Module I

OPERATING SYSTEMS

1
 Software
 Software is a set of instructions, data or programs
used to operate computers and execute specific
tasks.

 Software is a generic term used to refer to

applications and programs that run on a device.

 The two main categories of software

are application software and system software

2
System Software
 System software are designed to run a computer's
application programs and hardware.
 System software coordinates the activities and
functions of the hardware and software.

 It controls the operations of the hardware and

provides an environment for other softwares.

 Eg: Operating system, translators, linker, loader, text

editor, debugger.
3
 Application Software
 Application software is a computer software package
that performs a specific function for a user, or for
another application.

 An application can be self-contained, or it can be a

group of programs that run the application for the
user.

 Examples: office suites, graphics software, database

management programs, web browsers, word
processors, image editors.
4
 Translators
 A translator is a program that converts source code
into machine code.

 Any program written in a high-level

language/assembly language is known as source
code.

 Computers cannot understand source code.

 Before execution, source code must be translated into
a form which a computer can understands

5
Assembler
 Is a translator program

 Assembles (Translates) assembly language program into

machine language

 Depends up on machine architecture

Assembly Language Assembler Machine Language

Program Program
6
Assembler Functions
 Convert mnemonic operation codes to machine language

 Convert symbolic operands in to machine addresses

 Build the machine instructions in the proper format

 Convert the data constants into machine representations

 Write the object program and assembly listing

7
 Compiler
 Is a translator program

 Translates high level language program into its equivalent

machine language

 Entire program is translated into machine language before

execution

 Object program is stored into a separate file

8
 Interpreter
 Is a translator program

 Translates high level language program into its equivalent

machine language

 Each high level language statement is translated and executed

before translating the next statement

 Object program is not stored into file

9
Interpreter/Compiler – Basic Functions
1. Lexical Analysis

 Scans the source program, recognizing and classifying the

various tokens

2. Syntax Analysis

 Source program statements are recognized as language

constructs described by the grammar being used

3. Object code generation

10
Interpreter/Compiler – Basic Functions

What is a token? A lexical token is a sequence of characters that can be

treated as a unit in the grammar of the programming languages. Example
of tokens:
•Type token (id, number, real, . . . )
•Punctuation tokens (IF, void, return, . . . )
•Alphabetic tokens (keywords)
11
Tokens

12
Loader
 Is a program that allocate memory and loads program into

memory for execution.

 Also perform relocation and linking of program modules

13
Loader
 Assemblers and compilers are used to convert source code to object code. The loader will

accept that object code, make it ready for execution, and helps to execute. Loader

performs its task via four functions, these are as follows:

1. Allocation: It allocates memory for the program in the main memory.

2. Linking: It combines two or more separate object programs or modules and supplies
necessary information.

3. Relocation: It modifies the object program so that it can be loaded at an address different
from the location.

4. Loading: It brings the object program into the main memory for execution.
14
Loader Functions

 Allocation: allocate space in memory for the programs

15
 Loader Functions
 Linking: The linker resolves the symbolic reference code or data between the

object modules by allocating all of the user subroutine and library subroutine

addresses. This process is known as linking.

 In any language, a program written has a function, it can be user-defined or can be a

library function. For example, in C language we have a printf() function. When the

program control goes to the line where the printf() is written, then the linker comes

into the picture and it links that line to the module where the actual implementation

of the printf() function is written.

16
 Loader Functions

 Relocation: There are some address-dependent locations in the program,

and these address constants must be modified to fit the available space, this

can be done by loader and this is known as relocation. In order to allow the

object program to be loaded at a different address than the one initially

supplied, the loader modifies the object program by modifying specific

instructions.

17
 Loader Functions

 Loading: Physically place the machine instructions and data

into memory

18
Loader

19
Operating System & Its Functions
 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware

 Functions of operating systems are:

1. Manages and Interacts with Computer Hardware
2. Resource management

3. Provides and Manages System Security

4. Provides the System Interface
5. Provides the Interface for Application Software
20
Operating System
Functions

21
Process Management
 Process is a program in execution

 A process needs certain resources – including CPU time,

memory, files and I/O devices – to accomplish its task

 These resources are either given to the process when it is

created, or allocated to it while it is running

22
Process Management
 OS is responsible for the following activities in connection

with process management

 Creating and deleting both user and system processes

 Suspending and resuming processes

 Providing mechanism for process synchronization

 Providing mechanism for process communication

 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

23
Main Memory Management
 Processor reads instructions from main memory during the

instruction fetch cycle

 Reads & writes data from memory during the data fetch cycle

 I/O operations implemented by DMA read and write data in

main memory

 Main memory is the only large storage device that the CPU is

able to address and access directly

24
Main Memory Management

 When the program terminates, its memory space is declared

available, and the next program can be loaded and executed

 To improve both the utilization of the CPU and the speed of

the computer’s response, several programs must keep in

memory

 Many different memory management schemes are available

25
Main Memory Management
 The operating system is responsible for the following

activities in connection with memory management

 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being

used and by whom.

 Deciding which processes are to be loaded into memory when

memory space becomes available.

 Allocating and de allocating memory space as needed.

26
File Management

 OS provides a uniform logical view of information storage

 Operating system abstracts from the physical properties of its

storage devices to define a logical storage unit

 It maps files onto physical media, and accesses these files via

the storage devices

27
File Management
 Files are normally organized into directories to ease their use

 When multiple users have access to files, we may want to

control by whom and in what ways files may be accessed

28
File Management
 OS is responsible for the following activities in connection

with file management.

 Creating and deleting files

 Creating and deleting directories

 Supporting primitives for manipulating files and directories

 Mapping files onto secondary storage

 Backing up files on stable storage media.

29
I/O System Management
 One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the

details of specific hardware devices from the user

 Only the device driver knows the details of the specific

device to which it is assigned

30
I/O System Management
 The I/O subsystem consists of

 A memory management component that includes buffering,

caching, and spooling

 A general device driver interface

 Drivers for specific hardware devices

31
 Networking

 A distributed system is a collection of processors that do not

share memory, peripheral devices, or a clock

 The processors in the system are connected through a

communication network

 The network may be fully or partially connected

32
Networking
 The communication network design must consider message

routing, and connection strategies, and the problem of

contention and security.

 Operating systems usually generalize network access as a

form of file access.

33
Protection System
 Various processes must be protected from one another’s

activities

 Mechanisms must ensure that the files, memory segments,

CPU, and other resources can be operated on by only those

processes that have gained proper authorization from the

operating system
34
Protection System
 Protection is any mechanism for controlling the access of

programs, processes, or users to the resources defined by a

computer system

 A protection oriented system provides a means to

distinguish between authorized and unauthorized usage.

35
Types Of Operating System

1. Batch Systems

2. Multi programming systems

3. Time sharing systems

4. Multi processor systems

5. Real time systems

36
1. Batch System
 The operating system was always resident in memory

 Major task was to transfer control automatically from one

job to the next

 To speed up processing, operators batched together jobs

with similar needs and ran them as a group

37
1. Batch System

38
1. Batch System

Batch processing was very popular in the 1970s. The jobs were executed in batches.
People used to have a single computer known as a mainframe. Users using batch
operating systems do not interact directly with the computer. Each user prepares their
job using an offline device like a punch card and submitting it to the computer operator.
Jobs with similar requirements are grouped and executed as a group to speed up
processing. Once the programmers have left their programs with the operator, they sort
the programs with similar needs into batches.

39
2. Multiprogrammed System
 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory

simultaneously

 The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the

jobs in the memory

 When the job may have to wait for some task, the operating

system simply switches to, and executes another job.

40
2. Multiprogrammed System

41
3. Time-Sharing System
 The CPU executes multiple jobs by switching among them
 The switches occur so frequently that the user can interact
with each program while it is running
 A time shared operating system allows many users to share
the computer simultaneously
 A time shared operating system uses CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming
 Each user has at least one separate program in memory
42
 3. Time-Sharing System

A time-shared operating system uses CPU scheduling and multi-programming to provide

each user with a small portion of a shared computer at once. Each user has at least one
separate program in memory. A program is loaded into memory and executes, it performs a
short period of time either before completion or to complete I/O. This short period of time
during which the user gets the attention of the CPU is known as time slice, time slot, or
quantum. It is typically of the order of 10 to 100 milliseconds. Time-shared operating
systems are more complex than multiprogrammed operating systems. In both, multiple jobs
must be kept in memory
43
4. Multiprocessor Systems
 Multiprocessor systems have more than one processor in
close communication, sharing the computer bus, the clock,
and sometimes memory and peripheral devices.

CPU CPU CPU

Memory

44
4. Multiprocessor Systems
 Advantages

1. Increased throughput : Get more work done in less time.

2. Economy of scale : They can share peripherals, mass storage,

and power supplies.

3. Increased reliability : The failure of one processor will not halt

the system, only slow it down

45
4. Multiprocessor Systems
 Two configurations

1. Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) – Each processor runs an

identical copy of the operating system, and these copies

communicate with one another as needed.

2. Asymmetric multiprocessing - Each processor is assigned a

specific task. A master processor schedules and allocated

work to slave processors.

46
5. Real Time Systems
 A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a special-purpose operating system used in

computers that has strict time constraints for any job to be performed. It is employed

mostly in those systems in which the results of the computations are used to influence a

process while it is executing. Whenever an event external to the computer occurs, it is

communicated to the computer with the help of some sensor used to monitor the event. The

sensor produces the signal that is interpreted by the operating system as an interrupt. On

receiving an interrupt, the operating system invokes a specific process or a set of processes

to serve the interrupt.

47
5. Real Time Systems
 A real time system is used when rigid time requirements

have been placed on the operation of a processor or the

flow of data

 Real time system has well defined fixed time constraints

 Processing must be done within the defined constraints, or

the system will fail

48
5. Real Time Systems

49
5. Real Time Systems
 Two flavors

1. Hard Real Time System - Guarantees that critical task be

completed on time

2. Soft Real Time System – Critical task gets priority over other

task, and retains that priority until it completes.

50