MODULE CODE: 3223

ROTORCRAFT AEROMECHANICS

Lecture by:
Wing Commander Niroshan Kiriwella
MSc. Tech (SPPU–Ind), PG Dip Mgt (KDU), BSc. Aero Eng (KDU), MRAeS (UK), AMIE (SL), AMCMET (SL), ptsc (Ind)
 LESSON 03

Main Rotor Analysis

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 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF BLADE
 Nomenclature
 R = the rotor radius; the length of the blade,
measured from center of rotation to tip.
 Ω = the rotor rotational speed or angular
velocity (rad/sec).
 ρ = air density.
 ψ = azimuth angle of the blade (Figure),
defined as zero in the downstream direction.
This is the angle measured from
downstream to the blade span axis, in the
direction of rotation of the blade. Hence for
constant rotational speed, ψ = Ω t.
 r = radial location on the blade (Figure),
measured from the center of rotation (r = 0)
to the blade tip (r = R, or when
dimensionless r = 1)

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 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF BLADE
 Nomenclature
 c = blade chord, which for tapered blades is
a function of r.
 N = number of blades.
 m = blade mass per unit length, as a
function of r.
𝑹
 Ib = ‫ = 𝒓𝒅𝒎𝟐𝒓 𝟎׬‬moment of inertia of the
blade about the center of rotation.

 A = πR2 = rotor disk area.

 σ = Nc/πR = rotor solidity.
 γ = ρacR4/Ib = blade Lock number

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 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF BLADE
 Nomenclature
Blade Aerodynamics
 a = blade section two-dimensional lift curve slope.
 α = blade section angle-of-attack.
 M = blade section Mach number.

 The subscript (r,ψ) on α or M is used to indicate the point on the rotor disk being
considered; for example, the retreating-tip angle-of-attack α1,270 or the advancing-
tip Mach number M1,90 (also written Mat)

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 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF BLADE
 Nomenclature
Blade Motion
 β = blade flap angle. This degree of freedom
produces blade motion out of the disk
plane, about either an actual flap hinge or a
region of structural flexibility at the root.
Flapping is positive for upward motion of
the blade (as produced by the thrust force
on the blade).
 ζ = blade lag angle. This degree of freedom
produces blade motion in the disk plane.
Lagging is positive when opposite the
direction of rotation of the rotor (as
produced by the blade drag forces).
 θ = blade pitch angle, or feathering motion,
produced by rotation of the blade about a
hinge or bearing at the root with the pitch
axis parallel to the blade spar. Pitching is
positive for nose-up rotation of the blade. 6
 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF BLADE
 Nomenclature
Blade Motion
 In steady-state operation of the rotor, blade motion is periodic around the
azimuth and hence can be expanded as a Fourier series in ψ:
• β = β0 + β1c cos ψ + β1s sin ψ + β2c cos 2ψ + β2s sin 2ψ + ...
• ζ = ζ0 + ζ1c cos ψ + ζ1s sin ψ + ζ2c cos 2ψ + ζ2s sin 2ψ + ...
• θ = θ0 + θ1c cos ψ + θ1s sin ψ + θ2c cos 2ψ + θ2s sin 2ψ + ...

 The mean and first harmonics of the blade motion (the 0, 1 c, and 1s Fourier
coefficients) are the harmonics most important to rotor performance and
control. The rotor coning angle is β0; β1c and β1s are, respectively, the pitch and
roll angles of the tip-path plane relative to the hub plane. The rotor collective
pitch is θ0, and θ1c and θ1s are the cyclic pitch angles.

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 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF BLADE
 Nomenclature
Rotor Angle-of-Attack and Velocity
 i = rotor disk plane incidence angle or angle-
of-attack, positive for forward tilt (as
required if a component of the rotor thrust
is to provide the propulsive force for the
helicopter).
 V = rotor or helicopter velocity with respect
to the air.
 v = rotor induced velocity, normal to the
disk plane and positive when downward
through the disk (as produced by a positive
rotor thrust).

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 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF BLADE
 Nomenclature

Rotor Angle-of-Attack and Velocity

 μ = V cosi/ ΩR = rotor advance ratio.
 μz = V sin i/ ΩR = normal velocity ratio.
 λ = (V sin i + v)/ ΩR = rotor inflow ratio (positive for flow downward through the
disk).
 λi = v/ ΩR = induced inflow ratio.

The advance ratio μ is the ratio of the forward velocity to the rotor tip speed. The
inflow ratio λ is the ratio of the total inflow velocity to the rotor tip speed.

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 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF BLADE
 Nomenclature
Rotor Forces and Power
Rotor forces, relative to an appropriate axis system:
 T = rotor thrust, normal to the disk plane and positive when directed upward.
 H = rotor drag force in the disk plane; positive when directed rearward,
opposing the forward velocity of the helicopter.
 Y = rotor side force in the disk plane; positive when directed toward the
advancing side of the rotor.
 Q = rotor shaft torque, positive when an external torque is required to turn
the rotor (helicopter operation).
 P = rotor shaft power, positive when power is supplied to the rotor.

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 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF BLADE
 Nomenclature
Rotor Forces and Power
In coefficient form based on air density, rotor disk area, and tip speed these
quantities are as follows:
 CT = Thrust coefficient = T/ρA(ΩR)2
 CH = H force coefficient = H/ρA(ΩR)2
 CY = Y force coefficient = Y/ρA(ΩR)2
 CQ = Torque coefficient = Q/ρA(ΩR)2R
 CP = Power coefficient = P/ρA(ΩR)3

The rotor shaft power and torque are related by P = ΩQ, so the coefficients are
equal, CP = CQ. The rotor disk loading is the ratio of the thrust to the rotor area,
T/A, and the power loading is the ratio of the thrust to the power, T/P. The rotor
blade loading is the ratio of the thrust to the blade area, T/Ab = T/(σA), or in
coefficient form the ratio of the thrust coefficient to solidity, CT /σ.

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 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF BLADE
 Nomenclature
Rotor Disk Planes
The rotor disk planes are denoted by:
 TPP - tip-path plane
 NFP - no-feathering plane
 HP - hub plane
 CP - control plane

Other conventions
b = number of blades.
x = r/R = dimensionless span variable.
θ1 = linear twist rate (from the expansion θ = θ0 + θ1r).
I1 = rotor blade flapping inertia.
λ = (V sin α − v)/ ΩR = rotor inflow ratio, positive when upward through the
disk.
α = rotor disk incidence angle or angle-of-attack, positive for rearward tilt. 12
 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Fundamentals of Momentum Theory
 Based on Newton’s 3rd Law
• Action: Production of upward rotor thrust
• Reaction: Downward air velocity in the rotor wake
 Newton’s 2nd Law (F=ma)
 Otherside, ma = F
 In Hover, Force is the rotor thrust; the acceleration is the change in air velocity
from far above the rotor (v = 0) to a steady value below the rotor; and mass is
the mass flow of the air being pumped through the rotor disc every second.

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 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Fundamentals of Momentum Theory
 Quantifying the amount of work done in order to accelerate said mass of air
and keeping the helicopter aloft ~ Momentum Theory
 Rotor is modelled following the Rankine & Froude actuator disk model
 As per this physical model, the propeller or rotor plane is assumed as a disk
of zero thickness that supports a pressure difference/discontinuity but not in
velocity
 Ideal representation of the rotor - no losses
 Mass, momentum and energy conservation
 Based on Bernoulli’s fluid model
 Results in closed-form expressions

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 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Model details
 Models only thrust, no torque
 Rotor as an actuator disk
 Pressure jump across rotor disk assumed
uniform
 Velocity uniform and continuous across the
rotor disk - continuity of (incompressible) fluid
 Rotor details;
• Only radius accounted for
• Number of blade, chord, airfoil etc. ignored
 Control volume analysis for average flow
velocity
 Flow is axisymmetric, incompressible, steady,
inviscid

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 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Hover

Induced
Induced power in
velocity in hover
hover

v – Induced velocity at the Rotor Disk

w – Wake induced velocity far downstream
P/T – Induced Power per unit Thrust
DL – Disk Loading 16
 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Hover
The following observations can be made from the results obtained-
 Flow attains half the speed from rest at station 0 to the rotor disk at station 1
 The other half is attained travelling from station 2 to ∞
 A larger rotor disk is more efficient
 Operation at higher altitudes requires more power

Momentum theory, with its uniform inflow velocity assumption gives the
lowest estimate of induced power. Its not due to the idealised flow conditions
(i.e. neglecting certain phenomena that contribute to disspative power loss)
but due to the uniform v assumption itself.

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 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Hover
Applying the Bernoulli’s principle, a relation between velocity at a point in the
slipstream and the corresponding pressure can be obtained.

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 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Hover

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 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Hover

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 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Climb

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 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Climb
Mass flux m˙ = ρA(V + v)

Momentum and energy conservation give

T=

The momentum conservation equation is independent of V.

Eliminating T/m˙ gives again w = 2v, as for hover; the induced
velocity in the far wake is twice that at the rotor disk. The total
pressure in the far wake is now

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 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Climb
For the climbing rotor, the relation between the thrust and induced velocity becomes

Again define vh (Hover velocity) as

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 BLADE MOMENTUM THEORY
 Climb

 Design Tradeoff

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 BLADE ELEMENT THEORY
 Conditions at Blade Element
 Momentum Theory: Covers general explanation of Hower Power
 Blade Element Theory: Deals with what’s happening at the blade element
 Blade Element Theory (BET) is an analysis method that may be applied to a
rotor, propeller, fan, and even a lightly loaded compressor
 BET is the foundation for almost all analyses of helicopter aerodynamics
because it deals with the detailed flow and loading of the blade
 The theory gives basic insights into the rotor performance as well as other
characteristics
 William Froude originally conceived of BET in the 1870's

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 BLADE ELEMENT THEORY
 Conditions at Blade Element

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 BLADE ELEMENT THEORY
 Conditions at Blade Element
 Blade sees air coming towards due to;
• Rotor rotation
• Downward induced velocity
 These combine and form the Resultant velocity
 Rearward component of lift is Induced Drag
 Profile drag – Result of air friction acting on the blade element
 For a Hovering rotor;
 Profile drag = ¼ of total power
 Induced power = ¾ of total power
 Induced power ratio (0.75) is called Figure of Merit
 During design – Control of Figure of Merit by;
 Optimum blade area
 Optimum blade twist
 Low drag airfoil 27
 REVISION
 We have learnt
 Physical description of blade
 Nomenclature
 Blade Momentum Theory
 Model
 Hover
 Climb

 Blade Element Theory

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 IN CLASS ASSIGNMENT
 Explain Blade Momentum Theory
 Explain Blade Element Theory

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