kx
L section.

Steps involved for construction of flow net in an anisotropic medium:

1. To plot the section of the hydraulic structure,
adopt a vertical scale

=
kz kvertical
2. Determine
kx khorizontal

3. Adopt a horizontal scale such that Scalehorizontal =

kz
kx
(Scalevertical )
Flow nets in Anisotropic Material
4.With the scales adopted in Steps 1 and 3, plot the cross section of the structure.
5.Draw the flow net for the transformed section plotted in step 4 in the same manner as is done
for seepage through isotropic soils.
6. Calculate the rate of seepage as:

Nf
q = k x k z (h)
Nd
Example problem:

Consider a concrete dam on a layer of a homogeneous

anisotropic clay having kx = 16 x 10-8 m/s and kz = 1 x 10-8 m/s
x
Required: z
Cut-off sheet pile wall
Flow quantity seeping
on the downstream (to control seepage
pressures)
side of a dam

1
c= kz
kx
=
4
kt = k x k z = 4x10−8 m / s
 Piping Failure In Hydraulic Structures
 When the water flows in the soil in horizontal direction,
it exerts seepage force on the particles in the horizontal
direction and when it flows vertically, the force is
exerted in vertical direction.

 If this exerted force is strong it has the capability to

displace the soil particles in its way and particles may
get carried away by the flowing water. This
phenomenon leads to a very serious problem in the soil
engineering, development of channels in soil and this
phenomenon is called piping.
 When water flows through the pervious foundation of
any dam with a very high hydraulic gradient, it may
carry soil particles with it causing to form pipe-shaped
channels in its foundation and the structure may fail
because of piping failure.
1. Backward-erosion piping failure:
 When water percolates through soil under any hydraulic
structure it may happen to exit vertically upwards at the
downstream. If this water moves with a high hydraulic
gradient, the seepage force or drag exerted by it on soil
particles may push them up and soil particles at the exit
point of the water may be removed by the force of water.
 This removal of soil particles decreases the length of flow
and that increases the hydraulic gradient even more
causing further removal of the soil. This process of erosion
of soil in the backward direction continues towards the
upstream and a pipe like opening is formed below the dam.
Hydraulic structure becomes unstable and may fail. This
type of Piping is called backward erosion piping.
 Generally, backward erosion piping failure occurs when
the exit gradient becomes greater than the critical
hydraulic gradient.
 The hydraulic gradient near the exit point of the water is
called the exit gradient. If we draw the flow net for this
particular flow condition, we may calculate the exit
gradient as the drop of head through the last flow field
divided by the length of this flow field.
 Critical hydraulic gradient is the hydraulic gradient with which when water flows in the
soil in upward direction, the seepage force or drag exerted by water on soil particles,
which pushes them up, completely balances the weight of these particles, and they seem to
be suspended in water.
 Soil in such state does not behave like a soil any more but behaves like a very viscous
liquid. Soil loses all its shear strength and is no longer able to support any load.

 For the safety of the structure the exit gradient must be very low from the critical
hydraulic gradient. This piping phenomenon leads to the whole structure failure and it is
so serious that for safety against piping a factor of safety of at least 6 is recommended.
 If the dam that holds the water is an earth dam, that is it is made up of earth material such as rock and soil,
this backward erosion piping may also occur in the body of structure.
2. Heave piping failure
 Heave meaning is to lift or raise something with great force.
 This kind of failure may also occur on the downstream side of a
hydraulic structure when water is coming out vertically upwards.
 It occurs when the upward seepage force acting on the particles over
an area exceeds the downward force because of submerged weight
of the soil above that area.
 This condition destabilizes the soil and if this uplift force acts
opposite the force of gravity due to the weight of the dam and if it is
high enough, it may destabilize the whole hydraulic structure.
Safety of hydraulic structures against piping
In Terms of forces
 To prevent backward erosion piping or heave piping failure the upward seepage force exerted by
water on soil particles should be less than the downward force due to weight of soil or structure
or any other arrangement.
 So factor of safety against piping in the soil can be written as weight of everything above which
is downward force divided by upward seepage force applied by water.
 If value of downward force that is weight of overlying material is twice the value of upward
force we receive the factor of safety as 2. This means the structure is twice safe. Downward force
is greater than uplift force so structure is safe and is twice strong.
Safety of hydraulic structures against piping
In Terms of hydraulic gradient

 Exit gradient is the hydraulic gradient at the downstream side of the flow line
where percolating water leaves the soil mass and emerges as free water.
 If Δh is the head loss across the last flow field in the flow net occurring over distance of L,
then
 ie= Δh /L
 To avoid piping ie<icr
 FOS= icr/ie
 FOS against piping: 6-7 for fine sands, 4-5 for coarse sand.
Methods for preventing the piping failure

1. Increasing the path of flow:

 We know the hydraulic gradient is head loss
over the length of the flow. We can see in a
dam it is difficult to decrease the head loss but
we have control over the length of the flow
over which it is percolating.
 If we increase the length of the flow, the
hydraulic gradient will decrease and that also
cause to decrease the exit gradient. We can
increase the length of flow so that exit gradient
becomes well below the critical hydraulic
gradient and structure will be safe.
1. Increasing the path of flow:
 There are few methods through which we can increase this flow path
i). We can increase the base width of the hydraulic structure so water has to travel more to
reach the downstream and length of flow is increased.
ii). We can provide vertical cut off walls below the structure at the upstream end there by
water has to go below this wall to reach the downstream
iii) We can also provide an impervious blanket on the upstream.
2. Reducing seepage
 If our hydraulic structure is an earth dam, we can reduce possibility of piping failure through the body of
the dam by the reduction of seepage through its body. For that we provide an impervious core through
which water cannot flow.
 We can also provide the drainage filter near the toe of the earth dam. Drainage filter consists of layers of
pervious material which permit flow of water but prevent the movement of soil particles.
 Drainage filter changes the direction of flow away from the downstream face and avoid piping through the
body of the dam.
3. Loaded filter
 It is provided at the downstream from where the water emerges out. A loaded filter consists of
pervious material such as graded sand and gravels.

The loaded filter increases the downward force to counter the upward
seepage force at the point where water emerges out from the soil. Hence the
loaded filter increases the factor of safety against piping and the factor of
safety is given by weight of soil plus weight of filter divided by upward
seepage force.

Filters are so designed that they are more permeable than the soil they protect
and yet their particles are not very big or not so coarse that the fine particles
of the soil they protect can move through the voids in the filter.
 Filter Design
 When seepage water flows from a soil with relatively
fine grains into a coarser material, there is danger that the
fine soil particles may wash away into the coarse
material.
 Over a period of time, this process may clog the void
spaces in the coarser material. Hence, the grain-size
distribution of the coarse material should be properly
manipulated to avoid this situation.
 A properly designed coarser material is called a filter.
Figure 8.15 shows the steady-state seepage condition in
an earth dam which has a toe filter. For proper selection
of the filter material, two conditions should be kept in
mind:

Condition 1: The size of the voids in the filter material should be small enough to hold the larger particles of
the protected material in place.
Condition 2: The filter material should have a high hydraulic conductivity to prevent buildup of large seepage
forces and hydrostatic pressures in the filters.
 Filter Design

 It can be shows that, if three perfect spheres have

diameters greater than 6.5 times the diameter of a
smaller sphere, the small sphere can move through the
void spaces of the larger ones (Figure 8.16 a).
 Generally speaking, in a given soil, the sizes of the
grains vary over a wide range. If the pore spaces in a
filter are small enough to hold D85 of the soil to be
protected, then the finer soil particles also will be
protected (Figure 8.16b).
 This means that the effective diameter of the pore
spaces in the filter should be less than D85 of the soil to
be protected. The effective pore diameter is about of
the filter.
 With this in mind and based on the experimental
investigation of filters, Terzaghi and Peck (1948)
provided the following criteria to satisfy Condition 1: Figure 8.16 (a) Large spheres with diameters
of 6.5 times the diameter of the small
sphere;
(b) boundary between a filter and the soil to
be protected
 Filter Design
 In order to satisfy Condition 2, they suggested that
 Filter Design
 The U.S. Navy (1971) requires the following conditions for the design of filters.
Filter Design
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dtJr0CfC98E

 https://www.soilmanagementindia.com/soil/seepage-analysis/how-
to-construct-a-flow-net-for-seepage-analysis-laplaces-equation-
and-methods/16514
Filter design

When seepage water flows from a soil with relatively

fine grains into a coarser material, there is a danger
that the fine soil particles may wash away into the
coarse material.

➢Such a situation can be prevented by the use of a

filter or protective filter between the two soils.
Filter design
For the proper selection of the filter material,
1) The size of the voids in the filter material should be
small enough to hold the larger particles of the
protected material in place.
d15(F) = Dia. Through which 15% of filter material
d15( F )
 4−5 will pass
d85( S ) d85(S) = Dia. Through which 85% of soil to be protected
will pass
2) The filter material should have a high permeability
to prevent buildup of large seepage forces and
hydrostatic pressure in the filters.
d15(S) = Dia. Through which 15% of soil to be
d15( F )
 4−5 protected will pass
d15( S )
Failure due to piping for single row of sheet - pile wall
structure ( Terzaghi, 1922)

By considering a soil prism 1

on the downstream side of W  =  D 2
2
unit thickness and of
section D x D/2
Using the flow net the
hydraulic uplift pressure
can be determined as:
1 hA + hB
U =  w Dhm hm =
2 2
hm = Avg. hydraulic head at the
base of the soil prism
Failure due to piping for single row of sheet -
pile wall structure
1  2
FOS against heave W D D 
FOS = 2 = =
(or piping) is → U 1
 w Dhm hm w
2
ic
FOS = 4   Gs −1
=
 ic =
im  w 1+ e
hm
To find hm – Find the total head within
D/2 zone horizontally
im =
D
For structures other than a single row of sheet pile walls
Safety of hydraulic structures against piping

ic
FOS =
According to Harza (1935)

iexit = maximum hydraulic gradient iexit

h
iexit =  From flow net
l
1 H   According to Harr (1962)
iexit = 
  D 
H = Maximum hydraulic head;
D = Depth of penetration of sheet pile wall
Safety of hydraulic structures against piping
Example problem
A stiff clay layer underlies a 12 m
thick silty sand deposit. A sheet pile is
driven into the sand to a depth of 7
m. k of silty sand is 8 x 10-6 m/ s. The 3m
stiff clay can be assumed to be
impervious. e of silty sand is 0.72 2m
and Gs = 2.65
a) Draw the flow net and estimate
Q 7m
b)What is the PWP at the tip of Silty sand
the sheet pile wall c) FOS
5m
against piping failure?
Stiff clay
8
0

3
6
5
a) From flow net; Nf = 3; Nd = 8; hL = 3 m;
Nf
q = k(hL ) = 0.836 m3 / day per metre
Nd

b) PWP at the tip of the sheet pile wall

TH = 1.5 m

EH = -9 m
PH = 10.5 m ; → PWP = 105 kN/ m 2
 c) Head loss per EQP drop h = 3/8 = 0.375 m
Max. exit hydraulic gradient = 0.375/2.6 =
0.144

ic = (2.65-1) / (1 + 0.72) = 0.96

ic = 0.96/0.144 = 6.7 > 5

FOS =
iexit
The arrangement is quite safe with respect to piping failure