Hypertext

Hypertext is text displayed on a computer

display or other electronic devices with
references (hyperlinks) to other text that
the reader can immediately access.[1]
Hypertext documents are interconnected
by hyperlinks, which are typically activated
by a mouse click, keypress set, or screen
touch. Apart from text, the term "hypertext"
is also sometimes used to describe tables,
images, and other presentational content
formats with integrated hyperlinks.
Hypertext is one of the key underlying
concepts of the World Wide Web,[2] where
Web pages are often written in the
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). As
implemented on the Web, hypertext
enables the easy-to-use publication of
information over the Internet.

Documents that are connected by hyperlinks

Engineer Vannevar Bush wrote "As We May Think" in 1945 in which he described the Memex, a theoretical proto-hypertext
device which in turn helped inspire the subsequent invention of hypertext.

Douglas Engelbart in 2009, at the 40th anniversary celebrations of "The Mother of All Demos" in San Francisco, a 90-minute
1968 presentation of the NLS computer system which was a combination of hardware and software that demonstrated
many hypertext ideas
Etymology

"(...)'Hypertext' is a recent
coinage. 'Hyper-' is used in the
mathematical sense of extension
and generality (as in
'hyperspace,' 'hypercube') rather
than the medical sense of
'excessive' ('hyperactivity').
There is no implication about
size— a hypertext could contain
only 500 words or so. 'Hyper-'
refers to structure and not size."
 — Theodor H. Nelson, Brief
Words on the Hypertext (htt
ps://archive.org/details/Selec
tedPapers1977) , 23 January
1967

The English prefix "hyper-" comes from the

Greek prefix "ὑπερ-" and means "over" or
"beyond"; it has a common origin with the
prefix "super-" which comes from Latin. It
signifies the overcoming of the previous
linear constraints of written text.

The term "hypertext" is often used where

the term "hypermedia" might seem
appropriate.
In 1992, author Ted Nelson – who coined
both terms in 1963 [3][4]– wrote:

By now the word "hypertext"

has become generally accepted
for branching and responding
text, but the corresponding
word "hypermedia", meaning
complexes of branching and
responding graphics, movies
and sound – as well as text – is
much less used. Instead they use
the strange term "interactive
multimedia": this is four
syllables longer, and does not
 express the idea of extending
hypertext.

— Nelson, Literary
Machines, 1992

Types and uses of hypertext

Hypertext documents can either be static
(prepared and stored in advance) or
dynamic (continually changing in response
to user input, such as dynamic web
pages). Static hypertext can be used to
cross-reference collections of data in
documents, software applications, or
books on CDs. A well-constructed system
can also incorporate other user-interface
conventions, such as menus and
command lines. Links used in a hypertext
document usually replace the current piece
of hypertext with the destination
document. A lesser known feature is
StretchText, which expands or contracts
the content in place, thereby giving more
control to the reader in determining the
level of detail of the displayed document.
Some implementations support
transclusion, where text or other content is
included by reference and automatically
rendered in place.

Hypertext can be used to support very

complex and dynamic systems of linking
and cross-referencing. The most famous
implementation of hypertext is the World
Wide Web, written in the final months of
1990 and released on the Internet in 1991.

History
In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges published "The
Garden of Forking Paths", a short story
that is often considered an inspiration for
the concept of hypertext.[5]

In 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an article in

The Atlantic Monthly called "As We May
Think", about a futuristic proto-hypertext
device he called a Memex. A Memex
would hypothetically store — and record —
content on reels of microfilm, using
electric photocells to read coded symbols
recorded next to individual microfilm
frames while the reels spun at high speed,
and stopping on command. The coded
symbols would enable the Memex to
index, search, and link content to create
and follow associative trails. Because the
Memex was never implemented and could
only link content in a relatively crude
fashion — by creating chains of entire
microfilm frames — the Memex is now
regarded only as a proto-hypertext device,
but it is fundamental to the history of
hypertext because it directly inspired the
invention of hypertext by Ted Nelson and
Douglas Engelbart.

Ted Nelson gives a presentation on Project Xanadu, a theoretical hypertext model conceived in the 1960s whose first and
incomplete implementation was first published in 1998.[6]

In 1963, Ted Nelson coined the terms

'hypertext' and 'hypermedia' as part of a
model he developed for creating and using
linked content (first published reference
1965).[7] He later worked with Andries van
Dam to develop the Hypertext Editing
System (text editing) in 1967 at Brown
University. It was implemented using the
terminal IBM 2250 with a light pen which
was provided as a pointing device.[8] By
1976, its successor FRESS was used in a
poetry class in which students could
browse a hyperlinked set of poems and
discussion by experts, faculty and other
students, in what was arguably the world's
first online scholarly community[9] which
van Dam says "foreshadowed wikis, blogs
and communal documents of all kinds".[10]
Ted Nelson said in the 1960s that he
began implementation of a hypertext
system he theorized, which was named
Project Xanadu, but his first and
incomplete public release was finished
much later, in 1998.[6]

Douglas Engelbart independently began

working on his NLS system in 1962 at
Stanford Research Institute, although
delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and
equipment meant that its key features
were not completed until 1968. In
December of that year, Engelbart
demonstrated a 'hypertext' (meaning
editing) interface to the public for the first
time, in what has come to be known as
"The Mother of All Demos".
ZOG, an early hypertext system, was
developed at Carnegie Mellon University
during the 1970s, used for documents on
Nimitz class aircraft carriers, and later
evolving as KMS (Knowledge Management
System).

The first hypermedia application is

generally considered to be the Aspen
Movie Map, implemented in 1978. The
Movie Map allowed users to arbitrarily
choose which way they wished to drive in a
virtual cityscape, in two seasons (from
actual photographs) as well as 3-D
polygons.
In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE,
an early hypertext database system
somewhat like a wiki but without hypertext
punctuation, which was not invented until
1987. The early 1980s also saw a number
of experimental "hyperediting" functions in
word processors and hypermedia
programs, many of whose features and
terminology were later analogous to the
World Wide Web. Guide, the first
significant hypertext system for personal
computers, was developed by Peter J.
Brown at the University of Kent in 1982.

In 1980, Roberto Busa,[11] an Italian Jesuit

priest and one of the pioneers in the usage
of computers for linguistic and literary
analysis,[12] published the Index
Thomisticus, as a tool for performing text
searches within the massive corpus of
Aquinas's works.[13] Sponsored by the
founder of IBM, Thomas J. Watson,[14] the
project lasted about 30 years (1949-1980),
and eventually produced the 56 printed
volumes of the Index Thomisticus the first
important hypertext work about Saint
Thomas Aquinas books and of a few
related authors.[15]

In 1983, Ben Shneiderman at the University

of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction
Lab led a group that developed the
HyperTies system that was
commercialized by Cognetics Corporation.
Hyperties was used to create the July
1988 issue of the Communications of the
ACM as a hypertext document and then
the first commercial electronic book
Hypertext Hands-On!

In August 1987, Apple Computer released

HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the
MacWorld convention. Its impact,
combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's
GUIDE (marketed by OWL and released
earlier that year) and Brown University's
Intermedia, led to broad interest in and
enthusiasm for hypertext, hypermedia,
databases, and new media in general. The
first ACM Hypertext (hyperediting and
databases) academic conference took
place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC,
where many other applications, including
the branched literature writing software
Storyspace, were also demonstrated.[16]

Meanwhile, Nelson (who had been working

on and advocating his Xanadu system for
over two decades) convinced Autodesk to
invest in his revolutionary ideas. The
project continued at Autodesk for four
years, but no product was released.
In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a scientist
at CERN, proposed and later prototyped a
new hypertext project in response to a
request for a simple, immediate,
information-sharing facility, to be used
among physicists working at CERN and
other academic institutions. He called the
project "WorldWideWeb".[17]

HyperText is a way to link and

access information of various
kinds as a web of nodes in which
the user can browse at will.
Potentially, HyperText provides
a single user-interface to many
large classes of stored
information, such as reports,
notes, data-bases, computer
documentation and on-line
systems help. We propose the
implementation of a simple
scheme to incorporate several
different servers of machine-
stored information already
available at CERN, including an
analysis of the requirements for
information access needs by
experiments... A program which
provides access to the hypertext
 world we call a browser. ― T.
Berners-Lee, R. Cailliau, 12
November 1990, CERN[17]

In 1992, Lynx was born as an early Internet

web browser. Its ability to provide
hypertext links within documents that
could reach into documents anywhere on
the Internet began the creation of the Web
on the Internet.

As new web browsers were released,

traffic on the World Wide Web quickly
exploded from only 500 known web
servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994. As
a result, all previous hypertext systems
were overshadowed by the success of the
Web, even though it lacked many features
of those earlier systems, such as
integrated browsers/editors (a feature of
the original WorldWideWeb browser, which
was not carried over into most of the other
early Web browsers).

Implementations
Besides the already mentioned Project
Xanadu, Hypertext Editing System, NLS,
HyperCard, and World Wide Web, there are
other noteworthy early implementations of
hypertext, with different feature sets:
Hypertext Editing System (HES) IBM 2250 Display console – Brown University 1969

FRESS – a 1970s multi-user successor

to the Hypertext Editing System.
ZOG – a 1970s hypertext system
developed at Carnegie Mellon University.
Electronic Document System – an early
1980s text and graphic editor for
interactive hypertexts such as
equipment repair manuals and
computer-aided instruction.
Information Presentation Facility – used
to display online help in IBM operating
systems.
Intermedia – a mid-1980s program for
group web-authoring and information
sharing.
HyperTies - a mid-1980s program
commercially applied to hundreds of
projects, including July 1988
Communications of the ACM and
Hypertext Hands-On! book.
Texinfo – the GNU help system.
KMS – a 1980s successor to ZOG
developed as a commercial product.
Storyspace – a mid-1980s program for
hypertext narrative.
Document Examiner - an hypertext
system developed in 1985 at Symbolics
for their Genera operating system.
Adobe's Portable Document Format – a
widely used publication format for
electronic documents.
Amigaguide – released on the
Commodore Amiga Workbench 1990.
Windows Help – released with Windows
3.0 in 1990.
Wikis – aim to compensate for the lack
of integrated editors in most Web
browsers. Various wiki software have
 slightly different conventions for
formatting, usually simpler than HTML.
PaperKiller – a document editor
specifically designed for hypertext.
Started in 1996 as IPer (educational
project for ED-Media 1997).
XML with the XLink extension – a newer
hypertext markup language that extends
and expands capabilities introduced by
HTML.

Academic conferences
Among the top academic conferences for
new research in hypertext is the annual
ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social
Media.[18] The Electronic Literature
Organization hosts annual conferences
discussing hypertext fiction, poetry and
other forms of electronic literature.
Although not exclusively about hypertext,
the World Wide Web series of conferences,
organized by IW3C2,[19] also include many
papers of interest. There is a list on the
Web with links to all conferences in the
series.[20]

Hypertext fiction
Hypertext writing has developed its own
style of fiction, coinciding with the growth
and proliferation of hypertext development
software and the emergence of electronic
networks. Hypertext fiction is one of
earliest genres of electronic literature, or
literary works that are designed to be read
in digital media. Two software programs
specifically designed for literary hypertext,
Storyspace and Intermedia, became
available in the 1990s. Judy Malloy's Uncle
Roger (1986) and Michael Joyce's
afternoon, a story (1987) are generally
considered the first works of hypertext
fiction.[21][22]

An advantage of writing a narrative using

hypertext technology is that the meaning
of the story can be conveyed through a
sense of spatiality and perspective that is
arguably unique to digitally networked
environments. An author's creative use of
nodes, the self-contained units of meaning
in a hypertextual narrative, can play with
the reader's orientation and add meaning
to the text.

One of the most successful computer

games, Myst, was first written in
HyperCard. The game was constructed as
a series of Ages, each Age consisting of a
separate HyperCard stack. The full stack
of the game consists of over 2500 cards.
In some ways, Myst redefined interactive
fiction, using puzzles and exploration as a
replacement for hypertextual narrative.[23]
Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the
old, linear, reader experience by creating
several different tracks to read on. This
can also been seen as contributing to a
postmodernist fragmentation of worlds. In
some cases, hypertext may be detrimental
to the development of appealing stories (in
the case of hypertext Gamebooks), where
ease of linking fragments may lead to non-
cohesive or incomprehensible
narratives.[24] However, they do see value
in its ability to present several different
views on the same subject in a simple
way.[25] This echoes the arguments of
'medium theorists' like Marshall McLuhan
who look at the social and psychological
impacts of the media. New media can
become so dominant in public culture that
they effectively create a "paradigm
shift"[26] as people have shifted their
perceptions, understanding of the world,
and ways of interacting with the world and
each other in relation to new technologies
and media. So hypertext signifies a change
from linear, structured and hierarchical
forms of representing and understanding
the world into fractured, decentralized and
changeable media based on the
technological concept of hypertext links.

In the 1990s, women and feminist artists

took advantage of hypertext and produced
dozens of works. Linda Dement's
Cyberflesh Girlmonster a hypertext CD-
ROM that incorporates images of women's
body parts and remixes them to create
new monstrous yet beautiful shapes. Dr.
Caitlin Fisher's award-winning online
hypertext novella These Waves of Girls
(2001) is set in three time periods of the
protagonist exploring polymorphous
perversity enacted in her queer identity
through memory. The story is written as a
reflection diary of the interconnected
memories of childhood, adolescence, and
adulthood. It consists of an associated
multi-modal collection of nodes includes
linked text, still and moving images,
manipulable images, animations, and
sound clips. Adrienne Eisen (pen name for
Penelope Trunk) wrote hypertexts that
were subversive narrative journeys into the
mind of a woman whose erotic encounters
were charged with a post-feminist satirical
edge that cuts deep into the American
psyche.[27]

Forms of hypertext
A screenshot from a reading of Shelley Jackson's Patchwork Girl, where windows layer on top of each other

There are various forms of hypertext, each

of which are structured differently. Below
are four of the existing forms of hypertext:

Axial hypertexts are the most simple in

structure. They are situated along an
axis in a linear style. These hypertexts
have a straight path from beginning to
end and are fairly easy for the reader to
follow. An example of an axial hypertext
is The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam.
Arborescent hypertexts are more
complex than the axial form. They have
a branching structure which resembles a
tree. These hypertexts have one
beginning but many possible endings.
The ending that the reader finishes on
depends on their decisions whilst
reading the text. This is much like
gamebook novels that allow readers to
choose their own ending.
Networked hypertexts are more complex
still than the two previous forms of
hypertext. They consist of an
interconnected system of nodes with no
dominant axis of orientation. Unlike the
arborescent form, networked hypertexts
do not have any designated beginning or
any designated endings. An example of
a networked hypertext is Shelley
Jackson's Patchwork Girl.
Layered hypertext consist of two layers
of linked pages. Each layer is doubly
linked sequentially and a page in the top
layer is doubly linked with a
corresponding page in the bottom layer.
The top layer contains plain text, the
bottom multimedia layer provides
photos, sounds and video. In the Dutch
historical novel De man met de hoed[28]
designed as layered hypertext in 2006 by
Eisjen Schaaf, Pauline van de Ven, and
Paul Vitányi, the structure is proposed to
enhance the atmosphere of the time, to
 enrich the text with research and family
archive material and to enable readers
to insert memories of their own while
preserving tension and storyline.

See also
Timeline of hypertext technology
Cybertext
Distributed Data Management
Architecture
HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
Hyperwords
HTTP
Hyperkino
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1974, Run time 15:16, Hypertext (https://
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"Augmenting Human Intellect: A
Conceptual Framework" (https://web.arc
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ww.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3
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Report, SRI Project No. 3579. Archived
from the original (http://www.dougengel
bart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html) on
2011-05-04. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
Nelson, Theodor H. (September 1965).
"Complex information processing: a file
structure for the complex, the changing
and the indeterminate" (http://portal.ac
m.org/citation.cfm?id=806036) .
ACM/CSC-ER Proceedings of the 1965
20th national conference.
Nelson, Theodor H. (September 1970).
"No More Teachers' Dirty Looks" (http://
www.newmediareader.com/excerpts.ht
ml) . Computer Decisions.
——— (1973). "A Conceptual framework
for man-machine everything". AFIPS
Conference Proceedings. Vol. 42.
pp. M22–23.
Yankelovich, Nicole; Landow, George P;
Cody, David (1987). "Creating
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literature students". SIGCUE Outlook. 20
(3).
Heim, Michael (1987). Electric Language:
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van Dam, Andries (July 1988).
"Hypertext: '87 keynote address" (http://
www.cs.brown.edu/memex/HT_87_Key
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Conklin, J. (1987). "Hypertext: An
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Nelson, Theodor H. (1992). Literary
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"They became what they beheld: The
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Cicconi, Sergio (1999). "Hypertextuality"
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Bolter, Jay David (2001). Writing Space:
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Buckland, Michael (2006). Emanuel
Goldberg and His Knowledge Machine.
 Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 978-0-313-
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External links
Look up hypertext in Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related
to Hypertext.
 Hypertext: Behind the Hype (https://ww
w.ericdigests.org/pre-9212/hype.htm)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0170614153026/https://www.ericdigest
s.org/pre-9212/hype.htm) 2017-06-14
at the Wayback Machine
Reviving Advanced Hypertext (https://w
ww.nngroup.com/articles/reviving-adva
nced-hypertext/) , whether and how
concepts from hypertext research can
be used on the Web.

Hypertext conferences

EdMedia + Innovate Learning (http://ww

w.aace.org/conf/edmedia/) , an
international conference organized by
 the Association for the Advancement of
Computing in Education.
HyperText - ACM Conference on
Hypertext and Hypermedia (https://ww
w.interaction-design.org/literature/confe
rence_series/acm_conference_on_hyper
text_and_hypermedia)

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