Introduction to machining
Tony Schmitz
University of Tennessee, Knoxville/ORNL
ace America’s
Cutting Edge
This program is funded by the Department of Defense (DoD) Industrial Base Analysis and Sustainment (IBAS) Program from the Office of Industrial Policy.
DoD has collaborated with ORNL and IACMI to establish America’s Cutting Edge (ACE), a national initiative for machine tool technology development and advancement.
Machining introduction
▪ In machining we remove material using a defined cutting edge to produce parts with the desired dimensions.
▪ Because machining removes material from the stock, it is a subtractive process.
▪ This contrasts additive manufacturing, where we deposit material to produce the desired shape.
▪ Machining can provide
▪ good dimensional accuracy
▪ internal features
▪ sharp edges
▪ creation of final dimensions after a heat treating operation
▪ good surface finish
▪ cost benefit for small batch sizes Turning
Material is removed in the form of chips that are sheared away by the cutting edge.
Turning Milling
Drilling
2
Machining introduction
Material is removed in the form of chips that are sheared away by the cutting edge
t0 – commanded chip
thickness
w – chip width
A – chip area
V – cutting speed Vc Tool
Vc – chip velocity Chip
– rake angle
– shear plane angle
w
A Workpiece
V
Chip formation video
https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=6QZ98Klssr4
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 3
Machining introduction
Chips can be:
▪ continuous Chip formation is
▪ serrated a shearing action
▪ discontinuous
Built-up edge (BUE)
▪ occurs when workpiece material sticks to the tool
surface
▪ is periodically sheared away
▪ can damage tool
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 4
Machining introduction
Continuous chip formation video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GghdbT0CyvI
Discontinuous chip formation video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h2pKPpLWwr8
BUE example
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-TfNouJbJrg
5
Machining introduction
Force is required to shear away the chip
Fc – cutting force acts in cutting
speed (V) direction
Ft – thrust force is perpendicular
to V direction
R – resultant force is the vector
sum of Fc and Ft
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 6
Machining introduction
Force is required to shear away the chip.
Fs – shear force (along shear plane)
Fn – shear normal force (to shear plane)
R – resultant force is the vector sum of Fs and Fn
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 7
Machining introduction
Force is required to shear away the chip.
F – friction force (along rake face)
N – normal force (to rake face)
R – resultant force is the vector sum
of F and N
– angle between N and R
F = R sin
N = R cos
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 8
Machining introduction
Combine forces in a single picture.
Fc = R cos ( – )
Ft = R sin ( – )
or
Ft = Fc tan ( – )
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 9
Machining introduction
Combine forces in a single picture.
The friction angle, , is related to the coefficient
of friction, µ, between the chip and tool rake face.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 10
Machining introduction
The product of force and velocity is power, P.
P = Fc V
Power per unit volume is the
specific energy, Ks
Ks = FcV/(wt0V) = Fc /(wt0)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 11
Machining introduction
Ks = Fc /(wt0)
= 63 lbf
w = 2 mm
t0 = 0.2 mm
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 12
Machining introduction
▪ The power input to shear away the chips produces heat.
▪ The temperature increase at the tool-chip interface can
be hundreds of deg C.
Finite element modeling example for ball end milling
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gqfbDo-M6kA
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 13
Machining introduction
Because cutting tools are subjected to high:
▪ forces
▪ temperatures
▪ cutting speeds
they wear over time.
▪ Wear features are observed on the rake and
flank faces.
▪ Because temperature increases with cutting
speed, tool wear also increases with cutting
speed.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 14
Machining introduction
The wear rate also depends on:
▪ tool material
▪ tool coating
▪ cutting fluid.
HSS
Carbide
15
Machining introduction
Coatings are applied to reduce friction and chemical reactivity.
Multi-layer coating
16
Machining introduction
Flood coolant
example
https://www.youtub
e.com/watch?v=rju3
ly6nji0
17
Machining introduction
We will introduce the primary machining operations
▪ Turning – rotating workpiece, tool moves over workpiece to produce round shapes (lathe)
▪ Milling – rotating tool, tool moves over workpiece to produce arbitrary shapes (mill)
▪ Drilling – lathe: rotating workpiece, drill forced into workpiece to produce hole at part center
▪ Drilling – mill: rotating drill, produces round holes by forcing drill into workpiece Headstock
▪ Tapping – cut threads inside hole
Cutting tool Tool post
Lathe
Tailstock
Spindle
Workpiece
Cross slide
Carriage
18
Machining introduction
Turning video – overview
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8
EsAxOnzEms
Turning video – thick chip
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n
UQ9rvNES7U
19
Machining introduction
▪ Turning – rotating workpiece, tool moves over workpiece
to produce round shapes (lathe)
▪ Depth of cut, d = (Do – Df)/2
▪ Feed per revolution, fr
▪ Spindle speed, N
▪ (Average) Diameter, D = (Do + Df)/2
▪ Cutting speed, V = DN
▪ Feed, f = frN
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 20
Machining introduction
▪ Turning – rotating workpiece, tool moves over workpiece to produce round shapes (lathe)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. 21
Machining introduction
We will introduce the primary machining operations
3-axis vertical
▪ Turning – rotating workpiece, tool moves over workpiece to produce round shapes (lathe)
milling machine
▪ Milling – rotating tool, tool moves over workpiece to produce arbitrary shapes (mill)
▪ Drilling – lathe: rotating workpiece, drill forced into workpiece to produce hole at part center
▪ Drilling – mill: rotating drill, produces round holes by forcing drill into workpiece
▪ Tapping – cut threads inside hole
z
Spindle
Vertical spindle milling machine Holder
▪ tool is clamped in a holder which is attached to the rotating spindle
▪ tool-holder-spindle is moved relative to the workpiece using the three orthogonal
axes to remove material Workpiece
Tool
y x
Milling video
https://www.yout
ube.com/watch?v
=AxHexqN0Hr0
Machining Dynamics: Frequency Response to Improved Productivity, 2nd Ed. 22
Machining introduction
3-axis vertical milling machine
z Spindle (vertical axis)
Guideways
Ball screw
x
y
Bearings
Base
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=U99asuDT97I 23
Machining introduction
4-axis horizontal
milling machine
Spindle
(horizontal axis)
24
Machining introduction
5-axis milling
machine
A (rotation about x) – B A (rotation about x) – C B (rotation about y) – C
(rotation about y) (rotation about z) (rotation about z)
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Machining introduction
Example milling applications and tool geometries Square end mill, four flutes (teeth)
Square end mill Ball nose end mill Bull nose end mill
Helix
angle
Ball nose end mill, two flutes
Ball nose end mill,
two flutes, indexable
Peripheral milling End milling Contour
milling
Insert
Axial depth Axial
of cut depth
Radial
depth
Radial depth
of cut
Face mill, indexable
Machining Dynamics: Frequency Response to Improved Productivity, 2nd Ed. 26
Machining introduction
The end mill must be clamped in the holder and the holder in the spindle Retention knobs/pull studs
▪ requires two interfaces
▪ tool to holder (collet, thermal shrink fit, hydraulic, set screw, …)
▪ holder to spindle (CAT40, HSK63A, …) Thermal
CAT40 spindle shrink fit
connection
ER collet CAT-50
holder CAT-40
CAT HSK
Weldon/set
screw
holder
27
Machining introduction
Tool holding video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IPWGV_EGAHw
28
Machining introduction
Chip thickness variation for up (conventional) and down (climb) milling for 50% radial immersion (a = r)
▪ feed per tooth, ft
▪ spindle speed, N
▪ diameter, D
▪ number of teeth, m
▪ cutting speed, V = DN
▪ feed, f = ftmN
Chamfer milling
Machining Dynamics: Frequency Response to Improved Productivity, 2nd Ed. 29
Machining introduction
Face milling video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9OsNUi_o6C4
30
Machining introduction
We will introduce the primary machining operations
▪ Turning – rotating workpiece, tool moves over workpiece to produce round shapes (lathe)
▪ Milling – rotating tool, tool moves over workpiece to produce arbitrary shapes (mill)
▪ Drilling – lathe: rotating workpiece, drill forced into workpiece to produce hole at part center
▪ Drilling – mill: rotating drill, produces round holes by forcing drill into workpiece
▪ Tapping – cut threads inside hole
Spot drill (center drill) video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=O9uNy76nH8M
Twist drill Twist drill
Chip
31
Machining introduction
We will introduce the primary machining operations
▪ Turning – rotating workpiece, tool moves over workpiece to produce round shapes (lathe)
▪ Milling – rotating tool, tool moves over workpiece to produce arbitrary shapes (mill)
▪ Drilling – lathe: rotating workpiece, drill forced into workpiece to produce hole at part center
▪ Drilling – mill: rotating drill, produces round holes by forcing drill into workpiece
▪ Tapping – cut threads inside hole
Deep hole
drilling Chamfer
drills
▪ feed per rev, fr
▪ spindle speed, N
▪ diameter, D
▪ cutting speed, V = DN
▪ feed, f = frN 32
Machining introduction
Drilling and tapping
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=om6GQKfoS1g
33
Machining introduction
Computer numerically controlled (CNC) machining
▪ the part is designed using computer software to provide a digital model of the desired
geometry – computer aided design (CAD)
▪ the CAD model is used in computer aided manufacturing (CAM) software to generate the
instructions, or toolpath, for the CNC machine to produce the part
▪ the CNC part program, that includes the toolpath and other machine instructions, is
uploaded to the CNC controller on the machine tool
▪ the part is machined and inspected
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Machining introduction
Computer numerically controlled (CNC) machining
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hMK7g_PpCv8
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Machining introduction
Key CAM software considerations
▪ the instructions are provided using M and G
codes – computer code that is interpreted by
the machine tool controller
Example G01 (linear interpolation):
G01 X1 Y1 F20 T01 M03 S500
single line gives the machine a series of
instructions to prepare for a milling
operation:
G01 – Perform a linear feed move
X1/Y1 – Move to these X and Y coordinates
F20 – Move at a feed rate of 20
The purpose of CAM is to use your part geometry and selected tools (face
T01 – Use Tool 1 to perform the operation
mill, end mill, drill, etc.) to produce that geometry from the stock model
M03 – Turn the spindle on
(rectangular block, forging, casting, additively manufactured preform).
S500 – Set a spindle speed of 500
CAM output is a part program. The exact format of the program depends on
The line could be considered a block. The
your machine’s controller (Fanuc, Siemens, Haas). It must be post-processed
end of block (EOB) is often marked with a ;
for the selected controller (“post the program to machine x”).
https://www.autodesk.com/products/fusion-360/blog/cnc-programming-fundamentals-g-code-2020-update/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-code 36
Machining introduction
Key CAM software considerations
▪ the instructions are provided using M and G codes – computer code that is interpreted by the machine tool controller
M codes are machine codes that might differ between CNC machines. These codes control functions on your CNC machine
such as coolant and spindle directions. Some of the most common M-codes include:
https://www.autodesk.com/products/fusion-360/blog/cnc-programming-fundamentals-g-code-2020-update/ 37
Machining introduction
Key CAM software considerations
▪ the instructions are provided using M and G codes – computer code that is interpreted by the machine tool controller
Canned cycles allow you to perform a complicated
action in only a few lines of code without having to type
out all of the details.
Example G83:
Create a hole by peck drilling using only two lines of
code. Represents over 20 lines of regular G code.
G98 is a tool return to the initial position.
https://www.autodesk.com/products/fusion-360/blog/cnc-
programming-fundamentals-g-code-2020-update/
38
Machining introduction
Typical sequence of activities for a CNC part program
1. Start the CNC program
2. Load the required tool
3. Turn the spindle on
4. Turn the coolant on
5. Move to position above a part
6. Start the machining process
7. Turn the coolant off
8. Turn the spindle off
9. Move away from the part to a safe location
10. End the CNC program
https://www.autodesk.com/products/fusion-360/blog/cnc-
programming-fundamentals-g-code-2020-update/ 39
Machining introduction
Modal vs. non-modal
▪ many G codes and M codes cause the machine to change from one mode to another
▪ if the mode stays active until some other command changes it, the command is modal
Example
▪ coolant commands are modal
▪ if coolant is turned on, it stays on until it is turned off
▪ G codes for motion are modal
▪ if a G01 (straight line) command is given on one line, it will be executed again on the next line unless a command is
given specifying a different motion
▪ non-modal codes effect only the lines on which they occur
▪ G4 (dwell) is non-modal
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Machining introduction
Key CAM software considerations
▪ work holding – the starting material must be clamped on the machine table in a
known location
▪ the starting material is called the stock model in CAM – can be any shape (blue block)
▪ its location is defined as the Work Coordinate System (WCS) in CAM
▪ WCS origin is defined at a point on the stock model (corner of transparent block)
Example:
G54 – Work Offset
This code is used to define a fixture offset which
determines the distance from a machine’s internal
coordinates to the WCS. You can program multiple
offsets if a job requires machining multiple parts at
once (G55, G56, etc.)
https://www.autodesk.com/products/fusion-360/blog/cnc-programming-
fundamentals-g-code-2020-update/ 41
Machining introduction
Work holding video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1VtofzVG24
Work locating video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r7-eEj_qq5M
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Machining introduction
Key CAM software considerations
▪ process definitions in CAM includes planes for: rapid motions, feed motions, stock top, feature locations in CAD model
▪ machining parameters
▪ axial depth of cut, stepdown
▪ radial depth of cut, stepover
▪ spindle speed
▪ feed per tooth
▪ feed in motions
▪ feed out motions
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Machining introduction
Key CAM software considerations
▪ process definitions in CAM includes tool selection
▪ when the machine-spindle-holder-tool is selected, a dynamic system is defined
▪ the cutting force causes vibration because the tool is not rigid, which affects the machining process
▪ this dynamic system must be considered when selecting machining parameters
▪ More on this!
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Machining introduction
Machining operations
▪ chip formation by shearing with a sharp cutting edge
▪ cutting force, power
▪ temperature increase, tool wear
▪ tool material, coatings, lubricant/coolant
▪ turning: straight turning, profiling, facing, drilling
▪ parameters: depth of cut, feed per revolution, spindle speed, feed, cutting speed
▪ drilling: spot drilling, deep hole drilling
▪ tools: spot/center drill, twist drill
▪ parameters: drill diameter, feed per revolution, spindle speed, feed, cutting speed
▪ milling: face, peripheral, chamfer, up/down (conventional/climb)
▪ milling cutters: face mill, square (flat nose) end mill, bull nose end mill, ball nose end mill
▪ parameters: spindle speed, feed per tooth, feed, cutting speed, axial depth (stepdown), radial depth (stepover)
CNC machining
▪ CAD – digital model
▪ CAM – toolpaths
▪ M/G codes
▪ post-processor
▪ work holding
▪ work coordinate system
▪ stock model
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