Chapter ( 1 )
Atomic Spectra ty
Bohr's model for hydrogen atom (1913):
1) A positively charged nucleus is found in the center of atom.
2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in energy shells called orbits.
3) Atom is electrically neutral, since the number of negative electrons around the nucleus
equals the number of positive protons in the nucleus.
4) Electrons don't emit radiation as long as they remain in its shell.
Bohr's postulates:
1) When the electron moves from an outer energy shell E2 to an inner energy shell E1,
where.. (E2 > E1), an amount of energy E2 – E1 is released in the form of photons.
The energy of emitted photon is h = E2 – E1
2) The electric Coulomb's forces and mechanical Newton's forces are applied in
the atom.
3) We can estimate the radius of the energy shell by considering that the wave
accompanying the electron motion is standing wave.
1) When hydrogen atom is stimulated (given energy), the electrons move from the first
level K (n = 1) to different higher levels (n = 2, 3, 4 ……..).
2) Electrons remain in the excited levels a short period of time called life time (10-8 s),
and then they return to the lowest level (ground state).
3) When the electron going down from level E2 to level E1, the electron emits a photon
whose energy h = E2 – E1.
Where…..( ) is the frequency of the photon and its wavelength is… =c
4) The line spectrum of hydrogen consists of a particular energy value and hence a
particular frequency.
1) Leyman's series:
- The electron moves from higher levels down to level K (n = 1).
- This series lies in the ultraviolet range (short wavelengths and high frequencies).
2) Balmer's series:
- The electron moves from higher levels down to level L (n = 2).
- This series lies in the visible range.
3) Paschen's series:
- The electron moves from higher levels down to level M (n = 3).
- This series lies in the infrared (IR) range.
4) Bracker's series:
- The electron moves from higher levels down to level N (n = 4).
- This series lies in the IR range.
5) Pfund's series:
- The electron moves from higher levels down to level O (n = 5).
- This series lies in the far IR ( longest wavelengths and short frequencies).
Energy level in H-atom:
To calculate total energy of electron of H-atom in certain level,
use:
En = constant × 1
n2 where constant = 13.6 eV
- Example: - If n = 1 → E1 = - 13.6 = -13.6 eV ( where eV = 1.6 × 10-19 joule ).
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- If n = 2 → E2 = - 13.6 = - 3.4 eV
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- If n = 3 → E3 = - 13.6 = -1.51 eV
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Its uses:
- Obtaining a pure spectrum.
- Analysis of light to its visible and invisible components.
Construction:
1) A source of rays:
Is a light source in front of which there is a slit whose width can be adjusted by screw.
- This slit is at the focal point of a convex lens.
2) A turntable: on which a prism is placed.
3) A telescope: consisting of two convex lenses (objective and eye piece).
Emission spectra:
Is the spectrum resulting from the transfer of excited electrons from a high level
to lower level and divides into :
A. Continuous spectra:
Is the spectrum consisting of all wavelengths or frequencies in a continuous
manner.
- Produced from the glowing solid bodies. ( ex, sun )
B. Line spectra:
Is the spectrum occurring at specified wavelengths or frequencies and not
continuously distributed.
- Produced from the glowing gases.
Absorption spectra:
When white light passes through a certain gas, some wavelengths in the
continuous spectrum are missing.
These wavelengths are the same as those which appear in the emission
Spectrum of the gas so, can be called absorption lined spectra.
" They are vertical dark lines appeared on total spectra of sun, due to absorption
spectra of elements (He, H) present in gas layer around the sun".
Discovered by Rontgen ( 1895 ):
"They are invisible electromagnetic waves of short wavelength (10-13 m – 10-8 m)
lie between uv and gamma rays".
Its properties:
- They can penetrate media easily.
- They can ionize gases.
- They diffract in crystals
- They affect the sensitive photographic plates.
- Its uses: Used to produce X-rays.
- Its structure:
1) The filament: ( cathode )
2) The target: ( tungsten plate )
3) Copper rode: ( connected with cooling fins )
- Its operation :
1. When the filament is heated by a battery ,
electrons are produced and directed to the target
and under the effect of the electric field, the
electrons have a high energy depending on the
voltage difference between the target and the hot
filament.
2. When the electrons collide with the tungsten
target, part of their energy not all is converted
to X-rays.
- The spectrum of X-rays consists of two parts:
1) Continuous spectrum of wavelengths regardless of the target material.
2) Line spectrum corresponding to certain wavelengths distinguish the target material.
3)
1) Continuous radiation (soft, Bremstrahlung):
- This radiation is generated due to the retarding
electric field between the colliding electrons from
the cathode and the electrons of the target material.
- The energy decrease due to repulsion, collision
and scattering of surrounding electrons, so an
electromagnetic radiation is generated.
- This radiation is continuous and is called
(Bremstrahlung radiation or Braking radiation).
2) line characteristic radiation (Hard):
- This radiation is generated when an electron collides with an electron close to the
nucleus of the target material atom.
- If the latter electron receives sufficient energy, it jumps to a higher level, or leaves
the atom altogether and is replaced by another electron from a higher level.
- The energy difference of transferred electron appears as radiation with a definite
wavelength and is called hard radiation.
It is noted that:
1) The wavelength of the characteristic radiation doesn't depend on the voltage
difference, but depends on the target element.
Where….. the target element of the higher atomic number, has characteristic
radiation of shorter wavelength.
2) At low voltage differences, no characteristic
radiation is produced.
= h × c = ∆E = hν
eVX-rays
3) The wavelength of the characteristic
is found from the relation……….
1) In studying the crystalline structure of materials.
- When X-rays penetrate the atoms in the crystal, a diffraction of rays takes place.
So, Bright and dark fringes are formed, depending on the difference in the optical path.
2) Detect the defects in metallic structures.
Bec. X-rays have a great penetrating power.
3) Imagining bones and fractures and some other medical diagnosis.
Bec. X-rays have the ability of photography.
