Induction Motors

Introduction
• Three-phase induction motors are the most common
and frequently encountered machines in industry
– simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance
– wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10
MW
– run essentially as constant speed from no-load to full load
– Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source
• not easy to have variable speed control
• requires a variable-frequency power-electronic drive for optimal
speed control
 Construction
• An induction motor has two main parts
– a stationary stator
• consisting of a steel frame that supports a hollow,
cylindrical core
• core, constructed from stacked laminations (why?),
having a number of evenly spaced slots, providing the
space for the stator winding

Stator of IM
 Construction
– a revolving rotor
• composed of punched laminations, stacked to create a series of rotor
slots, providing space for the rotor winding
• one of two types of rotor windings
• conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated wire (wound-rotor) »
similar to the winding on the stator
• aluminum bus bars shorted together at the ends by two aluminum rings,
forming a squirrel-cage shaped circuit (squirrel-cage)
• Two basic design types depending on the rotor design
– squirrel-cage: conducting bars laid into slots and shorted at both
ends by shorting rings.
– wound-rotor: complete set of three-phase windings exactly as the
stator. Usually Y-connected, the ends of the three rotor wires are
connected to 3 slip rings on the rotor shaft. In this way, the rotor
circuit is accessible.
 Construction
Squirrel cage rotor

Wound rotor

Notice the
slip rings
 Construction
Slip rings

Cutaway in a
typical wound-
rotor IM.
Notice the
brushes and the
slip rings

Brushes
 Rotating Magnetic Field
• Balanced three phase windings, i.e.
mechanically displaced 120 degrees
form each other, fed by balanced
three phase source
• A rotating magnetic field with
constant magnitude is produced,
rotating with a speed
120 f e
nsync  rpm
P
Where fe is the supply frequency and
P is the no. of poles and nsync is called
the synchronous speed in rpm
(revolutions per minute)
 Synchronous speed
P 50 Hz 60 Hz
2 3000 3600
4 1500 1800
6 1000 1200
8 750 900
10 600 720
12 500 600
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating Magnetic Field
 Rotating Magnetic Field
Bnet (t )  Ba (t )  Bb (t )  Bc (t )

 BM sin(t )0  BM sin(t  120)120  BM sin(t  240)240

 BM sin(t ) xˆ
3
[0.5 BM sin(t  120)]xˆ  [ BM sin(t  120)]yˆ
2
3
[0.5 BM sin(t  240)]xˆ  [ BM sin(t  240)]yˆ
2
 Rotating Magnetic Field
1 3 1 3
Bnet (t )  [ BM sin(t )  BM sin(t )  BM cos(t )  BM sin(t )  BM cos(t )]xˆ
4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3
[ BM sin(t )  BM cos(t )  BM sin(t )  BM cos(t )]yˆ
4 4 4 4

 [1.5BM sin(t )]xˆ  [1.5BM cos(t )]yˆ

Rotating Magnetic Field
 Principle of operation
• This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and
produces an induced voltage in the rotor windings
• Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for
both squirrel cage and wound-rotor, and induced current
flows in the rotor windings
• The rotor current produces another magnetic field
• A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those
two magnetic fields

 ind  kBR  Bs
Where ind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the magnetic
flux densities of the rotor and the stator respectively
 Induction motor speed
• At what speed will the IM run?
– Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why?
– If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is
the same speed of the rotating magnetic field,
then the rotor will appear stationary to the
rotating magnetic field and the rotating magnetic
field will not cut the rotor. So, no induced current
will flow in the rotor and no rotor magnetic flux
will be produced so no torque is generated and
the rotor speed will fall below the synchronous
speed
 Induction motor speed
• So, the IM will always run at a speed lower
than the synchronous speed
• The difference between the motor speed and
the synchronous speed is called the Slip
nslip  nsync  nm

Where nslip= slip speed

nsync= speed of the magnetic field
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the motor
 The Slip
nsync  nm
s
nsync
Where s is the slip
Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the above
eq. by 100, notice that the slip is a ratio and doesn’t have units
Induction Motors and Transformers
• Both IM and transformer works on the principle of induced
voltage
– Transformer: voltage applied to the primary windings
produce an induced voltage in the secondary windings
– Induction motor: voltage applied to the stator windings
produce an induced voltage in the rotor windings
– The difference is that, in the case of the induction motor,
the secondary windings can move
– Due to the rotation of the rotor (the secondary winding of
the IM), the induced voltage in it does not have the same
frequency of the stator (the primary) voltage
 Frequency
• The frequency of the voltage induced in the
rotor is given by Pn
fr 
120
Where fr = the rotor frequency (Hz)
P = number of stator poles
n = slip speed (rpm)
P  (ns  nm )
fr 
120
P  sns
  sf e
120
 Frequency
• What would be the frequency of the rotor’s
induced voltage at any speed nm?
fr  s fe

• When the rotor is blocked (s=1) , the

frequency of the induced voltage is equal to
the supply frequency
• On the other hand, if the rotor runs at
synchronous speed (s = 0), the frequency will
be zero
 Torque
• While the input to the induction motor is electrical
power, its output is mechanical power and for that we
should know some terms and quantities related to
mechanical power
• Any mechanical load applied to the motor shaft will
introduce a Torque on the motor shaft. This torque is
related to the motor output power and the rotor
speed
 load 
Pout 2 nm
N .m m  rad / s
m 60
and
 Horse power
• Another unit used to measure mechanical
power is the horse power
• It is used to refer to the mechanical output
power of the motor
• Since we, as an electrical engineers, deal with
watts as a unit to measure electrical power,
there is a relation between horse power and
watts
hp  746 watts
 Example
A 208-V, 10hp, four pole, 60 Hz, Y-connected
induction motor has a full-load slip of 5
percent
1. What is the synchronous speed of this motor?
2. What is the rotor speed of this motor at rated
load?
3. What is the rotor frequency of this motor at
rated load?
4. What is the shaft torque of this motor at rated
load?
 Solution
120 f e 120(60)
1. nsync    1800 rpm
P 4

nm  (1  s )ns
2.
 (1  0.05) 1800  1710 rpm

f r  sf e  0.05  60  3Hz
3.
Pout Pout
 load  
m 2 nm
4. 60
10 hp  746 watt / hp
  41.7 N .m
1710  2  (1/ 60)
 Equivalent Circuit
• The induction motor is similar to the transformer with
the exception that its secondary windings are free to
rotate

As we noticed in the transformer, it is easier if we can

combine these two circuits in one circuit but there
are some difficulties
 Equivalent Circuit
• When the rotor is locked (or blocked), i.e. s =1, the
largest voltage and rotor frequency are induced in
the rotor, Why?
• On the other side, if the rotor rotates at
synchronous speed, i.e. s = 0, the induced voltage
and frequency in the rotor will be equal to zero,
Why?
ER  sER 0

Where ER0 is the largest value of the rotor’s induced

voltage obtained at s = 1(loacked rotor)
 Equivalent Circuit
• The same is true for the frequency, i.e.
fr  s fe
• It is known that
X   L  2 f L

• So, as the frequency of the induced voltage in

the rotor changes, the reactance of the rotor
circuit also changes X r  r Lr  2 f r Lr
Where Xr0 is the rotor reactance  2 sf e Lr
at the supply frequency
 sX r 0
(at blocked rotor)
 Equivalent Circuit
• Then, we can draw the rotor equivalent circuit
as follows

Where ER is the induced voltage in the rotor and RR

is the rotor resistance
 Equivalent Circuit
• Now we can calculate the rotor current as
ER
IR 
( RR  jX R )
sER 0

( RR  jsX R 0 )

• Dividing both the numerator and denominator by s so nothing

changes we get
ER 0
IR 
RR
(  jX R 0 )
s
Where ER0 is the induced voltage and XR0 is the rotor
reactance at blocked rotor condition (s = 1)
 Equivalent Circuit
• Now we can have the rotor equivalent circuit
 Equivalent Circuit
• Now as we managed to solve the induced voltage and
different frequency problems, we can combine the stator and
rotor circuits in one equivalent circuit
Where

X 2  aeff
2
X R0
R2  aeff
2
RR
IR
I2 
aeff
E1  aeff ER 0
NS
aeff 
NR
 Power losses in Induction
machines
• Copper losses
– Copper loss in the stator (PSCL) = I12R1
– Copper loss in the rotor (PRCL) = I22R2
• Core loss (Pcore)
• Mechanical power loss due to friction and
windage
• How this power flow in the motor?
Power flow in induction motor
 Power relations
Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 V ph I ph cos 
PSCL  3 I12 R1

PAG  Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore )

PRCL  3I 22 R2
Pconv  PAG  PRCL
Pconv
Pout  Pconv  ( Pf w  Pstray )  ind 
m
 Equivalent Circuit
• We can rearrange the equivalent circuit as
follows

Resistance
Actual rotor
equivalent to
resistance
mechanical load
 Power relations
Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 V ph I ph cos 
PSCL  3 I12 R1
R2 PRCL
PAG  Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore )  Pconv  PRCL  3I 2
2 
s s
PRCL  3I 22 R2
R2 (1  s ) PRCL (1  s )
Pconv  PAG  PRCL  3I 22 
s s
Pconv  (1  s) PAG
Pconv (1  s ) PAG
Pout  Pconv  ( Pf w  Pstray )  ind  
m (1  s )s
 Power relations
PAG Pconv
1 1-s

PRCL
s
PAG : PRCL : Pconv
1 : s : 1-s
 Example
A 480-V, 60 Hz, 50-hp, three phase induction motor is
drawing 60A at 0.85 PF lagging. The stator copper
losses are 2 kW, and the rotor copper losses are 700
W. The friction and windage losses are 600 W, the
core losses are 1800 W, and the stray losses are
negligible. Find the following quantities:
1. The air-gap power PAG.
2. The power converted Pconv.
3. The output power Pout.
4. The efficiency of the motor.
 Solution
Pin  3VL I L cos 
1.
 3  480  60  0.85  42.4 kW
PAG  Pin  PSCL  Pcore
 42.4  2  1.8  38.6 kW

Pconv  PAG  PRCL

700
2.  38.6   37.9 kW
1000
Pout  Pconv  PF &W
600
3.  37.9   37.3 kW
1000
 Solution
37.3
Pout   50 hp
0.746

Pout
 100%
4. Pin
37.3
  100  88%
42.4
 Example
A 460-V, 25-hp, 60 Hz, four-pole, Y-connected induction motor
has the following impedances in ohms per phase referred to
the stator circuit:
R1= 0.641 R2= 0.332
X1= 1.106  X2= 0.464  XM= 26.3 
The total rotational losses are 1100 W and are assumed to be
constant. The core loss is lumped in with the rotational
losses. For a rotor slip of 2.2 percent at the rated voltage and
rated frequency, find the motor’s
1. Speed 4. Pconv and Pout
2. Stator current 5. ind and load
3. Power factor 6. Efficiency
 Solution
120 f e 120  60
nsync    1800 rpm
1. P 4
nm  (1  s)nsync  (1  0.022) 1800  1760 rpm
R2 0.332
Z2   jX 2   j 0.464
s 0.022
2.  15.09  j 0.464  15.11.76 
1 1
Zf  
1/ jX M  1/ Z 2  j 0.038  0.0662  1.76
1
  12.9431.1 
0.0773  31.1
 Solution
Z tot  Z stat  Z f
 0.641  j1.106  12.9431.1 
 11.72  j 7.79  14.0733.6 
4600
V 3
I1    18.88  33.6 A
Ztot 14.0733.6
PF  cos 33.6  0.833 lagging
Pin  3VL I L cos   3  460 18.88  0.833  12530 W
3.
PSCL  3I12 R1  3(18.88)2  0.641  685 W
4.
PAG  Pin  PSCL  12530  685  11845 W
 Solution
Pconv  (1  s) PAG  (1  0.022)(11845)  11585 W

Pout  Pconv  PF &W  11585  1100  10485 W

10485
=  14.1 hp
746
PAG 11845
 ind    62.8 N.m
sync 2 1800
60
5. Pout 10485
 load    56.9 N.m
m 2 1760
60
Pout 10485
  100%   100  83.7%
Pin 12530
Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem

• Thevenin’s theorem can be used to transform

the network to the left of points ‘a’ and ‘b’
into an equivalent voltage source VTH in series
with equivalent impedance RTH+jXTH
Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem

jX M XM
VTH  V | VTH || V |
R1  j ( X 1  X M ) R12  ( X 1  X M )2
RTH  jX TH  ( R1  jX 1 ) // jX M
Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem

• Since XM>>X1 and XM>>R1

XM
VTH  V
X1  X M

• Because XM>>X1 and XM+X1>>R1

2
 XM 
RTH  R1  
 X1  X M 
X TH  X 1
Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem
VTH VTH
I2  
ZT  R2 
2

 TH
R    ( X TH  X 2 ) 2

 s 
Then the power converted to mechanical
2 R2 (1  s )
(Pconv) Pconv  3I 2
s
And the internal mechanical torque (Tconv)
R2
2
Pconv Pconv 3I 2 PAG
 ind    s 
m (1  s )s s s
Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem
2
 
 
3  VTH   R2 
 ind     s 
s 
  
2
 R  R2   ( X  X ) 2
  TH s  TH 2 
 

2  R2 
3V  
TH
 ind 
1  s 
s  R2 
2

 RTH    ( X TH  X 2 ) 2
 s 
Torque-speed characteristics

Typical torque-speed characteristics of induction motor

 Comments
1. The induced torque is zero at synchronous speed.
Discussed earlier.
2. The curve is nearly linear between no-load and full
load. In this range, the rotor resistance is much
greater than the reactance, so the rotor current,
torque increase linearly with the slip.
3. There is a maximum possible torque that can’t be
exceeded. This torque is called pullout torque and is
2 to 3 times the rated full-load torque.
 Comments
4. The starting torque of the motor is slightly
higher than its full-load torque, so the motor
will start carrying any load it can supply at
full load.
5. The torque of the motor for a given slip
varies as the square of the applied voltage.
6. If the rotor is driven faster than synchronous
speed it will run as a generator, converting
mechanical power to electric power.
Complete Speed-torque c/c
 Maximum torque
• Maximum torque occurs when the power
transferred to R2/s is maximum.
• This condition occurs when R2/s equals the
magnitude of the impedance RTH + j (XTH + X2)
R2
 RTH
2
 ( X TH  X 2 ) 2
sTmax

R2
sTmax 
2
RTH  ( X TH  X 2 )2
 Maximum torque
• The corresponding maximum torque of an
induction motor equals

1  3VTH2 
 max   
2s  R  R 2  ( X  X )2 
 TH TH TH 2 

The slip at maximum torque is directly

proportional to the rotor resistance R2

The maximum torque is independent of R2

 Maximum torque
• Rotor resistance can be increased by inserting
external resistance in the rotor of a wound-
rotor induction motor.
The
value of the maximum torque remains
unaffected
but
the speed at which it occurs can be controlled.
 Maximum torque

Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic

 Example
A two-pole, 50-Hz induction motor supplies 15kW
to a load at a speed of 2950 rpm.
1. What is the motor’s slip?
2. What is the induced torque in the motor in N.m
under these conditions?
3. What will be the operating speed of the motor if
its torque is doubled?
4. How much power will be supplied by the motor
when the torque is doubled?
 Solution
120 f e 120  50
nsync    3000 rpm
1. P 2
nsync  nm 3000  2950
s   0.0167 or 1.67%
nsync 3000

no Pf W given
2.  assume Pconv  Pload and  ind   load
Pconv 15 103
 ind    48.6 N.m
m 2
2950 
60
 Solution
3. In the low-slip region, the torque-speed curve is
linear and the induced torque is direct
proportional to slip. So, if the torque is doubled
the new slip will be 3.33% and the motor speed
will be
Pconv   ind m
2
 (2  48.6)  (2900  )  29.5 kW
60
4.
nm  (1  s)nsync  (1  0.0333)  3000  2900 rpm
 Example
A 460-V, 25-hp, 60-Hz, four-pole, Y-connected
wound-rotor induction motor has the following
impedances in ohms per phase referred to the
stator circuit
R1= 0.641 R2= 0.332
X1= 1.106  X2= 0.464  XM= 26.3 
1. What is the maximum torque of this motor? At
what speed and slip does it occur?
2. What is the starting torque of this motor?
3. If the rotor resistance is doubled, what is the
speed at which the maximum torque now occur?
 Solution
XM
VTH  V
R12  ( X 1  X M ) 2
460
 26.3
 3  255.2 V
(0.641)  (1.106  26.3)
2 2

2
 XM 
RTH  R1  
 X1  X M 
2
 26.3 
 (0.641)    0.590
 1.106  26.3 
X TH  X1  1.106
 Solution
R2
sTmax 
1.
2
RTH  ( X TH  X 2 ) 2
0.332
  0.198
(0.590)  (1.106  0.464)
2 2

nm  (1  s)nsync  (1  0.198) 1800  1444 rpm

The corresponding speed is

 Solution
The torque at this speed is
1  3VTH2 
 max   
2s  R  R 2  ( X  X )2 
 TH TH TH 2 
3  (255.2)2

2
2  (1800  )[0.590  (0.590)2  (1.106  0.464)2 ]
60
 229 N.m
 Solution
2. The starting torque can be found from the
torque eqn. by substituting s = 1
2  R2 
3V  
TH
 start   ind 
1  s 
s 1
s  R 
2

 RTH  2   ( X TH  X 2 ) 2
 s  s 1

3VTH2 R2

s [ RTH  R2   ( X TH  X 2 ) 2 ]
2

3  (255.2) 2  (0.332)

2
1800   [(0.590  0.332) 2  (1.106  0.464) 2 ]
60
 104 N.m
 Solution
3. If the rotor resistance is doubled, then the slip at
maximum torque R2 doubles too
sTmax   0.396
2
RTH  ( X TH  X 2 )2

The corresponding speed is

nm  (1  s)nsync  (1  0.396) 1800  1087 rpm

The maximum torque is still

max = 229 N.m
 Solution
The starting torque is now
3  (255.2) 2  (0.664)
 start 
2
1800   [(0.590  0.664) 2  (1.106  0.464) 2 ]
60
 170 N.m
 Determination of motor
parameters
• Due to the similarity between the induction
motor equivalent circuit and the transformer
equivalent circuit, same tests are used to
determine the values of the motor
parameters.
– DC test: determine the stator resistance R1
– No-load test: determine the rotational losses and
magnetization current (similar to no-load test in
Transformers).
– Locked-rotor test: determine the rotor and stator
impedances.
 DC test
– The purpose of the DC test is to determine R1. A
variable DC voltage source is connected
between two stator terminals.
– The DC source is adjusted to provide
approximately rated stator current, and the
resistance between the two stator leads is
determined from the voltmeter and ammeter
readings.
 DC test
– then VDC
RDC 
I DC

– If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase stator

RDC
resistance is R1 
2
– If the stator is delta-connected, the per phase
stator resistance is
3
R1  RDC
2
 No-load test

1. The motor is allowed to spin freely

2. The only load on the motor is the friction and
windage losses, so all Pconv is consumed by
mechanical losses
3. The slip is very small
 No-load test

4. At this small slip

R2 (1  s ) R 2 (1  s)
R2 & X2
s s

The equivalent circuit reduces to…

 No-load test

5. Combining Rc & RF+W we get……

 No-load test
6. At the no-load conditions, the input power
measured by meters must equal the losses in the
motor.
7. The PRCL is negligible because I2 is extremely
small because R2(1-s)/s is very large.
Pin  PSCL  Pcore  PF &W
 3I12 R1  Prot

8. The input power equals

Prot  Pcore  PF &W
 No-load test
9. The equivalent input impedance is thus
approximately
V
Zeq   X1  X M
I1,nl

If X1 can be found, in some other fashion, the

magnetizing impedance XM will be known
 Blocked-rotor test
• In this test, the rotor is locked or blocked so
that it cannot move, a voltage is applied to
the motor, and the resulting voltage, current
and power are measured.
 Blocked-rotor test
• The AC voltage applied to the stator is
adjusted so that the current flow is
approximately full-load value.
• The locked-rotor power factor can be found as
Pin
PF  cos  
3Vl I l

• The magnitude of the total impedance

V
Z LR 
I
 Blocked-rotor test
Z LR  RLR  jX LR
'

 Z LR cos   j Z LR sin 

RLR  R1  R2
'
X LR  X 1'  X 2'

Where X’1 and X’2 are the stator and rotor

reactances at the test frequency respectively
R2  RLR  R1
f rated '
X LR  X LR  X 1  X 2
f test
 Blocked-rotor test
X1 and X2 as function of XLR

Rotor Design X1 X2

Wound rotor 0.5 XLR 0.5 XLR

Design A 0.5 XLR 0.5 XLR

Design B 0.4 XLR 0.6 XLR

Design C 0.3 XLR 0.7 XLR

Design D 0.5 XLR 0.5 XLR

 Example
The following test data were taken on a 7.5-hp, four-pole, 208-V, 60-Hz,
design A, Y-connected IM having a rated current of 28 A.

DC Test:
VDC = 13.6 V IDC = 28.0 A
No-load Test:
Vl = 208 V f = 60 Hz
I = 8.17 A Pin = 420 W
Locked-rotor Test:
Vl = 25 V f = 15 Hz
I = 27.9 A Pin = 920 W

(a) Sketch the per-phase equivalent circuit of this motor.

(b) Find the slip at pull-out torque, and find the value of the pull-out
torque.