Wallaga University

Faculty of Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Course No.: ChEg3161

Course Title: Basic Environmental Engineering
Target year: 5th year Chemical Engineering students for exit exam

1
 Chapter One
Introduction to Environmental Engineering

1.1 Environmental Engineering Definition

1.2 Scope of Environmental Engineering
1.3 Environmental Pollution

2
 Environmental Engineering:
 The integration of sciences and engineering
principles to improve the natural environment to
provide healthy water, air and land for human
habitation and for other organisms, and to clean up
pollution sites.
 A branch of applied science and technology that
addresses the issue of energy preservation,
production asset and control of waste from human
and animal activities.

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  A science which is concerned with finding plausible
solutions in the field of public health, such as
waterborne diseases, implementing laws which
promote adequate sanitation in urban, rural and
recreational areas.
 It involves waste water management and air
pollution control, recycling, waste disposal,
industrial hygiene, environmental sustainability, and
public health issues as well as a knowledge of
environmental engineering law .
 It also includes studies on the environmental impact
of proposed construction projects.

4
 Scope of Environmental Engineering:
Solid waste management
EIA
Water supply and treatment
Wastewater conveyance and treatment
Natural resource management
Environmental policy and regulation development
Air pollution and control
Risk assessment

5
 Introduction…

Environmental Pollution:

 Environmental pollution is undesirable change in

physical, chemical or biological characteristics of

air, soil and water that may or will adversely affect
human, animal and plant lives.

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 Classification according to the environment:
Air pollution: pollution of atmosphere is
termed as the air pollution
Water pollution: the pollution of
hydrosphere or water is termed as water
pollution
Soil or land pollution: pollution of lithosphere
or land, called soil pollution.

7
 Causes of Environmental Pollution:
Anthropogenic:
1.Overpopulation: waste generation
2.Urbanization: e.g. deforestation
3.Industrialization (development activities)
Natural:
1.Erosion or dissolution of rocks and minerals, e.g. F-, PO43-
2.Volcanic eruption, e.g. Sulphur
3.Biological activities, e.g. generation CO2 & CH4; etc…

8
 Impact of humans upon the environment:
Human being:
 deplete natural resources in that human beings pollute the
environment
 generate and release wastes into the environment upsetting
the natural equilibrium.
Upset of the natural equilibrium due to:
 Over utilization of natural resources:
 Natural & man-made pollutants discharged to the
biosphere

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10
 Chapter Two
Water and Water Quality parameters

2.1 The water cycle

2.2 Water resources
2.3 The risks of water insecurity
2.4 Water quality parameters
2.5 Water quality requirements

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 Introduction
Water is most vital liquid for maintaining the life
on the earth.
About 97% water is exists in oceans that is
not suitable for drinking
only 3% is fresh water wherein
2.97% is contained by glaciers and ice caps
and
remaining little portion of 0.3% is available
as a surface and ground water for human use.

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 Water cycle:
Water in the hydrologic cycle moves through the atmosphere,
crust, oceans, lakes, and streams.

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 Water resources
surface waters (lakes, rivers, Sea water and reservoirs)
groundwater (Spring water and wells).

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 The Drinking Water should be totally clean, pure and free of
any disease causing MICROBES, and that’s why it should be
properly Treated and DISINFECTED before using it for
drinking purpose.

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16
17
 Example of Problems Recorded in Ethiopia
Over 8 million people are in Ethiopia(Furi. et al., 2010) are at risk of F-

1. Dental Fluorosis 2.Skeletal fluorosis: 3.Systemic fluorosis

≥ 1.5mg/l crippling, bending and Social impact
> 5mg/l
 Introduction…
Safe drinking water is a basic need for good health and
it is also a basic right of humans.
Fresh water is already a limiting resource in many parts
of the world.
In the next century, it will become even more limiting
due to:-
oIncreased population
oUrbanization and
oClimate change

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 Unfortunately, in developing countries (i.e. Ethiopia)
the drinking quality of water is continuously being
contaminated and hazardous for human use due to
o High growth of population,
o Expansion in industries,
o Throwing away of waste and chemical effluents
into canals and other water sources.

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 Water Quality Parameters:
Water quality is the physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of water in association to the set of
standards.
These parameters directly related to the safety of
the drinking water quality to human use.
Water quality parameters provide important
information about the health of a water body.
The following water quality parameters are the
major concern.

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 Dissolved Oxygen (DO):
DO is one of the most important measurements of
water quality parameter.
 reflecting the ecological health of water body.
It refers to the volume of oxygen present in water.
Waters of high DO usually considered healthy and
stable aquatic ecosystems.
It’s a critical indicator of a water body's ability to
support healthy ecosystems.
Oxygen enter the water body through two ways
o diffused in to the water body from atm., mixing
is easer when water is tumbling over rocks.
o by green aquatic plants and algae during
photosynthesis.
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 The solubility of oxygen depends on temperature,
pressure, and salinity.
o Cold water holds more oxygen
o Freshwater holds more oxygen
o Amount of oxygen absorbed in water decrease as
altitude increase.
These absorbed oxygen lost due to number of factors
o When water temperature rise
o When plant and animal respire
o When Oxygen demanding wastes exist.
In general
The dissolved oxygen concentration in a healthy
stream ranges from 7-9 mg/L.
Many aquatic organisms cannot survive if the DO is
24 depleted below 4 mg/L.
 Suspended Solids (SS):

Solids are the matter suspended or dissolved in

water and can be divided into three classes based on
their size:-
o Suspended >1mm
o Colloidal between 1mm and 0.001mm
o Dissolved < 0.001mm
 They include sand, silt, rust, plant fibers and algae,
which are indicator of possible hazardous
contaminants.
SS in surface water are esthetically
unsatisfactory and undesirable from a water
quality standpoint.
The suspended solids determination is important in
25 the analysis of polluted waters.
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD):
 Is defined as the amount of oxygen utilized by
bacteria during decomposition of OM.
 Its one of the most important test in stream pollution
control activities.
 BOD is an indication of poor water quality, the lower
the BOD, the less OM present in the water.
 BOD test is based on the determination of DO.
 For the standard 5-day BOD5 test,
300-mL BOD bottles
the initial DO is measured (DO0).
The samples are incubated at 200C in the dark
for 5 days
DO is measured again (DO5).
 The BOD5 is calculated as:
26 BOD5 (mg/L) = DO0 - DO5
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
BOD test provides the closest measure, which involves
many uncertain factors.
COD test is used to measure the OM in wastewater
that contains compounds that are toxic to biological
life.
Its useful to assess the strength of wastes, which
contains toxins and biologically resistant organic
substance.
Its expressed in terms of mg/L indicating the mass of
oxygen consumed / liters of solution.
The COD > BOD5 because = chemically + biologically
oxidized compounds.
For many types of wastewater COD can be determined
in 3 hours, compare with 5 days for the BOD5.
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 Nitrogen & Phosphorus:
Nitrogen & Phosphorus are an essential elements for
plant growth.
But excessive inflow of these nutrients cause
Eutrophication leading to
oPlant and animal biomass increase
oRate of sedimentation increases, shortening the
lifespan of the lake, and
oProblems in water treatment work
oDeterioration of water quality
oDepletion of dissolved oxygen in lakes, rivers and
reservoirs.
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 They are directly leading their ways from their
source to the natural environment.
N & P enter water body through:-
oDomestic wastewater,
oIndustrial wastewater,
oFertilizer run-off
oSewage treatment plant,
oLivestock and fish farms,

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 Heavy metal:
The term “heavy metals” refers to any metallic
element that has:-
o Relatively high density and
opoisonous even at low conc
o Their presence in excessive quantities will
interfere many beneficial uses of the water.
 Their bio-toxic effects in human biochemistry are
of great concern
 They enter the body system through food, air, and
water and bio-accumulate over a period of time

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  Therefore, it is frequently desirable to measure
and control its conc
Heavy metals are:-
oLeach into underground waters,
oMoving along water pathways
oDepositing in the aquifer,
oWashed away by run-off into surface waters
thereby resulting in water and subsequently
soil pollution.

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 They are non-essential to biological components
and have high toxic effects
High concentrations of
Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb),
Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn),
Aluminum (Al),
Copper (Cu)
Mercury (Hg), Chromium (Cr)and Nickel (Ni)
pose a potential health hazard to humans and
animals.

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 Microbiological Parameters:
By far the largest health risk from water pollution
parameters are disease causing pathogens.
Microbiological tests are conducted as indicators of
possible waterborne organisms that can potentially cause
disease.
Indicator organisms are used as a quick screening
mechanism across the water supply system.
The indicators used are
Faecal Coliform
Total Coliform

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 The use of an organism that can serve as a
surrogate for these pathogeneses are called an
“indicator organism.”

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 The presence of these indicative organisms are
 Evidence that the water has been polluted with
faeces of worm blooded animals.
b/c they are easily detectable indicator organisms.
killing the indicator organisms will also eliminate the
pathogens during the disinfection process.
Disinfection process:
 They are good approach for assessing the
likelihood of risks to human health.
 It is the system of measuring the degree of pollution
and sanitary quality of the water.
 Because testing for all known pathogens is a complicated
and expensive process.
 Monitoring for these indicator organisms is an easy and
economical method.
Maximum Acceptable Concentration for Drinking Water
35 = none detectable per 100 mL
 Source of pathogens:
The main source of pathogens in drinking water is
through recent contamination from human or
animal waste, from
Improperly treated septic and sewage
discharges
Leaching of animal manure
Storm water runoff
Domestic animals or wildlife
Direct defecation

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 Water quality requirements:
 Physical Requirements

Characteristics Maximum Permissible level

Odor Un objectionable
Taste Un objectionable
Turbidity, NTU 5
Color, TCU 15
SOURCE:- FDRE, MoH, 2011

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  Chemical Requirements:
o Characteristics that affect palatability of water
shall confirm to the level specified in table bellow
Substances(mg/l) Max. Per. Level Substances Max.Permissible Level(mg/l)

Total Hardness(CaCo3) 300 Zinc (Zn) 5

TDS 1000 Sulfate(So4) 250
Total Iron(Fe) 0.3 Chloride (Cl) 250
Manganese (Mn) 0.5 Total Alkalinity 200
(CaCO3)
Ammonia(NH3 +NH4+) 1.5 Sodium 200
Residual Free chloride 0.5 Potassium 1.5

Magnesium (Mg) 50 pH value Unit 6.5 to 8.5

Calcium (Ca) 75 Aluminum 0.2

Copper(Cu) 2 Ionic surfactants 1

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 Substances(mg/l) Max.Per.Level Substances Max.Per.Level(mg/l)

Barium(Ba) 0.7 Boron (B) 0.3

Mercury (Hg) 0.001 Selenium(Se) 0.01
Cadmium(Cd) 0.003 Fluoride (F) 1.5
Arsenic (As) 0.01 Chromium 0.05
(Cr)
Cyanide (CN) 0.07
Nitrite (NO2) 3
Nitrate(NO3) 50
Phenols(Phenolic 0.002
cpds)
Lead(pb) 0.01

SOURCE:- FDRE, MoH, 2011

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 Bacteriological Level:

(Organisms in 100 ml of water) Maximum Permissible

Level
Total viable organism ,colonies per Not detectable
ml
Faecal Steriptococi per 100 ml Not detectable

Coliform organisms ,number per 0

100 ml
E.Coli, number per 100 ml 0

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 Comparison of Ethiopian water quality standards with
WHO and certain foreign countries standard

Chemical Requirement
Maximum permissible level (mg/l)
Substances
WHO South Africa Ethiopia
Total Hardness(CaCo3) 300 Not Available 300

TDS 600 0 - 450 1000

Total Iron(Fe) 0.3 0 - 0.1 0.3

Manganese (Mn) 0.4 0 - 0.05 0.5

Ammonia(NH3 +NH4+) 1.5 0 - 1.0 1.5

Residual Free chloride - 0.5

Magnesium (Mg) 0.4 0 - 30 50

Calcium (Ca) 0 - 32 75

Copper(Cu) 2 0-1 2

4/5/2023 41
 Chemical Requirement

Maximum permissible level (mg/l)

Substances
WHO South Africa Ethiopia
Zinc (Zn) 3 0-3 5

Sulfate(SO4) 250 0 - 200 250

Chloride (Cl) 250 0 - 100 250

Total Alkalinity (CaCO3) 200 Not available 200

Sodium 200 0 - 100 200

Potassium 1.5 0 - 50 1.5

pH value Unit 6.5 to 8.5 6-9 6.5 to 8.5

Aluminum 0.2 0 - 0.15 0.2

Ionic surfactants 1 1

4/5/2023 42
 Chemical Requirement

Maximum permissible level (mg/l)

Substances
WHO America South Africa Ethiopia
Barium(Ba) 0.7 2 0.7
Mercury (Hg) 0.006 0.002 0 - 0.001 0.001
Cadmium(Cd) 0.003 0.005 0-5 0.003
Arsenic (As) 0.01 0.01 0 - 0.01 0.01
Cyanide (CN) 0.07 0.2 Not Available 0.07
Nitrite (NO2) 3 0-6 3
Nitrate(NO3) 50 10 0-6 50
Phenols(Phenolic cpds) 0.002 0-1 0.002

Lead(pb) 0.01 0.015 0 - 0.01 0.01

4/5/2023 43
 Chemical Requirement

Maximum permissible level (mg/l)

Substances
WHO America South Africa Ethiopia

Boron (B) 0.5 Not Available Not available 0.3

Selenium(Se) 0.01 0.05 0 - 0.02 0.01

Fluoride (F) 1.5 4.0 0-1 1.5

Chromium (Cr) 0.05 0.1 0 - 0.05 0.05

4/5/2023 44
 Bacteriological Level
Maximum permissible level (mg/l)
Substances
WHO South Ethiopia
Africa
Total viable organism Not detectable 0 Not detectable
colonies per ml
Faecal Steriptococi per Not detectable Not Not detectable
100 ml Available

Coliform organisms Not detectable 0 Not detectable

number per 100 ml
E.Coli, number per 100 ml Not detectable 0 Not detectable

4/5/2023 45
 Water and Sewage Treatment

o Municipal water supplies

should be treated before use
o Collected from water or
reservoir
o Treated
o Treated water distributed
to customers
o Sewer lines bring sewage
to treatment plant
o Sewage treated at sewage
treatment plant

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 Chapter Three
Sources and Constituents of Wastewater

3.1 Overview of wastewater

3.2 Sources of wastewater
3.3 Effects of water pollutants
3.4 Characteristics of wastewater

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 3.1 Introduction
Wastewater:
 known as sewage, originates from
 household wastes
 human and animal wastes
 industrial wastewaters
 storm runoff

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 Introduction…
 Wastewater, basically, is the flow of used water from a community.
 More than 99% of it is water by weight and the remaining 1% is
waste (material dissolved or suspended in the water).
 It is largely the water supply of a community after it has been
fouled by various uses.

49
 Introduction…

Wastewater constituents and its Effects:

Based on source of the wastewater it may contain that small
fraction contain:
o Suspended solids
o Organic matter
o Pathogens
o Nutrients
o Heavy metals
o Dissolved inorganic solids

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 Introduction…

Suspended solids:
 Organic and inorganic particles in water
 Distinguished from colloids — particles that do not settle
readily

Problems:
 Sedimentation
 Exert oxygen demand
 Primary transport mechanism for many metals,
organics and pathogens
 Aesthetic
 Complicates drinking water treatment

51
 Introduction…

Oxygen-Demanding Material:
 When organic substances are broken down in water, oxygen is
consumed.
organic C + O2 → CO2
 High oxygen levels necessary for healthy stream ecology
 Game fish (trout) require 5-8 mg/L DO

 Food fish (carp) require 3 mg/L DO

 Aesthetic problem <1 mg/L DO
DO = dissolved oxygen

Problems
 Depletes dissolved oxygen
 Hinders light transparency
 Means of transport for heavy metals, pathogens, and nutrients

52
53
54
 Introduction…
Pathogenic Organisms:
 Many organisms that cause human or animal diseases colonize
the intestinal tract but can live for a period of time outside
the body
 Carriers (who may or may not exhibit disease symptoms)
excrete these intestinal tract organisms in very large
numbers
 When water is contaminated by excreta, the organisms can
be transmitted to those who contact the water

Problem:
o Public health risk
o Make the water unfit for use

55
 Introduction…
Nutrients:

 Phosphorus(P) and nitrogen are typically the limiting nutrient in

lakes, and algae growth is linked to phosphorus and nitrogen
inputs.
 P can exist in a variety of chemical forms, mainly from sources
fertilizers and detergents.
 Nitrogen can exist in numerous forms, but nitrate (NO3-),
nitrite (NO2-), ammonia (NH3) are most commonly measured.
 Sources are primarily from fertilizers and acid deposition.

Problems associated with excess nutrients:

 Eutrophication
 Aesthetic
 Can be toxic, especially to farm animals
 Fouling
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57
 Introduction…
Eutrophication:
 Accelerated results with human input of nutrients to a lake.

58
 2.3 characteristics of wastewater
 An understanding of physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of wastewater is very important in design,
operation, and management of collection, treatment, and
disposal of wastewater.
 The nature of wastewater includes physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics which depend on the water usage in
the community, the industrial and commercial contributions,
weather, and infiltration/inflow.

59
 1.2.1 Physical Characteristics of WW
The most important physical characteristics of wastewater are
color, odour, temperature, solids concentration, Turbidity etc.
a) Temperature:
 affects chemical reaction and biological activities.

b) Total solids content (TS):

 defined as the residue remaining after a wastewater
sample has been evaporated and dried at a
temperature of 103 to 105oC.
 Total of all solids in a water sample.
 Determination of TS in WW indicates the foulness of
the WW.
60
 Total solids…

Fig: Classification of Total Solids

61
 A = weight of dried residue + dish after 24 hrs at 105 oC (mg)
B = weight of dish (mg)

a. WW before drying (with dish) b. WW after drying (with dish)

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63
 Total solids…
Total Suspended Solids (TSS):
 Solids that retained on a filter
 Filter a known amount of water through a pre-washed, pre-
dried (at 103-105°C)
 Rinse, dry and reweigh to calculate TSS in mg/L
 Save filters for other analyses such as volatile suspended
solids (VSS) that estimate organic matter.
 TSS are mostly responsible for Turbidity

64
65
 Total solids…

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS):

 The dissolved solids consist of both organic & inorganic
molecules and ions that are present in true solution in water.
 Dissolved solids are also called filterable residues.
 Total dissolved solids in raw wastewater are in the range of
250-850 mg/L.

66
67
 Total solids…

Volatile and Fixed suspended solids:

 The residue from TS, TSS, or TDS tests is ignited to
constant weight at 5500C.
 The weight lost on ignition is called volatile solids, whereas
the remaining solids represent the fixed total, suspended or
dissolved solids.

68
 The portion of volatile and fixed solids are computed by:

69
 Total solids…
Settleable solids:
 is the term applied to material settling out of suspension
within a defined time.
 It may include floating material depending on the technique.
 Another test to determine settleable solids is the
gravimetric method.
 First, determine total suspended solids as stated above.
 Second, determine non-settleable suspended solids from the
supernatant of the same sample which has settled for 1-2 hour.
 Then determine TSS (mg/L) of this supernatant liquor; this
gives the non-settleable solids.

70
 Settleable solids…

71
 c)Turbidity:
 is a measure of the clarity of water or wastewater.
 is influenced by the number of insoluble particles present.

72
 1.2.2 Chemical Characteristics of WW

The dissolved and suspended solids in wastewater contain

organic and inorganic material.
 Organic matter may include carbohydrates, fats, oils, grease,
surfactants, proteins, pesticides and other agricultural
chemicals, volatile organic compounds, and other toxic
chemicals (household and industrial).
 Inorganics may include heavy metals, nutrients, pH, alkalinity,
chlorides, sulfur, and other inorganic pollutants.
 Gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and
methane may be present in a wastewater.

73
 Chemical Characteristics…
I. pH-value:
o measures the relative acidic or basic level of a solution
o measure of hydrogen ion concentration in water

74
 II. Dissolved Oxygen:
 amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in an aqueous
solution.
III. Conductivity:
 Sum parameter for the concentration of ions
 Predominantly ions of dissolved salts
 Its units are Siemens per meter [S/m] in SI
 Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity.
Because the electrical current is transported by the ions in
solution, the conductivity increases as the concentration of ions
increases.

75
 Chemical Characteristics…
IV. Alkalinity:
 defined as the ability of wastewater to neutralize acids
 a measure of buffering capacity against a pH drop.
 results from the presence of the following ions:
1. Hydroxides ion: − OH
2. Carbonates ion: CO3-2
3. Bicarbonates ion: HCO3-
 These ions can be present with elements such as calcium,
magnesium, sodium, potassium and ammonia.
 Calcium and magnesium carbonates and bicarbonates are the
most common.

76
 Chemical Characteristics…
V. Nitrogen:
 Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential Nutrients for the
growth of microorganisms, plants and animals.
 The building block in the synthesis of protein
 the quantity in wastewater is essential to be known to
determine if the wastewater is treatable.
 if there is no enough nitrogen in the wastewater, quantities
are added to make sure that biological processes can take
place when treating wastewater.

Organic and ammonia nitrogen - kjeldahl method

Nitrite & nitrate nitrogen – colorimetric method

77
 Chemical Characteristics…
VI. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
 The amount of dissolved oxygen required to cause chemical
oxidation of the organic material in water.
 One of key indicators of the environmental health of a
surface water supply.
 Commonly used in waste water treatment but rarely in
general water treatment.

78
 Chemical Characteristics…
VII. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD):
 BOD measures the amount of oxygen consumed by
microorganisms as they decompose organic matter
 The BOD test measures the amount of oxygen consumed
during a specified period of time usually 5 days at 20 °C.
Its important measure used to:
 To determine the approximate quantity of oxygen that will
be required to biologically stabilize the organic matter
present.
 To determine the size of wastewater treatment facilities
 To measure the efficiency of some treatment processes
 To determine compliance with wastewater discharge
permits.

79
 Method for measuring BOD

80
 Method for measuring BOD
Direct Method:
 Adjust the sample to 20 °C , aerate with diffused air to
increase or decrease dissolved gas content to near
saturation.
 Fill BOD bottles.
 Measure D.O. immediately in the first bottle.
 Incubate 5 day
 Measure D.O.

Where D1 = Initial Dissolved oxygen

D2 = Final Dissolved oxygen

81
 Example #1: For a BOD test, 75 mL of a river water sample is
used in the 300 mL of BOD bottles without seeding with three
duplications. The initial DO in three BOD bottles read 8.86,
8.88, and 8.83 mg/L, respectively. The DO levels after 5 days
at 20°C incubation are 5.49, 5.65, and 5.53 mg/L, respectively.
Find the 5-day BOD (BOD5) for the river water.
Step 1. Determine average DO uptake
Step 2. Determine P
Step 3. Compute BOD5

82
83
 1.2.3 Biological characteristics of WW
 The principal groups of microorganisms found in wastewater
are bacteria, fungi, protozoa, microscopic plants and animals,
and viruses.
 Most microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa) are responsible
and are beneficial for biological treatment processes of
wastewater.
 However, some pathogenic bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and
viruses found in wastewater are of public concern.

84
 1.2.3 Biological characteristics of WW
 In nature, bacteria and other small organisms in water
consume organic matter in sewage, turning it into new
bacterial cells, carbon dioxide, and other by-products.

 The bacteria normally present in water must have oxygen

to do their part in breaking down the sewage.
 With the addition of oxygen to wastewater, masses of
microorganisms grew and rapidly metabolized organic
pollutants.
 Any excess microbiological growth could be removed from
the wastewater by physical processes.

85
 Chapter Four
Overview of Water and wastewater Treatments

4.1 Water treatment methods

4.2 Wastewater treatment methods

86
 4.1 Water treatment methods
Why needed to treat water?
 Natural water often contains impurities that are harmful
for human health
 Common impurities include:
 Impurities of mineral origin – iron, arsenic, lead,
 Living impurities – bacteria, viruses, algae, protozoa,
fungi
 Some impurities might be detected by sight (turbidity,
colour), taste (salty, offensive) and smell (odour)
 Detection of many pathogenic and poisonous impurities
require systematic laboratory tests
 Meet legal requirements

87
 4.1 Water treatment methods
Basic requirements of drinking water:
Water should:
 Be completely free of pathogenic micro-organisms that
can cause diseases
 Contain no element or compound in concentrations that can
cause acute or long-term adverse effect on human health
 Be aesthetically acceptable – free of bad colour, taste
(e.g. salty), and smell
 Not cause corrosion and discoloration

Goal of Water treatment:

 to remove existing contaminants in the water, or reduce the
concentration of such contaminants so the water becomes fit
for its desired end-use.

88
 Water treatment technologies as classified based on
treatment principle:
Physical unit operations: are treatment methods in which
the application of physical forces predominates.
o Screening, flocculation, sedimentation, flotation and
filtration.
Chemical unit processes: are treatment methods in which
the removal or conversion of contaminants is brought
about by addition of chemicals or by other chemical
reactions.
 Coagulation and disinfection.

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90
COAGULATION-FLOCCULATION PROCESS
 A chemical-aided clarification/sedimentation process
 Removes colloids and very fine particles having very low or
no settling velocity, which cannot be removed by
sedimentation
 Coagulation involves:
 addition of a salt that produces positive ions in water
 application of rapid mixing (hydraulic or mechanical)
 destabilization of colloids

91
 Common Coagulants:
 Aluminum sulphate – Al2(SO4)3.nH2O
 Ferric sulphate – Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O
 Ferric chloride – Fe2Cl3.6H2O
 Ferrous sulphate – FeSO4
 The Aluminium and Iron Salts react with natural alkalinity of
water and produce Aluminium and Iron Hydroxides – Al(OH) 3
and Fe(OH) 3
 The Al(OH) 3 and Fe(OH) are gelatinous (sticky) which entrap
the colloidal particles and form micro-flocs
 Flocculation – Sedimentation:
 Gentle and continuous stirring for agglomeration of micro-
flocs to produce larger flocs
 The larger flocs gain sufficient settling characteristics
and finally removed by sedimentation 92
Filtration:
 Water is allowed to pass through a bed of
filtering media usually sand and gravel.
Disinfection:
 Processes of destruction or at least complete
inactivation of pathogens present in water.

93
94
COMPLETE CYCLE
OF WATER TREATMENT: COAGULATION

STORAGE
SEDIMENTATION
DISINFECTION
FILTRATION
 4.2 Wastewater treatment methods
Goals of Wastewater treatment:
 Destruction of disease causing organisms
 Minimization of concentration of hazardous chemicals
entering to water bodies
 Converting wastewater to readily reusable resource
 Prevent environmental pollution of surface water, ground
water, air and soil
 Maintaining the health of aquatic ecosystem
 Preventing bad odor and unsightly conditions in the
environment

96
 4.2 Wastewater treatment methods
Conventional wastewater treatment:
Based on the Treatment objective: Various unit operations and
processes are grouped together to provide various levels of
treatment.
 Preliminary treatment
 Primary treatment
 Secondary treatment
 Tertiary treatment

97
 Preliminary Treatment units…

Preliminary Treatment units (PTUs):

 To protect the main units of treatment plant and to aid in
their efficient operation.
 It is necessary to remove the large floating and
suspended solids which are often present in the inflow.
–These materials include leaves, twigs, paper, rags and
other debris which could obstruct flow through a plant or
damage equipment in the plant.

98
 Preliminary Treatment units…

Type of Preliminary treatment:

1. Screening
2. Grit removal
3. Flow equalization

99
 Preliminary Treatment units…

Screening:
The purpose is to:
 protect process equipments
 To prevent solids from fouling subsequent treatment facilities
 Prevent discharge to waterways
The screening units include:
o bars( racks),
o coarse screens, and
o fine screens
Bar screens:
 used in preliminary treatment are to remove large objects such
as rags, plastics, paper, metals, dead animals, and the like.

100
 Preliminary Treatment units…

Spacing between screen bars:-

1. Fine screening, for a spacing under 10 mm.
2. Medium screening, for spacing of 10mm to 40mm.
3. Course screening, for spacing of over 40mm.

Manually-Cleaned Bar Screen

101
 Preliminary Treatment units…

Screening:

Mechanically-Cleaned Bar Screen

Manually-Cleaned Bar Screen

102
 Preliminary Treatment units…
Grit chambers:
 Objectives of Grit Chambers:
 Protect moving mechanical equipment from abrasion and
accompanying abnormal wear.
 Reduce formation of heavy deposits in pipelines, channels,
and conduits.
 Reduce the frequency of digester cleaning caused by
excessive accumulation of grit.

Grit chambers should be provided for all wastewater treatment

plants, and are used on systems required for plants receiving
sewage from combined sewers or from sewer systems
receiving a substantial amount of ground garbage or grit.
Grit chambers are usually installed ahead of pumps and
comminuting devices.

103
 Preliminary Treatment units…

104
 Primary wastewater treatment methods
Primary Wastewater Treatment
 Sedimentation

105
 Primary Wastewater Treatment
Sedimentation:
Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to
settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained, and come to
rest against a barrier.
 This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to
the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to
gravity, centrifugal acceleration or electromagnetism.
 Settling is the falling of suspended particles through the
liquid, whereas sedimentation is the termination of the
settling process.

106
 Sedimentation / Primary treatment system:
 It is the oldest and most widely used unit operation in water /
wastewater treatments.
 The unit sedimentation basin may also be referred to as a
sedimentation tank, clarifier, settling basin, or settling tank.
 Sedimentation is the process of removing solid particles heavier
than water by gravity settling.
 Used to remove both inorganic(ISS) and organic(OSS)
materials which are settleable in continuous-flow conditions.

107
 Sedimentation / Primary treatment system:
 Water/wastewater enters a settling tank or basin. Velocity is
reduced to approximately 1 ft/min.
 Solids that are heavier than water settle to the bottom,
while solids that are lighter than water float to the top.
 Settled solids are removed as sludge and floating solids are
removed as scum.

108
 Sedimentation / Primary treatment system:
 The settled solids are then collected by mechanical scrapers into
a hopper and pumped to a sludge treatment unit.
 Fats, oils, greases, and other floating matter are skimmed off
from the basin surface.
 The settling basin effluent is discharged over weirs into a
collection conduit for further treatment, or to a discharging
outfall.

109
 Objectives of Sedimentation:
 To slow the velocity of the water
 To remove settleable organic and floatable solids.
 To produce a liquid effluent of suitably improved quality for
the next treatment stage (i.e.) secondary biological
treatment (WWTP) and Filtration (WTP).

110
 Sedimentation…
Removal efficiency:
Sedimentation helps to achieve the following results:
 Turbidity due to sand, silt and other inorganic materials is
removed or reduced.
 Remove Substances which cause color, taste or bad smell
 Bacteria, particularly those of intestinal origin, are greatly
reduced due to the unfavorable environmental conditions
 When certain coagulants are applied in settling tanks, much
of the colloidal as well as the settleable solids, or a total of
80 to 90 percent of TSS, is removed.

111
 Sedimentation…

Types of Settling:
There are four general types or classes of particle settling
that are based on the concentration of the particles to
interact.
 Discrete particle settling (type I)
 Flocculent settling (type II)
 Hindered or Zone settling (type III)
 Compression settling (type IV)

112
 Sedimentation…

Discrete particle settling (type I):

 Individual particles settle
independently
 Occurs with the presence of a
relatively low concentration of solid
particles present in the water.
 They settle as individual particles and
do not flocculate or stick to other
during settling.
Example: sand and grit material.

113
 Sedimentation…
Flocculent settling (type II):
 Individual particles stick together into
clumps called flocs settling
 Flocculation causes the particles to
increase in mass and settle at a faster
rate.
 This occurs when there is a greater
solids concentration and chemical or
biological reactions alter particle
surfaces to enhance attachment, but
not at high enough concentrations to
restrict water movement.
Examples: coagulation/flocculation settling
in water treatment and primary
sedimentation in wastewater treatment

114
 Sedimentation…

Hindered or Zone settling (type III):

 Occurs when the solid particle
concentration in the water becomes
high enough (greater than 1000 mg/L)
to inhibit water movement.
 The particles tend to settle as a mass
and a distinct clear zone
 Zone settling occurs in lime-softening
sedimentation, and active sludge
sedimentation.
Example: settling of secondary effluents

115
 Sedimentation…
Compression settling (type IV):
 Occur when the concentration of solid
particles in the water is so high that the
particles must compress and compact those
below them to settle properly.
Example: sludge thickeners

116
 Sedimentation…
Schematic drawing of settling regions for concentrated
suspensions:

117
 Sedimentation…

Factors Affecting Sedimentation:

Particle size:
 The size and type of particles to be removed have a
significant effect on the operation of the sedimentation
tank.
 Because of their density,
o sand or silt can be removed very easily.
o colloidal material, small particles that stay in suspension
and make the water seem cloudy, will not settle until the
material is coagulated and flocculated by the addition of a
chemical, iron salt or aluminum sulfate.

118
 Sedimentation…

Factors Affecting Sedimentation:

Particle shape:
 Shape of the particle also affects its settling
characteristics.
 A round particle, for example, will settle much more
readily than a particle that has irregular edges.
Electrical charge of particles:
 Particles with the same charge tend to repel each
other. This repelling action keeps the particles from
congregating into flocs and settling.

119
 Sedimentation…

Factors Affecting Sedimentation:

Water temperature:
 When the temperature decreases, the rate of settling
becomes slower.
 The result is that as the water cools, the detention
time in the sedimentation tanks must increase.
Detention Time:
o Time that the water is in the system.

120
 Flocculent settling (type II):
Coagulation and Flocculation:
 purification methods which work by using chemicals that
effectively “glue” small suspended particles together so that
they settle out of the water or stick to sand or other
granules in granular media filter.
 It provide the water treatment process by which finely
divided suspended and colloidal matter in water is made to
agglomerate and form flocs. This enables their removal by
sedimentation or filtration.
 Broadly described as chemical and physical processes that
mix coagulating chemicals & flocculation aids with water.

121
 Why coagulation and flocculation?
1. Various sizes of particles in waste water
2. Colloids – so small: gravity settling not possible
3. Colloid Stability:
 Colloids have a net negative surface charge
 Electrostatic force prevents them from agglomeration
 Brownian motion keeps the colloids in suspension
 Impossible to remove colloids by gravity settling

-
-- --
Colloid - A
Repulsion
-
-- --
Colloid - B

- -
122
 Why coagulation and flocculation?
4. Colloidal interaction:

123
 Why coagulation and flocculation?
5. Charge reduction:

124
 Why coagulation and flocculation?
6. Colloid Destabilization:
 Colloids can be destabilized by charge neutralization
 Positively charges ions (Al3+, Fe3+ etc.) neutralize the
colloidal negative charges and thus destabilize them.
 With destabilization, colloids aggregate in size and start to
settle

125
 What is Coagulation?
 Is the destabilization of colloids by addition of chemicals
that neutralize the negative charges
 The chemicals are known as coagulants, usually higher valence
cationic salts (Al3+, Fe3+ etc.)
 Essentially a chemical process.

126
 Type of Coagulants

Basically there are two kinds of coagulants:

I. Primary (Chemical) coagulants :
 chemical/metal coagulants based on
aluminum and iron is used almost
exclusively in the coagulation process.

II. Natural Coagulants:

 extracts of particular seeds of certain
tropical trees.

127
 Chemical coagulants

 Inorganic or organic chemicals that when added to water at

an optimum dosage, cause particle destabilization.
 Most coagulants are cationic when dissolved in water and
include chemicals such alum, ferric salts, lime, and cationic
organic polymers.

Alum salts ferric salts

128
 What is Flocculation?
 is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into
a large
size particles known as flocs which can be effectively
removed by sedimentation or flotation.

129
 Secondary wastewater treatment
Types of Biological Process for WWT
Suspended growth processes:
 Aeration units
 Activated sludge
Attached (film) growth processes
 Trickling filter

130
 Suspended growth processes
a. Aeration units
b. Activated sludge

131
 Aeration units

132
 Aeration Units:

 The treatment process where by water is brought in to intimate

contact with air;
 A physical treatment process in which air promptly mixed with
water;
 It is one of the important unit operations of gas transfer.
 Oxygen supply is vital to all forms of aerobic biological treatment.
 The primary application of aeration in wastewater is to supply
oxygen to aerobic biological treatment processes.
 Because gas transfer causes turbulence and mixing, aeration also
play a significant role in mixing.

133
 Purposes of Artificially induced gas transfer /Aeration:
o Addition of oxygen to wastewater:
 To oxidize dissolved iron and manganese – Increasing the oxygen
content
o Removal of carbon dioxide:
 To adjust or to approach the carbonate equilibrium with respect to
calcium.
o Removal of hydrogen sulphide:
 To eliminate taste and odors and to decrease corrosion of metals
and disintegration of concrete; removal of methane to prevent fire
and explosions; removal of volatile oils and similar odor-and taste
producing substances;
o Removal organic matter from wastewater

134
 Secondary Treatment Using Activated Sludge Process

135
 Secondary Treatment Using Activated Sludge Process

136
 Activated sludge process:

 Derives its name from the biological mass formed when air is
continuously injected in to the wastewater.
 In this process, microorganisms are mixed thoroughly with
the organic compounds contained in wastewater under
conditions that stimulate their growth through use of the
organic compounds as substrate.
 As the microorganisms grow and are mixed by the agitation
of the air, the individual organisms flocculate to form an
active mass of microbes (biologic floc) called activated
sludge.

137
 Activated Sludge Principles:

 Wastewater is aerated in a tank

 Bacteria are encouraged to grow by providing:
 Oxygen
 Food (BOD)
 Nutrients
 Correct temperature
 Time
 As bacteria consume BOD, they grow and multiply
 Treated wastewater flows into secondary clarifier
 Bacterial cells settle, removed from clarifier as sludge
 Part of sludge is recycled back to activated sludge tank, to
maintain bacteria population
 Remainder of sludge is wasted

138
 Factors affect the performance of an activated sludge system:
1. Temperature
2. Return rates
3. Amount of oxygen available
4. Amount of organic matter available
5. pH
6. Waste rates
7. Aeration time
8. Wastewater toxicity

139
 Basic Process of Activated Sludge
Effluent

Aerobic reactor
Raw wastewater
or effluent
from primary CO2 , H2O
Secondary
treatment New biomass NO3, SO4 , PO4
settler

Activated sludge + Wastewater + O2

Recycle sludge

140 Wastage sludge

 Basic Process of Activated Sludge

141
Types of Biological Process for WWT
Attached (film) growth processes
 Trickling filter

Fig. Wastewater treatment based on a trickling filter system

 Trickling filters:
 an attached growth process i.e. process in which microorganisms
responsible for treatment are attached to an inert packing
material.
 Packing material used in attached growth processes include rock,
gravel, sand and a wide range of plastic and other synthetic
materials.
Trickling filters:
The following list of terms applies to the trickling filter process
 Distribution arm: the device widely used to apply wastewater
evenly over the entire surface of the media
 Filter underdrain: provided under the media - collect the liquid
and allow air to enter the filter
 Media: an inert substance placed in the filter to provide a
surface for the microorganism to grow on.
Trickling filters:

 Recirculation: the return of filter effluent back to the

trickling filter.
 Organic loading: the amount of BOD applied to a given volume
of filter media does not include the BOD contributed by any
recirculated flow.
 Hydraulic loading: the amount of wastewater flow applied to
the surface of the trickling filter media includes all flow
entering the filter.
General Process Description
 Trickling filtration is an aerobic fixed-film biological
treatment process that consists of a structure, packed with
inert medium such as rock, wood, or plastic.
 The wastewater is distributed over the upper surface of the
medium by either a fixed spray nozzle system or a rotating
distribution system.
 General Process Description:
 As the wastewater trickles over the surface of the media, a
growth of microorganisms
 The slime consists mainly of bacteria, but it also include
algae, protozoa, worms, snails, fungi, and/or insect larvae
 The microorganisms in a trickling filter consists aerobic and
anaerobic
 General Process Description:

 As the wastewater passes over this slime, the slime adsorbs the
organic matter. This organic matter is used for food by the
microorganisms.
 Air moving through the open spaces in the filter transfers
oxygen to the wastewater. Oxygen is then transferred to the
slime to keep the outer layer aerobic.
 As the microorganisms use the food and oxygen, they produce
more organisms, carbon dioxide.
General Process Description:
 Microorganisms near the surface of the filter bed are in a rapid
growth rate due to plenteous food supply, whereas
microorganisms in the lower portion of the filter may be in a
state of starvation.
 The growth of the microorganisms and the buildup of solid
wastes in the slime make it thicker and heavier
 When slime becomes thicker and cells die and lyse, the slime
layer will slough off and is subsequently removed by secondary
settling.
 Tertiary Wastewater Treatment

150
Need of Tertiary Treatment of Wastewater:
 To better protect public health and environment

 Continued increase in population

 Limited water resources

 Contamination of both surface and groundwater

 Uneven distribution of water resources and

 Periodic draughts
 Tertiary Treatment methods:
 Disinfection:
 means the destruction, or at least the complete
inactivation, of harmful micro-organisms present in the
water.
 Water disinfection means the removal, deactivation or
killing of pathogenic microorganisms.
 As a result, microorganisms are destroyed or deactivated,
resulting in termination of growth and reproduction.

152
 Why Water Disinfection?
 Water from questionable sources may be contaminated by a
variety of microorganisms, including bacteria and parasites
that cause diseases such as dysentery, cholera, typhoid, and
hepatitis.
 Therefore, drinking water should be free from any micro-
organism that could transmit disease or illness to the
consumer.
 As a result water treatment processes such as storage,
sedimentation, coagulation, and filtration reduce the
bacterial content of water to varying degrees.

153
 Factors that influence the disinfection of water
a. The nature and number of the micro-organisms to be destroyed.
 Certain organisms may not be destroyed or completely
inactivated by disinfection.
b. The type and concentration of the disinfectant used.
 Higher concentrations are co-related to higher efficiencies.
c. The temperature of the water to be disinfected.
 The higher the temperature the more rapid the disinfection will
be.
d. The time of contact:
 The disinfection effect becomes more complete when the
disinfectant remains in contact with the water longer.

154
 Factors that influence the disinfection of water

e. The nature of water to be disinfected:

 If the water contains particulate matter, especially of a
colloidal and organic nature (turbidity), the disinfection
process generally is hampered due to the "protection" of the
micro-organisms by the turbidity particles.
f. The pH of the water:
 Chlorine, for example, will have better disinfection power if
working at pH below 7, as the chlorine compound that will
prevail is HClO. At higher pH the chorine compound present
is ClO- which has a lesser bactericidal power.
g. Mixing:
 Good mixing ensures proper dispersal of the disinfectant
throughout the water, and so promotes the disinfection
process.

155
 Ways of disinfecting water:
There are two possible ways of disinfecting water for human
consumption
1. At house hold level –For scattered population.

156
 2. At Central water disinfection:
 In the communities with a higher population density, and it is
more efficient.

157
 b. Municipal Sewage Treatment

o In US most municipal water

supplies are treated
o Collected from water or
reservoir
o Treated
o Treated water distributed
to customers
o Sewer lines bring sewage
to treatment plant
o Sewage treated at sewage
treatment plant

158
 Types of water disinfection:
There are two methods of disinfecting water:
1. Physical Method
 Boiling of the water and
 Solar disinfection
 Ultraviolet radiation
2. Chemical Method
 Ozone
 Chlorine

159
 1. Physical Method
1.1 Boiling of the water:
 Boiling water is an effective method of treatment because
no important water-borne diseases are caused by heat
resisting organisms.
 It is effective in destroying all classes of waterborne
pathogens (viruses, bacteria and bacterial spores, fungi and
protozoan etc. ) and can be effectively applied to all waters.
 Boiling water also kills like giardia and cryptosporidium
Parasites.

160
 1.2 Solar Disinfection (SODIS):
 a simple water treatment method using solar radiation (UV-A
light and temperature) to destroy pathogenic bacteria and
viruses present in the water.
 the simplest and least expensive methods for providing
acceptable quality drinking water.
 a thermal process consisting of raising water temperature
for a long enough period of time in containers that have been
prepared to absorb the heat generated by solar radiation.
 These containers are made of a heat conducting material and
should preferably be black, for this color to absorb heat
better than light colors.

161
162
 1.3 Ultraviolet radiation (UV):
 used for water disinfection in a "central" water treatment
facility at small community level is ultraviolet radiation.
 the disinfection process of passing water by a germicidal UV
light source, typically low-pressure and medium-pressure
mercury lamps.

163
 1.3 Ultraviolet radiation (UV):

 the UV light source emits germicidal energy into the water

that can alter the nucleic acid (DNA) of the various bacteria,
viruses, molds, and parasites that may be present in the
water, inhibiting their ability to reproduce and rendering
them inactive.
Exposing water to ultraviolet light destroys pathogens.
 To assure thorough treatment, the water must be free of
turbidity and color. Otherwise some bacteria will be
protected from the germ-killing ultraviolet rays.
 The UV radiation technology is simple to use and highly
effective for inactivating microbes in drinking water,
 it does not introduce chemicals or cause the production of
harmful disinfection by-products in the water

164
 1.3 Ultraviolet radiation (UV):

The most important parameters of UV radiation relating

to water disinfection are:-
 Wavelength
 Condition of the water
 Intensity of radiation
 Exposure time
 Type of microorganisms

165
 2. Chemical Method:
2.1 Ozone:
 being a very strong oxidant, is effective in destroying
organic matter and in eliminating compounds that give
objectionable taste or color to water.
 is a relatively unstable molecule of oxygen which readily
gives up one atom of oxygen providing a powerful oxidizing
agent which is toxic to most water borne organisms.

166
 2. Chemical Method:

 It is a very strong, broad spectrum disinfectant that is

widely used in Europe. It is an effective method to inactivate
harmful protozoans that form cysts
 Ozone can be used to remove manganese from the water,
forming a precipitate which can be filtered
2Mn2+ + 2O3 + 4H2O → 2 MnO(OH)2 (s) + 2O2 + 4 H+

167
 2.2 Chlorine and its compound:
Chlorine disinfection:
 is accomplished by adding chlorine into the water. This type
of treatment requires the supply of chlorine either in liquid
or powder form.
 It is very applicable and very effective for the deactivation
of pathogenic microorganisms:
 Only chlorine-based disinfectants leave a beneficial
"residual" level that remains in treated water, helping to
protect it during distribution and storage.
 Chlorine is a versatile disinfectant, used in large and small
water community systems, as well as for treating water in
individual households.
 chlorine is most widely and easily used, and the most
affordable of the drinking water disinfectants.

168
 Chlorine disinfection:
 Combined chlorine is the proportion that combines with
organic matter.
 Free chlorine is the amount that remains to kill microbes in
the distribution system.
 Total chlorine is the combined concentration of combined and
free chlorine.

169
 How efficient is chlorination?
 With the appropriate dose, disinfection with chlorine will kill
100% of bacteria and viruses, but is not efficient enough to
inactivate pathogenic parasites (e.g. Giardia, Cryptosporidium
and helminthes eggs).

170
 Major Factors Affecting Chlorination:
1.The pH of the water;
2.Turbidity of the water;
3.The concentration of chlorine and contact time;
4.Water temperature;
5. Presence substances (ammonia) affecting the effectiveness
of disinfectant.

171
 Chapter Five
Solid Waste Management
Definition of Solid wastes
Sources and Types of solid wastes
Composition of solid wastes
Risks Associated with poor Solid waste
management
Solid Waste Management system

172
 Solid waste- Definition & Classification
Solid waste:
 All the wastes arising from human and animal activities that are
normally solid and are discarded as useless or unwanted.
Classification of Solid waste:
1. depending on their source:
a. Municipal waste
e.g. food, paper, cardboard, plastic, textile, glass, metal, ashes,
electronics waste

173
 depending on their source…
b. Industrial waste:
e.g. Toxic chemicals, oil,
debris from construction site,
packaging waste, ashes etc.
c. Health care waste:
e.g. Medicine bottles, expired medicines, syringes, medical
instruments such as scissors, blades etc.
d. Agriculture waste:
e.g. pesticides, crops, water coming from the fields also consists of
small amount of toxic chemicals.

174
 depending on their source…
e. Nuclear waste:
e.g. radioactive substances coming from reactors, fuel (uranium,
thorium, plutonium etc).
f. Hazardous waste:
e.g. toxic chemical, acids, corrosive, ignitable and reactive
materials, gases etc.
2. depending on their properties:
 Bio-degradable:
 can be degraded (paper, wood, fruits and others)
 Non-biodegradable:
 cannot be degraded (plastics, bottles, old machines, cans,
containers and others)

175
 Types of MSW
Residential:
o Single-family homes, duplexes, town houses, apartments
Commercial:
o Office buildings, shopping malls, warehouses, hotels,
airports, restaurants
Institutional:
o Schools, medical facilities, prisons
 Industrial:
o Packaging of components, office wastes, lunchroom and
restroom wastes (but not industrial process wastes)

176
 Composition of solid wastes
Composition :
Used to describe the individual components that make up a
solid waste stream and their relative distribution
Composition of solid waste depends on:
Living standards and Lifestyle
Cultural and religious habits of the people
Availability of resources
Geographic location
Season of the year
Climatic condition

177
 Two different composition measuring methods:
• Physical composition
• Chemical Composition
Physical composition:
o For the selection and operation of equipment and
facilities
o To assess the possibility for resource of energy recovery
o To design and analyse disposal facilities

178
 Physical composition…
The physical characterization of solid wastes :
Solid waste components
Particle size
Moisture content and
Density
Moisture content(%):
 Moisture content of municipal solid waste vary depending on:
1. Composition of the waste
2.The season of the year
3. Humidity
4.Weather condition especially rain

179
 Moisture content(%):

180
 Example1: A residential waste has the following components:

Based on a100 kg of Sample waste

Table 1
a. Estimate its moisture content using the values in Table 1.

181
182
 Physical composition…
Density :
 weight of the material per unit volume
 The densities of solid waste vary markedly with:
Geographic location
Season of the year
Length of time in storage
 Densities can be represented:
o as-compacted or
o as-discarded

183
 Density…
b. Estimate the 'as-discarded ‘ density of a solid waste sample
with the composition in example 1.

184
 Chemical Composition:
Proximate analysis
Moisture
Volatile combustible matter
 Fixed carbon
Ash
Fusing point of ash
Ultimate analysis
Energy content

185
 Risks Associated with poor Solid waste management

186
 Solid Waste Management system
Solid waste management:
The collection, source separation, storage, transportation,
transfer, processing, treatment and disposal of solid waste.
Priority ofWaste Management System(Material flow):

187
 Solid waste management system ( SWMS):
Combination of various functional elements associated with
the management of solid wastes.
Functional elements of SWMS:
Waste generation
Waste storage
Waste collection
Transfer and transport
Processing
Recovery and recycling
Waste disposal

188
 Integrated waste management:
 Frame of reference for designing and implementing new waste
management systems and for analysing and optimising existing
systems.
 based on the concept that all aspects of a waste management
system (technical and non-technical) should be analysed together

189
 Hierarchy of Integrated Solid Waste Management

Source:[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_hierarchy]
190
 1. Solid waste generation
 Waste generation includes all materials discarded, whether or
not they are later recycled or disposed in a landfill.

Factors that affect waste generation rate:

Effect of source reduction and Recycling Activities
Effect of public Attitudes and legislation
Effect of Geographic and physical factors
191
 2. Solid waste handling, storage and processing
 Onsite handling

 Onsite storage

 Onsite processing

192
 Onsite handling
handling of solid waste until they are placed in the
containers used for their storage before collection.
Importance of on- site handling of solid waste
 reduce volume of waste generated
 alter physical form
 recover usable materials
On- site handling Methods
 sorting
 shredding
 grinding
 composting

193
 On- site Storage
The first phase to manage solid waste is at home level.
It requires facilities for temporarily storing of refuse on the
premises.
Individual house holder or business man has responsibility
for onsite storage of solid waste.
There are four factors that should be considered in the on-
site storage of solid waste:
otype of container to be used
o location where the containers to be kept
o public health
o collection method and time

194
 On- site processing
 Involves activities such as waste composting and separation of
solid wastes for reuse and recycling.
 Objectives of solid waste processing:
Component separation
ohand sorting, screening, magnetic separation
Volume reduction
 baling, shredding, incineration
Size reduction (Shredding, grinding)
Resource recovery
composting, energy recovery and material recovery

195
 3.Solid waste collection methods
Types of Collection systems

Collection vehicles

196
 Collection :
 process of picking up of wastes from collection points, loading
them in to a vehicle, and transporting it to processing facilities,
transfer stations or disposal site.

197
 Types of Collection systems
Solid waste collection systems are:
Mode of operation
 Equipment use
Type of waste collected
Mode of operation:
Hauled container system
Stationary container system

198
 Mode of operation…
Hauled container system :
which is a system where the containers used for storage of
wastes are hauled to the disposal site, emptied and returned.
 Suited for the removal of wastes from sources where
generation rate is high.
Main types of hauled container systems:
 Hoist truck system
 Tilt-frame container system
 Trash-trailer system

199
 tilt-frame
Hoist
truck

trash
trailer

200
 Mode of operation…
Stationary container system :
Where the containers used for the storage of waste remain
at the point of generation, except for occasional short trip
to the collection vehicle.
Two main types Stationary Container Systems:
Mechanically loaded systems
Manually loaded systems

201
 Equipment used
Some of the equipment's used are:
o containers
o machineries and
o hand tools
Containers for hauled systems or operation have various sizes
and shapes.
Basically, since the system is used to haul wastes from sources
where the route of generation is high large containers are
provided.

202
 Type of waste collected:
 The collection of solid waste is not a single process.
 There are at least five different phases:

203
 Phase I: House-Can (dustbin)

204
 Poor collection

205
 Phase II : Can -Truck

206
 Phase III: Truck from house to house
Once the refuse is in the truck, it is compacted as the
truck moves from house to house.

207
 Phase IV: Truck routing and Truck to Disposal

208
 4. Separation, processing and transformation of solid waste
 Separation and processing of solid wastes
 Transformation of solid wastes

 Transport and Transfer of solid wastes

209
 Separation and processing of solid wastes
Separation of waste components:
is an important step in the handling and storage of solid
waste at the source.
The separation and processing of blended wastes usually
occur at a Material Recovery Facility.

210
 Separation and processing of solid wastes…
The unit operations used for the separation and processing of
the separated and commingled wastes are designed:
To modify the physical characteristics of the waste so that
waste components can be removed more easily
To remove specific components and contaminants from the
waste stream, and
To process and prepare the separated materials for
subsequent uses

211
212
213
 Resource recovery (processing):
means the obtaining of some economic benefit from
material that someone has regarded as waste.
It includes:
Reuse
Recycling
Energy Recovery

214
 Transport and Transfer of solid wastes
oTransport of solid wastes
o Transfer of solid wastes

215
 Transformation of solid wastes
 Process of carrying out of the collected solid waste from
the solid waste producing place to the collection centre or
 From the collection centre to:
 the SWM place or
any other place specified by the local body

216
 Transport and Transfer of solid wastes
 Typically, the contents of relatively small collection vehicles
are transferred to larger vehicles that are used to transport
the waste over extended distances either material recovery
facilities or to disposal sites.
 Transfer and transport operations are used in conjunction
with material recovery facilities to transport recovered
materials to markets or waste- to- energy facilities and to
transports residual materials to landfills.

217
 Transport and Transfer of solid wastes…
Transfer station:
 An intermediate station between collection point and final
disposal option in order to increase the efficiency of the
system, as collection vehicles and crew remain closer to
routes.
 Reduce the cost of transporting refuse by reducing man
power requirement and total kilometres.
 should be located at the center of the collection service area
 Transporting vehicles could be a Trailer, motor-tricycles,
animal carts, hand carts and tractor.

218
 Waste pickers at a transfer station, Nepal

219
220
 Fig. Options to transport solid waste

221 Fig. Solid waste transfer station

 5.Solid waste disposal
 Solid waste disposal
 Solid waste disposal methods

222
 Solid waste disposal:
Final disposition of solid wastes in such a way as to prevent
them from harming the environment or human health.

Waste Disposal Methods :

Open dumping
Incineration
Sanitary Landfills

223
 Methods of Waste Disposal…
Open dumping:
 wastes are dumped at a designated site without any
environmental control.
 They tend to remain there for a long period of time, pose health
risks and cause environmental degradation.
 Due to the adverse health and environmental impact associated
with it, the non-engineered disposal is not considered a viable
and safe option.

224
 Open dumping…
 Carefully selected rubbish must be disposed in order to prevent
fire accidents that might occur.
 The location of open dumping must be carefully chosen so that
there will be a minimum chance of complaints from near by
residents.

225
 Open dumping…

Factors that must be considered before selection and locating

sites for open dumping:
 Sources of water supply and distance from it
 Direction of wind
 Distance from nearest residents near by farm areas and main
land
 Distance that flies can travel from disposal site to the living
quarter
 Distance that the rodents can travel from disposal areas and
living quarters.

226
 Incineration:
 Incineration is the process of burning refuse in a controlled
condition.
 It is mainly done for volume reduction, and also for extending the
lifetime of the land disposal facility.
 It operates on the principle of “waste to energy” by utilizing the
energy generated for space heating and electricity generation.

227 Open burning  Incinerator 

 Landfills:
Engineered areas where waste is placed into the land.
Sanitary landfills:
 Judged suitable for the in-ground disposal of solid wastes.
Designed, constructed and operated to meet a wide range of
regulations that are intended to protect human health and the
environment

228
 Sanitary landfill

229
 Chapter Six
Air Pollution
2.1 Types of Air Pollutants
2.2 Sources of Air pollution
2.3 Effects of air pollution
2.3 Air Pollution Control

230
 What is Air pollution:
The presence of any solids, liquid, or gaseous
substances which can cause harmful effect on abiotic and
biotic components of our environment.

231
 Sources of Air pollution:
I) Naturally occurring events:
 smoke and dusts from volcanoes
 lightening
 Smoke from forest fire
II) Anthropogenic sources:
o CO from vehicles
o NOx from vehicle exhausts
o SOx from power generation
o emission from industries

232
 • Volcanic activity produces smoke, ash, CO2,
Volcanoes SO2, and other pollutants
Natural Sources

Digestive gases • CH4 and other gases generated by the

digestion of food and emitted by animals
such as cattle
Oceans, Rivers and
• CH4 emission from digestive systems of
Estuaries marine life

Radioactive decay • Radon gas emission by radioactive decay

occurring in the earth’s crust

lightning • Lightning converts atmospheric N2 in to NOx

Forest fire • Caused by lightning or other natural events

233
234
 Anthropogenic Sources • Is a single, identifiable source of air
Stationary pollutant emissions
point source • Ex. Emission from flue gas stack

• Include the exhaust emissions from

Mobile sources vehicles

• Is a 2-D source of diffuse air

pollutant emissions.
Area Sources • Ex. Emission of CH4 and NH3 from
livestock operations

Evaporative •Volatile liquids that can evaporate into air

sources • Ex. Paints, pesticides, perfumes, hair
spray, aerosol spray, gasoline

235
 Mobile sources

236 Stationary sources

237
 Types of Air Pollutants:
a) Primary Pollutants:
 Products of natural and anthropogenic events added
directly to the air
Example: SOx, COx, NOx, VOC, Particulate Matter
b) Secondary Pollutants:
 formed by interaction of 1° pollutants with each other
or with normal components of the air
Example: H2SO4, O3, formaldehyde

238
239
 Effects of Air Pollution
Low level exposure
 Irritates eyes
Causes inflammation of respiratory tract
o Can develop into chronic respiratory diseases

240
 Air Pollution Control Engineering
Concepts of Air Pollution Control
 Air pollution is one of the major problems for the
environment as well as industries and hence it should
be minimized.
 The various effects of air pollution on human beings,
animals, plants, etc.
 It is practically impossible to remove the air
pollutants in the air completely, but have to be
reduced.

241
 Reduction or control of air pollution is carried out in the
following three stages.
1. Reducing the volume of polluted streams
2. Changing the process of causing the pollution
3. Treatment to the emitted gas
Air pollution control is not a single measure, but all the
above said procedures are implemented effectively.

242
 Objectives of Air Pollution Control
The important objectives of the air pollution control:
 Controlling of effects of air pollution on public
 Protection of animals, plants, etc.
 Protection of properties against pollutants attack
 Providing the acceptable environment, etc.

243
 Air Pollution Control Engineering
Emitted pollutants can be reduced by:
o By natural self-cleansing process of the env’t
o Engineering measures/control devices

I) The Natural Self-cleansing properties of the Env’t:

There are various natural properties which can continuously
clean the env’t automatically.
These are:
 Dispersion
 Gravitational Settling
 Absorption including washout and scavenging
 Rainout and
 Adsorption

244
 I) Dispersion
 Dispersion of pollutants by winds reduces the conc.
of air pollutants at one place, although in the strict
sense, it doesn’t remove them from the env’t as a
whole
 It is a diluting mechanism only
 It dilutes air pollutants near the sources only and
doesn’t reduce their long term undesirable effects
on the community as a whole
Ex. SO2 released in one country can affect another
country who has no SO2 emission….acid rain

245
246
 II) Gravitational Settling
In this case large heavy particles from the
ambient air settle down by the action of gravity
This process helps in removing flocculated
particles formed by uniting of smaller particles
over the large particles, till a floc particle, large
and heavy enough to settle out under gravity is
formed

247
 III) Absorption
The gaseous as well as the particulate pollutants
from the air get collected in the rain and may settle
out with that moisture
This phenomena takes place below the cloud level
When falling rain drops, absorb pollutants, and is
also known as washout or scavenging
This process doesn’t remove particles smaller than
1m
Gaseous pollutants are removed in dissolved state
with moisture, either with or without chemical
change.

248
 IV) Rainout
This process involves precipitation above the cloud
level, where submicron particles present in the
atmosphere in the cloud, serve as condensation nuclei,
around which drops of water may form, and fallout as
rain drop
V) Adsorption
A phenomena in which the pollutants present in the
ambient air are kept attracted, electrostatically by a
surfaces where they are concentrated and retained
Natural surfaces such as: soils, rocks, leaves, blades
of grasses, buildings and other objects can adsorb
and retain pollutants
249
 II) Engineering measures/control devices
 The most important devices are:
A. Gravitational settling chamber
B. Centrifugal collectors including cyclone
collectors
C. Wet scrubbers including spray towers, wet
cyclone scrubbers, and venturi-scrubbers
D. Electrostatic precipitators
E. Fabric filters
 These devices are differ in their working principle,
efficiency, size of the particles to be removed

250
 A) Gravitational settling chamber
 Gravity Separators (Gravitational settling chambers)
use the gravitational force to remove solid
(particulate) matters from the air.
 The gas stream enters the chamber, where the
velocity of the gas reduced.
 Larger particles drop out the gas and are collected in
Hoppers.
 Particle size of about 50 μm can be removed by
gravitational settling chamber.
 When the flow velocity of the fluid (air stream) is
reduced as it enters a chamber, gravitational force
causes the particles to settle on the bottom of the
chamber.

251
 Working principle:
 Settling chamber consists of an enclosed chamber, in
which the velocity of the dirty air is reduced
considerably, which permits the dust particle to settle
down by gravitational force.
 The smokes (or dirty air) emitted from the industries
are permitted to pass through the settling chamber.
 The largest size particles settle down at the bottom of
the chamber.
 In these chamber, the horizontal gas velocity should be
kept as low as possible, to allow the stream line airflow,
for ensuring optimum settling conditions.

252
 The velocities are kept between 0.3 m/sec to
2.5 m/sec in the chambers, which permits
coarse particle of size 50 μm and above to be
removed by this chamber.

253
254
 B) Centrifugal collectors (cyclone collectors )

o Cyclone separator (or cyclone collector) is a

mechanical device used to remove the particulate
matters from the air, gas or liquid without the use of
filters by vortex separation.
o Rotational effects and gravitational forces are used
for the separation of particulate matters (dust) from
the air.

255
 Working principle
 Cyclone is a conical or cylindrical container, in which
high-speed rotating airflow is created.
 The air flows in a helical or spiral pattern beginning at
the top of the Cyclone (wide end) and ending at the
bottom of the Cyclone (narrow end), before leaving the
cyclone.
 Due to the high speed air flow, larger particles (high
density particulate matters) strike out the outer wall
and then falling to the bottom of the cyclone.
 At the bottom of the cyclone, the larger particles can
be collected and removed.

256
257
 C) Fabric filters

 Fabric filters are the mechanical devices, used for the

dust collection and the size of particulate matters
collected by fabric filters are up to 1 μm.
 When dust gases pass through the fabric filters and
the streamline of gas diverges, collection of particular
matters occurs.
 In this arrangement, it is assumed that the particles
are not diverging but follow the gas stream and they
are intercepted to the fabric, when the centre of the
particle at a distance of half of its diameter.

258
  The use of fabric filters is based on the principle of
filtration, which is the separation of solids from fluids
(gases) by interposing a medium through which only
the fluid can pass.
 The mechanisms by which the particles come into
contact with the fibres in the filter media are
Straining (sieving), Interception, Diffusion, Inertial
separation and Electrostatic attraction.
 If the particle size of 1μm to 5 μm moving in irregular
way, the Brownian motion causes them to diffuse the
fabric.
 Small particles are retained on the fabric initially
through the interception and electro-static
attraction.
 After that, when the dust matter is formed, the
fabric starts collecting particles more efficiently.
259
260
 C) Electro-Static Precipitation

 Electro-Static Precipitation is one of the methods of

controlling the particulate pollutants in industries, in
which the dirty gas is allowed to pass through the
narrow, vertical gas passage, formed by parallel rows of
grounded connecting electrodes.
 Particulates moving through a region of high
electrostatic potential tend to become charged and are
then attracted to an oppositely charged area where
they can be collected

261
 ESP uses electrical forces to move the
particles out of the flowing gas stream and
onto collector plates.

The ESP places electrical charges on the

particles ,causing them to be attracted
to oppositely charged metal plates
262 located in the precipitator.
 Chapter Seven
Risk Analysis

7.1 Assessment of risk

7.2 Probability
7.3 Pollution responses
7.4 Expression of risk
7.5 Risk perception

263
 Risk assessment:
 Risk assessment involves using statistical methods
to quantify the risks of a particular action so that
they can be compared and contrasted with other
risks
 Risk is the probability that a particular adverse
effect will result from some exposure or condition
like
 Human injury
 Disease
 Death
 economic loss or ecosystem damages
 Risk is a combination of two factors:
o Probability that an adverse event will occur
(exposure)
o Consequences of the adverse event (hazard)

264
  Risk is calculated as the probability that some negative
effect or event will occur times the consequences
(deaths, injuries, economic losses, ecological damage) if
it does occur
 Risk is typically reported as a fraction, ranging from
0 (certain not to occur) to 1 (certain to occur)
 Risk (harm/unit time) = exposure x consequence

265
 Processes of risk assessment:
The processes of risk assessment involve the following elements:
 Hazard identification
 Dose-response relationship assessment
 Exposure assessment
 Risk characterization

266
 Hazard identification:
determine whether available scientific data describes a
causal relationship b/n an environmental agent and
demonstrated injury to human health or the environment
Examples:
Observed injuries to humans may include birth defects,
neurological damage or cancer
Ecological hazards might result in fish kills, habitat destruction
or other environmental effects
The means of identifying hazards is complex
o If a potential hazard is identified, three other analyses
become important for the overall risk assessment.
267
 Chemical toxicities are categorized according to the
various health effects resulting from exposure
The health effects are often classified as:
 acute (short-term: occur over a short period of
time from seconds to days) and
chronic (long-term: last longer and develop over a
much longer period of time and include cancer, birth
defects, genetic damage and degenerative illnesses)

268
 Dose-response assessment:
 Determines the relationship b/n the degree of
chemical exposure (dose) and the magnitude of the
effect (response) in the exposed population
 'Dose' indicates the amount of the agent while
'response' refers to the effect of the agent once
administered
 Dose-response curves are generated from various
acute and chronic toxicity tests
 Depending on chemical action, the curve may rise with
or without a threshold
 Determined graphically by determining the effect of
varying the administered dose on the response
269
  Increasing the dose of a harmful agent will result in a proportional
increase in both the incidence of an adverse effect and the
severity of the effect
 The dose-response relationship correlates exposures and the
spectrum of induced effects
 The higher the dose the more severe the response

The dose-response assessment is based on observed data from :

 Experimental animals
 Human clinical or cell studies
Response (effects):
o Inflammation (local or systemic)
o Necrosis (cell or tissue death)
o Enzyme inhibition (biochemical pathway interruption)
o Biochemical uncoupling (interfere with ATP synthesis)

270
  Knowledge of the dose-response relationship:
o Establishes causality that the chemical induced has observed
effects
o Establishes the lowest dose where an induced effect occurs –
the threshold effect
o Determines the rate at which injury builds up – the slope for
the dose response
 The dose-response curve normally takes the form of a sigmoid
curve
 It conforms to a smooth curve as close as possible to the
individual data points
 For most effects, small doses are not toxic
 The point at which toxicity first appears is known as the
threshold dose level
 From that point, the curve increases with higher dose levels
 Finally response reaches a maximum, after which the dose-
response curve becomes flat

271
 Fig. Threshold dose : point at which toxicity first appears

272
 Dose-Response Assessment or toxicity assessment:
o The shape and slope of the dose-response curve is important to
predict the toxicity of a substance at specific dose levels
o Major differences among toxicants may exist not only in the
point at which the threshold is reached but also in the percent
of population responding per unit change in dose (i.e., the slope)
o As illustrated below, toxicant A has a higher threshold but a
steeper slope than toxicant B

273 Fig. threshold doses of 2 toxicants (A & B)

 Exposure assessment:
 Exposure assessment involves describing the nature and size of
various populations exposed to a chemical agent, and the
magnitude and duration of their exposures.
 Without exposure there can be no toxicity.
Steps In Exposure Assessment:
 Characterization of exposure setting
 Identification of exposure pathways
 Quantification of exposure

274
 Identification of Exposure Pathways:
o Contaminated groundwater:
 ingestion (drinking water), dermal contact (bathing), and
inhalation of volatile organic compounds (showering)
o Surface water and sediments:
 incidental ingestion and dermal absorption of contaminants
(people in bodies of water)
o Contaminated food:
 ingestion of contaminated fish tissue, vegetables and fruit
grown in contaminated soil or covered with contaminated dust,
meat, and dairy products
o Surface soils:
 ingestion and dermal absorption of contaminants by children
playing in dirt
o Fugitive dust and VOC emissions:
 inhalation by nearby residents or onsite workers

275
 o Subsurface soil and air-borne contaminants:
 future land-use conditions during construction activities

o Contaminated breast milk:

 nursing infants whose mothers were exposed to highly toxic
lipophilic contaminants
o All potential exposure pathways are considered with an analysis
of the
 contaminants released

 fate and transport of the contaminants

 population exposed to the contaminants

276
Risk Characterization
 Estimating the potential impact (e.g., human illness or death) of
a MO or chemical substances based on the severity of its
effects and the amount of exposure
 It integrates data from Hazard Identification, Dose-Response
Assessment and Exposure Assessment
 It determines the probability of an adverse effect to a human
population by a toxic substance and outlines permissible
exposure levels from which standards of exposure are set
 An adverse effect is defined by the USEPA as "...any
biochemical, physiological, anatomical, pathological and/or
behavioral change that results in functional impairment that may
affect the performance of the whole organism or reduce the
ability of the organism to respond to an additional challenge“
o Standards of exposure are set based on adverse health effects,
costs and benefits, socio-economic considerations and
technological limits of detection.
o Permissible exposures are calculations which observe measurable
adverse health effects only and are used to calculate
permissible environmental concentrations.
 End of the session

279