Political Theory-2

Augustine(354-430)
Aurelius Augustine Of Hippo is the famous political thinker at the time of
decline of roman civilisation. He born in Thagaste, now Algeria, Finished
education in Carthage and He interpreted the philosophies of cicero, Aristotle,
Plato and Plotinus. His Mother is a staunch catholic and father is pagan. He
converted into Christianity though he didn’t believed in initial days through St.
Ambrose of Milan(Bishop). His works on political theory, Mostly Religious was
influenced Locke, Martin Luther and Machiavelli. He wrote two books called
Civitas Dei and Confessions.
He is famous Rhetoric and also worked as junior clergy and later bishop.
The city of god(Civitas Dei): The book talks about the faith in Christianity.
He also rebutted the notion that believing in Christianity and rejecting the roman
gods is the reason for fall of roman empire and attack of Visigoths. At the time
of decline of W. Roman Empire He gave this theory, which says the catholic
church as a spiritual City. According to the human nature, which is dual nature
of spirit and body, he divided the citizens into two cities, which are civitas
civitas dei(City of god or heavenly city or divine city) and terrena (Earthly
City) . City of god is the place where everyone have faith in god and will get
spiritual salvation/ these is possible only in Christian empire. The earthly city is
the place where people are selfish and only care for one self but not for common
good and may not have faith in god . These city can be said to be kingdom of
Satan. According to him Man is a mixture of spirit and body.
Difference between City of god(Eternal) and City Of Human(Temporal)
Augustine says that city of god or heavenly city is a eternal realm under reign of
supreme ,which is god. The main of the people in heavenly city is to get spiritual
salvation and communion with god. People here are righteous and think for
common good. In contrast Earthly City represents the temporal society, where
spiritual affairs are abandoned and people are totally concerned on
themselves(Self Centeredness) and gives value for materialistic things and
power rather than spiritual.
People are ruled by man in Earthly city, where there’s always fight for it,
whereas the framework followed is scriptural revelation, which is the way god
provided his knowledge and will to the world of humans through books or any
kind.
City of man always tries to gain power from other territories due to its inherent
flaws and sinful nature, may engage in immoral or unjust actions, leading to
conflicts and injustices in the world. Whereas City of god also acknowledges the
earthly city and tries to co exist with them by hoping the world peace.
People in city of god are eschatological beings, who place their trust in
ultimately on final destiny, which is return of Jesus Christ. Earthly city people
believes that the ultimate goal is to get power or materialistic things like wealth,
luxurious goods and achieving pleasures of this world.
Justice in Earthly city is man Made, which is not a true justice as it can be biased
but in heavenly city it is divine order, which is true justice as the law here is
inspired from scripts written by god.
Similar: Both aim is to attain peace but that terms differs in both as in one it is
to use the goods and services ultimately without scarcity and in another it is
eternal peace.
Both use earthly resources to Attain their peace but earthly city wages wars In
the name of peace.
Both the citizen will be chosen to different paths on the judgement day
according to their nature.
Citizens of both cities may share common goals, such as the desire for material
needs, security, and orderly social interaction.
According to Augustine these two cities may leave together but never become a
single entity. The final separation may happen at the time of judgement day,
where everyone was sent to their destiny according to their instincts.

Justice and the State: Augustine believes that only Christian state can be just
because without believing in god as we owe him it cannot be considered to be
just, which is contrast to cicero, who told that Justice realisation in a state is
what makes it state. One can interpret that pre Christian state are all injustice as
of Augustine but some support his argument by interpreting that there used to be
relative justice, which had the same moral values as Christianity. Though
Augustine believed in gods rule, he never asked his followers to disobey to state
as he believes disobeying a constitutional authority mean dis obeying god’s
ordinance except when the authority goes against the spiritual order or god’s
will. Despite the emphasis on the heavenly city, Augustine advocates complete
obedience to political rulers, not encouraging dissent. Heresy is not tolerated by
Augustine.
Original Sin
The concept of original sin given by Augustine talks about the foolishness of the
first men Adam and eve, who ate the fruit of a tree(Tree of good and evil) in
paradise though god said them not to do. They became the first couple to
disobey god just because they were enticed(tempted) by snake, who is devil.
They were banished from the paradise. He believes that these nature of being
influenced by devil or choosing the evil things is inherited to all men in the
world. He says that men are being influenced by bad things like sexual
desires(libido concupiscence) and Lust for Power(Libido Dominandi) which
affected human will and intelligence. Here is where Pelagius, contemporary to
Augustine along with his disciples like jovinian(pelagians) disagree with him as
they believe original sin doesn’t influence people as we are born with free will
and that’s give us choice to choose both evil or good things to do and we may
not be righteous while taking the decision, but it is not depended on desires for
sex. Augustine at some extent agrees with these but he believes human do have
free will to choose whether to act good or evil but humans are inclined to sinful
nature due to the effect of original sin through inheritance they cant choose good
without out gods grace. He has a pessimistic of Human cannot be perfect becoz
they always commit sin as it is in there genes. Most of his thoughts about
original sin are influenced by his personal experiences like he joining
Manichaeism in childhood and converted to Christianity or being well versed
with stoic and Neoplatonism philosophy. Pelagius says that god gave humans
ability to determine what is wrong and what is right but not to make someone do
something as we have choice to make free will.
Free will
According to Augustine god created the humans with capability to choose
something with reasoning and logic for the common good. Free will gave
humans capability to choose independently and helped in their personal
development. He believed that free will may serve as a tool for achieving googd
through choosing the things he wanted while also having potential to turn into
evil. He said the free will of the persons are completely depended on their hearts
or like connected to human soul and not influenced by anybody or thing initially
but was ruined by Adam and Eve by disobeying the command or order gave by
god in garden of Eden. He misused the free will gave by god ,which led to
creation of original sin and inherited into every men in the world. Due to the
original sin man still have the capability to choose but he must have god’s grace
and divine will to not incline towards evil as he is being influenced by original
sin. At the end he says Humans are born with reason and logic but unable to
reach that knowledge due to sin. He says The empire was falling not becoz they
are neglecting their roman gods or changing into in Christianity but divine will.
Theory of Jus War.
War is unavoidable in some situation so Augustine proposed the theory of jus
war, which is better to choose rather than Unjust One. St. Augustine is the first
person to give a theory on war and justice according to the Christian theology by
referring bible and other religious texts. He said that some times war is
necessary to amend evil though it is inferior to ideals of hristianity. Most of the
Augustine’s jus war theory is revised and developed by Thomas Aquinas. They
gave a criteria for when to wage a war. Moral justification of war is expresses in
Jus Ad Bellum and Moral Conduct was expressed in Jus In Bello.
Jus ad Bellum: About the justice of resorting to war in the first place.
1. Wars must be fought under and against legitimate authority only. It helps
in reducing the common causalities to start the war.
2. The reason for the war must be jus. It must be fighting to uplift the justice
like fighting for oppression of weak or protection an innocent againt
unreasonable aggression. Self Defence is jus war.
3. The intention must be clear without any ulterior motive like revenge of
killing or any other self satisfaction of violence. It must be for common
good.
4. It should be a last resort. War must only be waged when it is the only
option available to do as the other failed to do so.
5. There must be a reasonable hope of success. One should not wage wars
without hoping for victory as that only leads to loss of men
Jus In Bello: It is about justice of conduct within war.
1. The non combatants or civilians must not be targeted In war between
their authorities intentionally Except it is unavoidable.
2. One of the most important thing is Proportionality. One must use
reasonable force in the war against someone according to their sin done or
casualties suffered or may suffer.
Jus Post Bellum: This is about the justice of peace agreements and the
termination phase of the war.
The aim is to provide a guide to the right way for states to act in potential
conflict situations. It only applies to states, and not to individuals (although an
individual can use the theory to help them decide whether it is morally right to
take part in a particular war). The theory provides a useful framework for
individuals and political groups to use for their discussions of possible wars. The
theory is not intended to justify wars but to prevent them, by showing that going
to war except in certain limited circumstances is wrong and thus motivates states
to find other ways of resolving conflicts.
What are the Arguments against Just War Theory?
No Place in Ethical Theory:
All war is unjust and has no place in any ethical theory:
Morality must always oppose deliberate violence.
Rather than limiting violence, just war ideas encourage it.
Disrupts Normal Rules of Society:
As a result of war, the normal rules of society are disrupted and morality goes
out the window.
Unrealistic Theory:
The just war theory is unrealistic and pointless. In a conflict the strong do what
they will, and the weak do what they must. The decision to wage war is
governed by realism and relative strength, not ethics. Morality thus has no use in
war. The overriding aim of war should be to achieve victory as quickly and
cheaply as possible.
Way Forward
If the cause is just, then no restrictions should be placed on achieving it. The
rules of conduct of war are mere camouflage because they are always over-ruled
by military necessity. Terrorists are inherently uninterested in morality, so
following any ethical theory of war handicaps those whom terrorists attack –
thus a different approach is needed.
Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas Born on 1224 in Naples to a wealthy and noble family of

Sicily. His parents are count and countess to a royal family. He got a good
education at even age of 5 at monastery of Benedictine and attended university
of Naples at the age of 13 to study liberal arts. He joined Dominican Order in
1245 though his parents opposed it . He started his career as a teacher and master
in universities in Paris till death in 1274.
Despite being part of the Faculty of Theology, Aquinas strongly advocated for
the role of philosophy in religious knowledge. He believed that religion was not
solely based on revelation but also involved rational deliberation. Contrary to
Augustine's view, Aquinas celebrated the human desire for knowledge as a sign
of human perfectibility. Aquinas lived during a time when Aristotle's works,
previously sidelined by the Catholic Church, became available in Latin
translations. He worked to reconcile Aristotelianism with Christianity, writing
numerous commentaries on Aristotle's works and incorporating his arguments
into Christian teachings(scholasticism). Aquinas's notable works include
"Summa contra gentiles," "Summa Theologiae,"(3 parts: God, Ethics, Christ)
(Refer PT part 1 for notes for more about This work) and "On the Government
of Princes." Canonized in 1323, his writings were later used to counter the
influence of liberalism in Christianity. Aquinas is recognized in the history of
political thought for reintroducing Aristotle, and his influence persists in
countering the dominance of liberalism in political theory.
Two swords theory
Pope Galesius introduced the theory of 'two swords,' symbolizing ecclesiastical
authority (the priest) and secular authority (the king). According to Galesius,
Christ embodied both roles but due to the inherent sinfulness and weakness of
human nature, he separated the offices. The king's responsibility was the worldly
welfare of the people, while the priest attended to their spiritual welfare. This
division acknowledged the limitations of human nature. Although the
ecclesiastical and secular authorities were considered independent, they were
mutually dependent. The king had to recognize the church's authority over
spiritual affairs, and the priest had to acknowledge the king's authority over
worldly matters. Pope Galesius advocated cooperation between the church and
the state, but the intended collaboration did not materialize.
Four Laws of Aquinas:
According to Aquinas law is ‘an ordinance of reason for the common good,
made and promulgated by him who has care of the community. a kind of rule
and measure of acts, by which someone is induced to act or restrained from
acting. He restored the connection between virtues and politics. He believed the
theory of Aristotle that state exist for sake of good life of people and in order to
achieve the higher goal of salvation.
Aquinas talks about four kinds of law in his writings:
  The eternal law: which is the rational order of the universe (the whole
community of the universe is governed by Divine reason). It is the basis for
all kinds of laws as god created the universe it is governed by these laws.
 The natural law: Which is the eternal law as it applies to us human
beings. It is the participation of humans in eternal law with reason with the
main aim to do good and avoid evil. Mostly related to human actions and
inclinations.
 Human law: (if the human law is at variance with the law of nature, then
it is no longer law, but a corruption of law). In general it is the natural law
applied by governs of society and specifically formulated by human reason
considering particulars of natural law. It helps man to live life virtuously
and promote the welfare of particular communities as a result they differ in
their details.
 Divine law: which governs our conscience. This is the specific
formulation of eternal law and necessary for directing human conduct. The
law argues that there must be a involvement of god in justice as only human
judgment is not sufficient as it can be biased or immoral.
Just Law and Unjust Law:
 Laws are just when they are based on right reason and ordained towards the
common goal of state and its citizens. It must be exceed the power of the
law giver and the burden of abiding by the law must in proportion to
attainment of common good.
 Laws are unjust when they benefit only those who hold the power and
office and extend beyond the rulers competence. They are unjust if they
impose unfair burden on some particular members of the society and violate
the divine laws.
Nature of God: God is simple without composition of parts such as body, soul
or matter of form and he is perfect and lacks nothing. He is infinite in
intellectually, physically and emotionally.
 Proofs Of Gods Existence:
1. Proof Of notion
2. Proof if causality
3. Proof Of design
4. Proof Of Perfection
5. Proof Of Contingency v/s necessity
Views on Political Authority
Aquinas have a notion prevalent in Christian thought of political thought that
that politics and government are indicators of human sinfulness. According to
him, political rule existed even before the fall of man when humanity was in a
state of innocence. Aquinas argues that human nature, being inherently social
and rational, naturally inclines individuals to live in communities for mutual
benefit. He emphasizes that political rule is not a necessary evil but a means to
promote human welfare and unity.
He believes that political authority is necessary to maintain order in society.
Rulers of bound to secure the welfare of their subjects. The ruler can amend the
laws according to the circumstances at the same time he said citizens must have
right to criticize, revolt or rebel if they think the laws are unjust and not accord
to divine law.
Acquinas believed that monarchy as the best form of government along with
mixed constitution as it can help In promoting unity, analogy with nature and
historical experience though It may also discourage the motivation for people
and can lead to misuse of power, so there should be a mixed form of constitution
to control the monarch.
Views on Private Ownership and just war
Refer PT part 2

Natural Theory:
Thomas Aquinas, influenced by Aristotle, departs from earlier Christian writers
by embracing the idea that humans are political animals. He faces challenges in
reconciling this with the concept of the state of nature and the natural equality of
men, which Stoic and Christian philosophies had previously aligned on. Aquinas
distinguishes between law and eternal law, defining law as a dictate of reason,
not solely the ruler's reason but also inclusive of the objects being ruled. Eternal
law, in contrast, impresses itself on creations through their nature and essence.
Aquinas argues that when applying natural law to humans, precision is essential
due to their understanding of reason and possession of free will. Humans, guided
by reason and free will, determine what is best for themselves and their
environment. This inclination towards achieving a good end through reason and
free will constitutes natural law.
Referencing St. Augustine, Aquinas acknowledges the idea that God made
rational man the master of animals, not fellow humans, establishing the proper
order of nature and consequences of sin. Aquinas skillfully navigates contrasting
views about the natural freedom and equality of all humans, showing
adaptability and scholastic subtlety rather than outright contradiction.
In essence, Aquinas integrates Aristotelian political philosophy with Christian
theology, addressing challenges and nuances with finesse, while still
acknowledging and building upon certain elements of earlier Christian and
Roman legal thought.
Machiavelli
Machiavelli born in Florence on 1467, who’s father is a lawyer and born in a
middle class family. H is the father of modern political science. He got a good
education at young age which made him well versed with grammar, Latin,
Rhetoric and historical texts. He entered into service of republic of Florence in
1494(age 29) and attained higher posts at young age. He also sent for diplomatic
missions and gained good exp among several countries. Later due to fall of
republic in Florence led to imprisonment of a year as he was accused of
conspiracy by Medici. He also been tortured in the prison. He was forced to
exile to near by farm and retire from politics due to political regain of Medici ,
which made him to participate in many literary works like political and military
analysis. This made him write the book The Prince In 1513, The discourses in
16 and the art of war in 20. He also wrote the history of Florence. He
dedicated the book Prince to The that time de facto ruler of Florence Lorenzo De
Medici. He was recalled for service in 25 but later after Fall of Lorenzo, he was
excluded.
Machiavelli didn’t believe in Christianity as he is anti church and anti clergy.
Machiavelli’s attitude towards religion was strictly utilitarian. It was a social
force; it played a pivotal role because it appealed to the selfishness of man
through its doctrine of reward and punishment.
THE PRINCE:
Prince was originally published in 1513 as a pamphlet and the whole was
released in 1532 posthumously. The essay talks about how the ruler should
control the forces of human nature to his own advantage. The Prince
explored the causes of the rise and fall of states and the factors for political
success. He said that Italy need a strong ruler who will rule like a iron hand.
The book was banned by church as it is a realpolitik but not a moral value
philosophy. The book is a memorandum of art of government. He supported
 monarchy. The main idea of the book is to how to establish a stable and
enduring political power in state. Security over morals is a imp thought of
prince.
The concept of "dual morality" in the passage you provided refers to the
idea that Machiavelli believed in a separation between the moral principles
applicable to individuals in their private lives and those that should guide
the actions of rulers and states in the realm of politics. This dual morality is
a central theme in Machiavelli's political thought. He believed that the
traditional moral principles that individuals follow in their personal lives
should not be applied to political rulers. Instead, Machiavelli emphasized
the "necessity" of using brute force, deceit, and manipulation in statecraft.
According to Machiavelli, human nature is inherently flawed and driven by
self-interest. He had a pessimistic view of human nature, which he believed
was characterized by a combination of selfishness, ambition, and a
propensity for deception. In his writings, Machiavelli portrayed people as
fundamentally egoistic and motivated by their own desires for power,
wealth, and self-preservation.
Power and politics: In his work princes talks about the power view of politics.
Machiavelli believed the politics is the way of acquisition power from the
society and how to endure, consolidate and maintain that. The primary goal
f the prince is to expand and strengthen his power. Machiavelli’s writings
are often associated with the realist perspective in political thought, which
emphasizes the importance of power and practical considerations in politics
rather than abstract principles or idealistic notions.
Advice to the prince: He advised the prince that there should be Autonomy of
state that one should have the sovereignty to take his own decisions in his
own sate without any influence. He is the first person to say so. He also
justified why there should be a powerful central authority. He also said
about supreme sovereignty. The main aim of the state is to survive. Power
is the end of the state. He also talked about modern diplomacy. The king
should be both cunning and brave like fox and lion as he should use both
strategies and should be powerful as the lion cannot escape from the traps
and fox cannot defend from wolfs. The ministry should guide the king but
there advise is not bounding to king. Machiavelli conceived human beings
as being basically restless, ambitious, aggressive and acquisitive, in a state
of constant trifle and anarchy. According to Machiavelli, state actions were
 not to be judged by individual ethics. He prescribes double standard of
conduct for statesmen and the private citizens
The King should be both evil and good, according to circumstances. The
citizen must have fear towards the king as the loyalty may become against
the king but fear never oppose. King should not attach to emotions of the
people and should have popular sovereignty that he should maintain a good
popularity among people. He should be despotic but not cruel and should
learn from mistakes of history. He should not maintain permanent
friendship or enemy. Law and order must be followed. It is supreme and its
legitimacy should come from fear. So he says the citizens should be loved
and also feared on him as extremes of only one can lead to chaos.
Machiavellian: The person , who is cunning and opportunist or sometimes
who are unscrupulous and genial.
Machiavellianism: To set reachable objectives and let nothing stand in
their way in observing these objectives.
Morality vs expediency: Machiavelli explored the tension between morality
and expediency in politics in his writings. He believed that in the realm of
politics, the traditional moral standards that apply to individuals often
need to be set aside in the pursuit of what is expedient for the state. He
argued that rulers should be willing to act unscrupulously and, at times, go
against traditional moral principles to achieve their political objectives.
Machiavelli’s central argument was that the ultimate goal of a ruler should
be the stability, security, and prosperity of the state, even if it required
actions that might be considered morally objectionable by conventional
standards. He suggested that rulers should be guided by the pragmatic use
of means to maintain and expand their power, often emphasizing the
necessity of certain actions over their moral implications. Inessence,
Machiavelli’s writings challenged the conventional moral framework and
argued that rulers should prioritize the well-being and survival of the state
over strict adherence to moral principles.
Manipulation and deception: Machiavelli advocated the use of
manipulation and deception in politics when circumstances demanded it.
He viewed these tactics as pragmatic tools for rulers to secure and maintain
power. However, he cautioned against their excessive use, recognizing that
 trust and stability could be jeopardized. Machiavelli’s approach challenged
conventional morality in favour of a more adaptable and situational
approach to governance. He recognized that strict adherence to
conventional morality could hinder a ruler’s ability to maintain and
consolidate power
Impact on Renaissance and Modern State : Machiavelli’s writings
had a profound impact on the Renaissance period. He emerged as a
transitional figure bridging the gap between medieval and modern political
thought. His ideas challenged the prevailing norms and influenced a shift
towards secularization in political thinking, separating politics from
theology. This departure from the religious influence of the Church marked
a significant step in the development of modern political science.
Machiavelli’s focus on the practical aspects of politics, advocating for the
use of manipulation and deception when necessary, contributed to a more
pragmatic and realistic approach to governance. His works, particularly
“The Prince,” explored the dynamics of political power and leadership,
providing rulers with insights into effective statecraft.
Fortune:
‘For my part I consider that it is better to be adventurous than my cautious,
because fortune is a woman and it is necessary if u wish to master her, to
conquer her by force and it is seen that she allows herself to be mastered by
adventurous rather than those who proceed coldly. Fortune is governed by
capricious goddess Fortuna. Too overcome Fortuna he says one must have
virtu. Virtu mean both cardinal and Christian virtues. He believes politics
are masculine affairs and if female involves in it just leads to anarchy and
chaos.
To be successful, to achieve greatness for his city, a Prince must have
‘virtu’. The world of human affairs is governed by Fortuna who is
capricious and whimsical. But human beings cannot simply ignore her,
because Fortuna also holds the goods that come with fortune and which
human beings desire—glory and wealth—and therefore, Machiavelli says
that they must develop the qualities which will persuade the goddess to be
on their side. Virtu, for Machiavelli, is the ability to deal with any
contingency that Fortuna places before one.
Criticism: 1. Machiavelli is often criticized for his seemingly amoral or
immoral approach to politics. He asserts that rulers must prioritize the
stability and success of the state over traditional moral values. His famous
phrase, “the ends justify the means,” has been a point of contention. Critics
argue that Machiavelli’s emphasis on manipulation, deceit, and even cruelty
is a rejection of ethical considerations, leading to an unfavourable
reputation for “Machiavellian” politics.
3. Machiavelli’s works, such as “The Prince” and “Discourses on Livy,”
contain elements that seem to support authoritarian rule. He emphasizes the
necessity of a strong, centralized authority to maintain order and stability.
This has led to criticism from advocates of democracy who view
Machiavelli as favoring autocracy.

Social contract Thinkers

Seventeenth and eighteenth century Europe was a period of Enlightenment, the
period that gave people self-confidence enough to question the received
wisdoms from the ages

Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes was a English philosopher. He born on 1588 in

Westport, England. His father was a kind of priest In church and was struggled
with poverty. He studies in oxford at age of 15 as he studies philosophy of
Aristotle there. He later criticized oxford education system later. He used to
explore Europe with help of lord Hardwick (Pupil of him).
Human Nature: According to Hobbes humans are self interested, competitive
and driven by desire for power and self preservation. There used to be a situation
of anarchy as there is not moral code of conduct among humans and the
competition they have used to be a war type situation(Not physical).
Hobbes believed that in the absence of government, life would be in a state of
nature characterized by a "war of all against all." In this state, individuals would
be in constant conflict and competition, making life "nasty, brutish, and short."
Social Contract: According to Hobbes, individuals agree to give up their
natural rights to everything and transfer them to a central authority, who they
chooses among them, often embodied in a sovereign or a governing body. In
exchange, the central authority provides security, maintains order, and enforces
laws to protect the rights and well-being of its citizens. it's a monarch or another
form of government, is absolute and not subject to challenge or rebellion, as the
contract is a binding agreement that people must honour.
Though he believed absolute monarchy is the ideal for of government.
Leviathan(1651): Hobbes talks about a powerful man in this book. He talks
about concept of powerful sovereign or ruler. This social contract creates a
powerful and absolute sovereign authority, often depicted as a Leviathan (a
biblical sea monster), which is a symbol of the state. Hobbes emphasizes the
necessity of a strong and centralized sovereign power to maintain social order
and prevent the chaos of a society where individuals are solely driven by their
self-interest.

John Locke: John Locke was born in 1632 in Wrington, a small village
in Somerset, England. He came from a relatively modest family. His father, also
named John Locke, was a country lawyer and a soldier who had served in the
English Civil War. Locke's mother, Agnes Keene, came from a wealthy family.
Unfortunately, his father died when Locke was quite young, leaving the family
with limited financial resources.
Locke was raised in a Puritan household, which influenced his early education
and upbringing. He was sent to the Westminster School in London and later
attended Christ Church, Oxford, where he studied a variety of subjects,
including classical literature, natural philosophy, and medicine.
He was influenced by various thinkers and ideas of his time. Some of his notable
influences include Francis Bacon, whose empiricism and scientific method had a
significant impact on Locke's philosophical framework. René Descartes, known
for his rationalism and emphasis on innate ideas. Thomas Hobbes, despite their
philosophical differences, influenced Locke's political ideas, particularly
regarding the state of nature and the role of government.
Human Nature: He believed that the state of nature was a peaceful existence.
Human are loved each other and have a reasoning and logic.
Empiricism: John Locke is considered the founder of empiricism, which is
the doctrine that all our knowledge, with the possible exception of logic and
mathematics, is derived from experience. He rejected the idea innate Preloaded
ideas or principle and argued that the mind begins as a "white paper," devoid of
any idea like Tabula Rasa(a Latin phrase that translates to "blank slate" in
English). This idea serves as the foundation of his empiricist philosophy.
According to Locke, knowledge is acquired through two primary sources:
sensation and reflection. Sensation refers to the direct perception of external
stimuli through our senses, such as seeing, hearing, touching, or smelling. These
sensory experiences provide the mind with raw data or simple ideas, which are
the foundation of knowledge. Reflection, on the other hand, involves
introspection and the examination of our own thoughts and mental processes.
"reflection" is about understanding and processing what's happening inside our
own heads. Through reflection, we develop more complex ideas based on our
introspective understanding of our own thinking.
Social Contract: Government will have Limited Authority. According to
Locke, the authority of a government is not absolute. It is restricted by the
concept of serving the common good and the preservation of individual rights.
Locke created a limited sovereign. In other words, it was not absolute. Locke
envisioned a constitutional government.
The Monarch elected by people must Protect the rights. Locke's theory places a
significant emphasis on the protection of individual rights. The primary purpose
of forming a government is to create an organized and lawful structure that
safeguards the rights of life, liberty, and property.
The government must be a Consent of the Governed. Locke's social contract
theory is grounded in the idea that legitimate government derives its authority
from the consent of the governed. Individuals come together and create a
political society by entering into a contract.
John Locke believed that people have the right to revolt when a government
violates their rights or becomes oppressive.
Two Treatises of Government is a renowned political work written by John
Locke in the late 17th century. It consists of two treatises, with the second
treatise being more widely recognized and influential. In these treatises, Locke
develops his political philosophy and explores the foundations of legitimate
government and the rights of individuals.
The first treatise is a critique of the idea of hereditary power and defends the
position that monarchy based on divine right is flawed.
The second treatise is the more significant of the two and focuses on Locke's
theory of the social contract.
John Locke's other notable work is "An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding." This philosophical treatise, published in 1690, explores the
nature and origins of human knowledge, perception, and thought. Locke's central
argument in the essay is that the human mind is a "tabula rasa," a blank slate at
birth, and that all human knowledge is derived from sensory experience and
reflection on those experiences.
Rousseau: Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva in 1712. His early
life was marked by a number of challenging circumstances. His father worked as
a watch-maker and a dancing-master but was not well-off, and his mother died
shortly after his birth. As a result, he was raised by an aunt. Rousseau's early
education was in the orthodox Calvinist tradition, reflecting the religious norms
of Geneva. He left the school in 12 and didn’t have a formal education in
university. He fled to Geneva in 16 age and found himself in hopeless situation
at a savoy. He even pretended to be interested in catholic to survive. Rousseau's
early life was marked by struggles, shifting religious affiliations, and various
moral dilemmas, all of which influenced his later philosophical and political
thought. At the age of 30, Rousseau went to Paris and befriended Diderot.
Rousseau's famous works include "Discourse on the Sciences and Arts," where
he critiques the idea that progress in arts and sciences leads to moral elevation.
In "The Social Contract," he explores the concept of a social contract, arguing
that civil society arises to protect property rights, resulting in inequality. He was
persecuted for religious reasons. The Social Contract and the Emile were burned
both in Paris and Geneva. Facing the threat of imprisonment, Rousseau went
into hiding. He died in 1778.

Social Contract
General Will: Rousseau's theory of the general will is a cornerstone of his
political philosophy, marking a unique contribution to modern democracy. the
general will is distinct from individual wills and real wills, which always
represents what is right for the community. It transcends the conflict between
actual will (motivated by immediate, selfish interests) and real will (motivated
by ultimate collective interests). The actual will is transient and self-centred,
while the real will is stable, consistent, and concerned with the community's
interest. Rousseau argues that following the general will leads to true freedom,
reflecting the highest aspirations of every individual. The general will
harmonizes the interests of each with those of all, embodying the true spirit of
citizenship. The general will, according to Rousseau, is not the will of the
majority but aims to promote the general interest and will of all its members.
Human Nature: According to Rousseau, in the state of nature, humans are
depicted as "noble savages" who live in innocence and simplicity, characterized
by limited desires and absence of conflict. This state is characterized by
cooperative living, absence of conflict, and a lack of language, knowledge, and
social constructs like virtue and vice.
Sovereignty: In Rousseau's "The Social Contract," he introduced the concept
of popular sovereignty, which means that the ultimate political authority resides
in the people. it cannot be transferred or divided. Rousseau did not advocate for
the delegation of ultimate authority to a monarch or ruling elite. He argued that
the people cannot give away or transfer their ultimate right of self-government,
retaining the power to decide their own destiny. In Rousseau's view, sovereignty
is vested in the entire community formed through a social contract. This
community, or political body, is composed of citizens who participate in the
decision-making process and collectively determine the general will. He rejected
the idea of a representative assembly being the embodiment of the general will,
insisting that the legislative will, which is sovereign, could only be expressed in
a direct democracy where citizens participate in articulating the general will.
According to Rousseau, the government is the agent of the general will, and
sovereignty remains with the people as a political community through the social
contract.
Émile, or On Education: published in 1762, is a groundbreaking
philosophical work that challenges traditional educational practices prevalent
during the Enlightenment.
Rousseau engages deeply in the age-old debate of nature versus nurture, positing
a distinctive viewpoint. Here, he contends that the corruption of human nature
can be mitigated through the right educational approach. The protagonist, Emile,
represents a model for this transformative process.(Pending)…..
Education Methods: Rousseau's decision to write "Émile," a work
on education, appears paradoxical given his critical views on societal
institutions. However, this seeming contradiction underscores
Rousseau's belief that, when appropriately structured, education can
serve as a tool to enhance, rather than hinder, human nature(Pending)
Political Thought
 Rousseau's political philosophy rejects representative parliamentary
systems in favour of participatory democracy. He emphasizes that true
freedom, self-rule, equality, and virtue are achieved through direct citizen
involvement in the law-making process.
 Rousseau contends that sovereignty cannot be represented; it resides in
the people themselves.
 Rousseau's vision advocates for direct citizen engagement, rejecting
representative systems in favour of a participatory democracy that
 safeguards both individual and collective freedom. This perspective has
influenced modern theories of participatory democracy, emphasizing
self-management and local governance.
 Rousseau believed in the sovereignty of the people, asserting that
ultimate authority rests with the collective body of citizens. He argued
that the people themselves should directly participate in decision-making
processes, which is Direct Democracy.
 Rousseau explores the concept of the "state of nature," suggesting that
humans are inherently good and equal in their natural state. It is the
development of private property and social institutions that leads to
inequality and conflict.
Influence
 Rousseau's emphasis on emotion and the importance of nature in shaping
human character influenced Romantic thinkers. Rousseau's critique of the
corrupting influence of civilization and his call for a return to a more
authentic, natural way of life.
 Rousseau's concept of the General Will, outlined in "The Social Contract,"
had a profound impact on revolutionary thought. The idea that political
authority should be based on the collective will of the people influenced
revolutionary leaders.
 Rousseau's emphasis on the equality of citizens and the idea of popular
sovereignty contributed to the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and
fraternity.
 The idea of a social contract between citizens and the state, a central theme
in Rousseau's work, provided a philosophical foundation for the legitimacy
of revolutionary governments and the notion that political authority derives
from the consent of the governed.
 Rousseau's advocacy for direct democracy and the sovereignty of the
people laid the groundwork for modern democratic thought. General Will
influenced democratic movements in subsequent centuries.
 Rousseau's ideas often emphasized the collective will, his influence can
also be seen in the development of ideas about individual rights and
freedoms. The tension between individual liberties and the needs of the
community has been a central theme in modern political thought.

Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham was born in 1748, in London, in the family of a wealthy and
successful English attorney. lost his mother at the age of 10. His father Jeremiah
Bentham, generally strict and demanding. started to learn Latin at the age of
three and went to Queen’s College, Oxford, at the age of 12. He studied law and
was called to the bar in 1769, although he never practised as a lawyer.
Utilitarianism: It was generally believed that he came across the phrase “the
greatest happiness of the greatest number”. In his famous Work The Principles of
Morals and Legislation He mentioned about the two sovereign masters of
mankind, which are pleasure and pain. Motive: “Take away all pleasures and all
pain and you have no desire and without a desire there can be no action”. The
principles of utility recognized this basic psychological trait, for it. Bentham's
utilitarianism is rooted in the idea that the morality of an action is determined by
its utility, specifically the happiness it generates. This foundational principle
forms the basis of his ethical framework. Bentham listed 14 kinds of simple
pleasures that move human beings. It is these pleasures and pains that determine
all our actions. ‘Directly or indirectly, well-being, in some shape or other.
this is how Bentham answers the question of what is so moral about an
individual seeking his pleasure. His defence against the charge of utilitarianism
being, instead of a theory of morality, a theory actually of selfish psychological
hedonism, is that utilitarianism does not propose that one seek only one’s own
pleasure. In deciding in what manner to act, one has to be impartial between
one’s own pleasure and that of all those affected by that act. If all happiness is
either that happiness of the agent himself or the happiness of others, then we can
clearly show that utilitarianism is also concerned with the happiness of others.
Let us take the example of punishment. If punishment is to have some utility,
and to have utility is to generate happiness then punishment is obviously not
going to make the person who is being punished, happy. It will instead, make
others happy by making it less probable that the crime is committed again. It is
true, that for Bentham, the community is a fictitious entity; nothing more than
the individual members constituting it. ‘The community is a fictitious body,
composed of the individual persons who are considered as constituting as it were
its members. The interest of the community then is…the sum of the interests of
the several members who compose it.’15 It remains true, however, that the
interests (happiness) of others are to count as much as the interest of oneself.
The application of utilitarianism extends to legislation and governance, with
Bentham advocating for laws and policies that maximize overall happiness in
society. He rejects the concept of inherent rights in favor of a legal system
grounded in utility.
felicific calculus: The calculus involves calculating the quantity of pleasure
or pain produced by an action, considering various factors. He was convinced
that pleasures and pains could be measured mathematically by taking into
consideration factors like intensity, duration, certainty and propinquity or
remoteness. felicific calculus serves as a practical tool for decision-making.
Individuals, legislators, or policymakers can use it to evaluate the ethical
consequences of different courses of action.
Principles of Legislation
 Bentham, influenced by Helvetius, believed that legislation was a crucial
means of bringing about suitable reforms. He saw utility, or the principle of
maximizing happiness and minimizing pain, as the fundamental basis for
determining what laws should be.
 He believed that the purpose of law was to maximize pleasure and
minimize pain for the greatest number of people. This utilitarian
perspective aimed at creating a society where individuals experienced the
greatest overall happiness.
 Bentham's philosophy included an egalitarian approach to the distribution
of happiness. The rule "each is to count for one and no one for more than
one" reflected the idea that each individual's happiness was of equal
importance. This was a departure from certain hierarchical views and
emphasized a democratic principle in the evaluation of happiness.
 Bentham emphasized that a person's actions and policies should be judged
by their intention to promote the happiness of the community. The
legislator's role was to understand human actions and encourage those that
contributed to the greatest happiness while discouraging actions that could
detract from it.
 Felicific Calculus, scientific measurement was intended to guide legislators
in making decisions that would maximize overall happiness.
Views on natural rights and civil Political Rights:
 He is critique of Natural Rights as he believes they are meaningless. He
argued that these rights lacked substance and did not mean anything in a
philosophical sense. Bentham contended that the language used to
articulate natural rights was similar to "terrorist language." He believed
that such language incited a spirit of resistance to all laws and
governments, leading to chaos and disorder because the laws lack
precision and clarity. They take extremes and also imply certain
unrestrained individualism, might encourage people to prioritize their
personal interests without due regard for the consequences on social order
and cohesion. natural rights could conflict with the principle of social
utility, as individuals might prioritize their perceived rights over the
 collective well-being, which is against the principle of utilitarianism as it
is the wellbeing of collective society. natural rights are a "spirit of
resistance against all governments," and Instrument of Rebellion
encouraging chaos and disorder.
 political and civil rights as essential elements in his vision for a legal and
political system designed to maximize overall happiness. Bentham
considered legislation a potent tool for social reform, aiming to create
laws that safeguard individual liberties and contribute to the general
welfare. Within the realm of civil rights, especially in criminal law,
Bentham sought to protect individuals from abuses of power through a
rational criminal code, a strong police force, and a just judiciary.
Bentham's interest in codifying laws aimed to create a legal environment
that was easily understandable, accessible, and promoted fairness and
justice.
Views on Public Participation and Monarchy, Aristocracy
 Bentham was a proponent of representative democracy, emphasizing the
importance of widespread suffrage and regular, free elections. He believed
in the active participation of the public in the political process, endorsing
measures such as freedom of the press and freedom of association. These
rights were seen as essential for citizens to express their opinions and hold
the government accountable. reasons for governmental actions could be
publicly discussed and criticized.
 Bentham was critical of absolute monarchy, where a single ruler holds
unchecked power. He opposed the concentration of power in the hands of a
monarch without accountability. He believed that unchecked monarchy
often led to despotism and arbitrary rule, which could be detrimental to the
happiness and well-being of the people. Bentham preferred constitutional
limitations on monarchical power, endorsing a form of government that
included checks and balances to prevent abuses.
 Bentham was skeptical of aristocratic rule, particularly when it involved
hereditary privileges and a concentration of power within a small,
privileged class. He opposed aristocratic systems that perpetuated
inequality and hindered social mobility. Bentham believed that such
systems were inconsistent with the principles of utility and equal
consideration of interests.

J.S Mill
James Stuart Mill was born in London on May 20, 1806. Early Life of Mill was
influences by India as his father was the writer of the book History of British
India. 8, James Mill was appointed as an assistant examiner at the East India
House. It was an important event in his life, as this solved his financial
problems. From 1865 to 1868, Mill was a member of the British Parliament,
trying to push through legislation granting women’s suffrage and worker’s
rights. A System of Logic, which he wrote in 1843, was followed by Principles
of Political Economy in 1848. In 1859, he wrote On Liberty. John Stuart got the
post and served the British government till his retirement and died in 1873. In
his Autobiography, which he wrote in the 1850s, he acknowledged his father’s
contribution in shaping his mental abilities and physical strength, to the extent
that he never had a normal boyhood as he faced a depression for 2 years at age
of 20.
On Liberty:
On Liberty" was published in 1859 and is considered a classic in liberal political
philosophy. Mill wrote "On Liberty" during a time of significant social and
political change in the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution was transforming
societies, and issues of individual freedom and the role of government were at
the forefront of intellectual discussions. In "On Liberty," he sought to reconcile
individual freedom with utilitarian principles, arguing that liberty is crucial for
the development of individuality and, in turn, societal progress and happiness.
Philosophy In On Liberty
 The principle of Harm asserts that the only legitimate reason for society or
authorities to curtail an individual's freedom is to prevent harm to others.
Mill argues that individuals have the right to act as they choose, as long as
their actions do not harm others. addresses the delicate balance between
individual freedom and societal interests. emphasis on preventing harm as
the criterion for interference aligns with his broader utilitarian philosophy.
the Harm Principle encapsulates Mill's commitment to individual
autonomy, limiting government power, and safeguarding against the
tyranny of the majority,
 Mill cautioned against the tyranny of the majority, emphasizing the need to
protect minority opinions and individual liberties from oppressive societal
norms. He underscored the importance of safeguarding minority rights
against the potential oppressive influence of the majority.
  Mill championed individual freedom as essential for personal development
and societal progress, asserting that individuals should be free to pursue
their own paths as long as they don't harm others.
 Mill advocated for limited state power, contending that government
intervention should be restricted to preventing harm to others, with a focus
on protecting individual autonomy and minimizing coercion.
Concept of self regarding and other regarding
Self-regarding actions are those actions that primarily affect only the individual
who engages in them. choices related to personal lifestyle, religious beliefs,
forms of recreation, and individual tastes are considered self-regarding.
Other-regarding actions are those actions that have direct consequences for
others or society at large. Criminal acts, actions that cause harm to others, or
behaviours that infringe on someone else's rights are considered other-regarding.
Mill's principle of liberty defends individual autonomy in self- regarding actions
but acknowledges limits when harm to others is involved. This distinction
carries ethical implications, emphasizing the importance of personal freedom
within societal boundaries.

Difference between Bentham and mill Utilitarianism

Bentham's utilitarianism and Mill's utilitarianism share the basic premise that the
rightness or wrongness of actions is determined by their consequences,
specifically the principle of maximizing happiness or pleasure. However, they
differ in significant ways. Bentham advocated a quantitative approach to
pleasure, considering all pleasures and pains as equal and measurable. : Mill
introduced the concept of higher and lower pleasures, arguing that not all
pleasures are of equal value. He emphasized the qualitative aspects of pleasure,
suggesting that intellectual and moral pleasures are superior to mere physical
pleasures.
Bentham had a more permissive view of government intervention and control, as
long as it contributed to the overall happiness of society. He did not emphasize
individual liberties to the same extent as Mill. Mill, in his work "On Liberty,"
argued for strong protections of individual freedom. He introduced the harm
principle, stating that the only justified reason for interference in an individual's
liberty is to prevent harm to others.
Criticism
Mill's harm principle, which suggests that the only justification for limiting
individual freedom is to prevent harm to others, is ambiguous and open to
interpretation. Critics argue that the qualitative aspect of Mill's utilitarianism
introduces subjectivity into the assessment of happiness. Determining which
pleasures are higher or more valuable is seen as challenging. Mill's strong
defence of negative liberty has been criticized for not adequately addressing
positive liberty. Some argue that a balance between the two is necessary for a
just society. While Mill emphasized limitations on state interference, critics
question the practical implications of his ideas in addressing issues like
economic inequality, environmental concerns, and public health, where state
intervention might be deemed necessary.

John Stuart Mill's "On Liberty" has a profound legacy, influencing political
philosophy and discussions on individual freedom. His defense of liberty,
particularly the harm principle, has shaped debates on state power limits. Mill's
advocacy for free speech, expression, and diverse perspectives has impacted
modern understanding of these rights. His ideas on individual development,
diversity, and the value of unconventional thinking have influenced education
and societal norms. Mill's work contributed to early feminism and laid the
groundwork for gender equality movements. His emphasis on limiting
government power, protecting individual rights, and utilitarianism remains
relevant globally. Mill's thoughts on democratic governance, an engaged
citizenry, and checks and balances continue to influence modern democratic
theory. "On Liberty" remains foundational, relevant to ongoing debates on
privacy, technology, and the delicate balance between individual freedom and
societal responsibility. Overall, Mill's legacy is marked by a profound impact on
individual rights, government, and ethical considerations in a just and free
society.

Karl Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx (1818–1883) was a scientifical Philosopher and truly the last
of the great critics in the Western intellectual tradition. He was born in Trier in
western Germany to a middle class Jewish family, whose father was a lawyer.
He studies law in Bonn university but due to dis interest in it he was shifted to
berlin university to study Hegelianism, which is the study, which places ultimate
reality in ideas rather than in things and that uses dialectic to comprehend an
absolute idea behind phenomena. He began to write newspaper in 1842 but
suppressed by authorities for radicalism. After this, in 1843, he went to France to
study Socialism, where he met Engels and other activists who were organizing
regular meetings of the working classes in France. From 1842 to 1848, edited
radical publications and became interested in the working-class movement and
political economy. In 1848, Marx and Engels founded the Communist League.
Expelled from Prussian territories in 1848, Marx moved to London and worked
at the British Museum from 1850 to 1860. Wrote for the New York Tribune for
income, supported financially by Engels. Lived in poverty, lost three of his six
children, and faced health issues. Jenny died in 1881, and Marx passed away on
March 14, 1883, buried in Highgate cemetery in London. His death initially went
unnoticed in Britain.

Dialectical Method
Dialectics was the key idea in Hegelian philosophy. though Engels credited
Heraclitus with its origins when he held that “Everything is and is not, for
everything is fluid, is constantly changing, constantly coming into being and
passing away. Hegel systematized this concept and applied it to the evolving
course of history. In Hegelian philosophy, dialectics involves the perpetual clash
of intellectual forces, leading to the advancement of human reason and freedom.
The main aim of these method is to pose questions and try to get answers
rationally and logically. Marx, influenced by Hegel, applied dialectics to
materialist perspectives, emphasizing real, social, and economic factors over
idealistic and intellectual considerations.
Hegel:
a product of the aftermath of the French Revolution in Germany, was a pivotal
figure in Western philosophy. Born in 1770, he became a dominant force in
German philosophy, influencing even critics like Karl Marx. His dialectical
method, derived from Socratic roots, involved a dynamic process of thesis,
antithesis, and synthesis to resolve contradictions and achieve higher forms.
The "thesis" is the starting point, representing an initial proposition or idea about
a concept or situation. In response to the thesis, the "antithesis" emerges. This is
an opposing idea or contradiction that challenges elements of the original thesis.
The antithesis introduces conflict. The dialectical movement seeks resolution
through the "synthesis." The synthesis reconciles the conflicts between the thesis
and antithesis, forming a higher and more comprehensive understanding. The
synthesis, in turn, becomes a new "thesis," initiating a continuous cycle of
development and progression in thought.
Dialectical Materialism
Dialectical materialism, a foundational concept in Karl Marx's philosophy, posits
that the world is inherently material and develops in accordance with the laws of
movement of matter. Marx, influenced by Hegel and Hobbes, adapted Hegel's
dialectical method but applied it fundamentally differently. Unlike Hegel, who
focused on the evolution of ideas or the Universal Spirit, Marx used dialectics to
explain the material conditions of life. dialectical materialism provides a
comprehensive framework for understanding the relationship between material
conditions, societal changes, and historical development.

Historical Materialism
Historical materialism, an application of dialectical materialism to history, is a
key aspect of Marx's thought, Karl Marx's concept of historical materialism is
rooted in the idea that the material conditions of society, particularly the mode of
economic production, shape the course of human history. This theory explains
the reasons for all historical changes occurred. according to which all the mass
phenomena of history are determined by economic conditions . The theory
begins with the “simple truth” which is the clue to the meaning of history, that
man must eat to live’. His very survival depends upon the success with which he
can produce what he wants from nature. Production is, therefore, the most
important of all human activities. The theory postulates that all institutions of
human society (e.g., government and religion) are the outgrowth of its economic
activity. Consequently, social and political change occurs when those institutions
cease to reflect the “mode of production”—that is, how the economy functions.
According to Marx, the economic base, comprised of forces and relations of
production, serves as the underlying foundation for the legal, political, and social
superstructure of a society. In practical terms, societies exhibit different
historical modes of production, such as the slave, feudal, and capitalist systems.
For instance, in the slave mode, slave-owners exploit slaves, while in feudalism,
land-owning lords exploit serfs. Capitalism, according to Marx, involves
property-owning capitalists exploiting the propertyless proletariat. The theory
suggests that conflicts between the productive forces within a society and its
existing relations of production can instigate social revolutions. This upheaval,
in turn, triggers comprehensive changes in the entire superstructure of society,
encompassing legal, political, and social institutions. He envisions a classless
society preceding the slave mode, characterized by collective ownership and a
scarcity of resources.
 1. Primitive Communism: Characterized by communal ownership of
property. No distinct class divisions or private ownership. Individuals
cooperate for survival with minimal tools and resources.
2. Slave Mode of Production: Emerges with the advent of private property.
Class division between slave-owners and slaves. Slaves are considered
property and are exploited by the ruling class.
3. Feudal Mode of Production: Characterized by feudalism, where land-
owning lords exploit serfs. Serfs have some ownership of means of
production but are subjected to the authority of the feudal lords.
Decentralized, agrarian economy.
4. Capitalist Mode of Production: Arises from the dissolution of feudalism.
Capitalists own the means of production (machines, factories, etc.).
Proletariat (working class) sells its labor power to capitalists in exchange
for wages. Centralized, industrial economy.
5. Socialist/Communist Mode of Production: Envisioned as a future stage
where the proletariat, recognizing its exploitation, overthrows the capitalist
system. Common ownership of means of production. Classless society
where wealth is distributed based on needs rather than private
accumulation.
he transition between stages is often associated with social conflicts and
revolutions as the productive forces come into conflict with existing relations of
production. Marx believes communism is the final stage in human societal
development because it entails the elimination of class distinctions, the end of
exploitation, the establishment of social equality, common ownership of the
means of production, full human development, and the eventual withering away
of the state. This vision aligns with Marx's overarching theory of historical
materialism, where societal structures evolve through stages driven by changes
in the mode of production and class relations.
Class Struggle
According to Marx, the concept of "class" is the key criterion in determining an
individual's position in society. The primary determinant of class is ownership or
control of the means of production, including land, capital, and technology.
Marx identifies two main classes in society: the bourgeoisie (exploiters) and the
proletariat (exploited). The bourgeoisie consists of those who own or control
the means of production, while the proletariat comprises those who own little or
none of these means and are dependent on selling their labour power. The
history of human society, according to Marx, is a history of class struggles. From
ancient times, different classes such as freeman and slave, patrician and
plebeian, lord and serf, and guild master and journeyman have stood in constant
opposition to each other. This continuous conflict, sometimes hidden and
sometimes open, has led to revolutionary changes in society. Marx's definition of
class membership is not based on income, education, or status but on an
individual's relationship to the means of production. Marx's theory of class
struggle suggests that the real dividing line in society, in terms of interests, is not
religion, language, or gender but class. Marx traces the historical development of
classes and class conflicts through various epochs, such as primitive
communism, slave society, feudalism, capitalism, and envisions the eventual
emergence of socialism and communism. “The history of all hitherto existing
society is the history of class struggles” said Marx which mean the entire
historical development of society is the history of classes as the entire society is
depended on the both classes of bourgeoise and proletariat engage is struggle to
control ownership.
Theory Of Surplus Value
Marx's theory of surplus value is a fundamental aspect of his critique of
capitalism. Marx contends that the value of a commodity is determined by the
amount of socially necessary labour time required for its production. When
workers engage in the production process, they may contribute additional value
to the commodities they produce. The capitalist, who owns the means of
production, sells these commodities in the market for a price that exceeds the
cost of wages paid to the workers.
The surplus value is the difference between the total value created by the
workers and the value equivalent to their wages. Marx sees this surplus value as
the source of profit for the capitalist. This process of extracting surplus value,
Marx argues, is the mechanism through which capitalists accumulate wealth
while workers remain in a condition of wage labor, leading to what he terms the
exploitation inherent in the capitalist mode of production.
n summary, Marx's theory of surplus value sheds light on how capitalism
inherently involves the exploitation of labor, with capitalists profiting from the
surplus created by workers beyond what is necessary for their subsistence. This
exploitation, according to Marx, is a fundamental characteristic of the capitalist
economic system.
Revolution and State
According to Marx, significant societal changes occur when a new property-
owning class emerges, leading to a revolutionary transformation of the mode of
production. In the aftermath of these revolutions, the newly established ruling
class exploits those without property. Marx identifies the proletariat, the working
class, as the universal class capable of bringing about a fundamental
transformation. In Marx's vision, a workers' revolution led by the proletariat
would result in the abolition of private property and the dismantling of class-
based societal structures. The revolution of the proletariat will be accomplished
by the vast majority for the benefit of all. The proletarian revolution will,
therefore, mark the end of classes and of the antagonistic character of capitalist
society. This would mean that the private ownership of property will be
abolished. The proletariat will jointly own means of production and distribute
the produce according to the needs of the members of the society. This stage is
called the stage of dictatorship of proletariat. This stage will later on convert into
a stateless society where the communist system will finally be established in the
society. This will also end all kinds of social classes and of all kinds of class
conflicts for future. e. This will also mean de-alienation of the proletariat. Since
the concept of alienation is now regarded as one of the main ideas of Marxism.
 Capitalism: Private ownership of the means of production (land,
capital, technology). Class-based society with bourgeoisie (owners of
means of production) and proletariat (working class). Capitalist mode of
production characterized by the extraction of surplus value from the labour
of the proletariat.
 Communism: Ultimate goal of the revolutionary process. Involves
the abolition of private property and class distinctions. Classless society
where the means of production are collectively owned. withering away of
the state" as it becomes unnecessary.
 Socialism: Transitional stage between capitalism and communism.
Involves the collective ownership of the means of production. Emerges
after the proletariat captures state power. State plays a role in managing the
transition to communism. Implies a shift from capitalist relations toward a
more equitable and just society.
 Dictatorship of the Proletariat: Transitional state led by the
proletariat. Proletariat seizes state power to achieve its class interests.
Involves the exclusion of the bourgeoisie from state power. A means to
facilitate the expropriation of private property. Temporary and aimed at
paving the way for the establishment of communism.
Alienation
Alienation literally means “separation from”. This term is often
used in literature and Marx has given it a sociological meaning.
Marx's theory of alienation is intricately linked to the structure of
societies where the producer (worker) is disconnected from the
means of production, and where "dead labour" (capital) dominates
over "living labour" (the worker). In a capitalist setting, the worker
engages in production but is alienated from the products of their
labour. In a capitalist system, workers engage in the production of
goods and services, but they do not have control or ownership over
what they produce, which is called product alienation. Workers
become estranged from the things they create, as these products are
owned and controlled by others. Self-alienation, according to
Marx, is when individuals feel disconnected from their own true
human nature, such as creativity and personal fulfilment, due to
external factors like oppressive work conditions or societal
structures. It's a sense of losing touch with one's authentic self. De-
alienation, in the context of Marx's writings, involves overcoming
the separation and estrangement that individuals experience in
various aspects of their lives, including their work, society, and
themselves. It's the process of reconnecting with one's true human
nature and overcoming the alienating conditions created by social
structures. Marx envisioned de-alienation as a revolutionary
transformation that goes beyond just changes in economic
ownership, aiming for a comprehensive reintegration of individuals
into a more harmonious and fulfilling existence through Abolition
of Class Society, Reintegration of Human Activities etc…